Control and coordination in our body are brought about by two main systems ie Nervous system

and the Endocrine system. Actions of the nervous system are mediated through nerves, whereas
actions of the endocrine system are mediated through hormones. Because of the large diffusion
distances and circulation delays involved, hormonal responses are generally slower in onset than
those mediated by nerves. They are also more persistent, since the removal of hormones from the
bloodstream may take some time after secretion has stopped.

Human endocrine system, group of ductless glands that regulate body processes by secreting
chemical substances called hormones. Hormones act on nearby tissues or are carried in the
bloodstream to act on specific target organs and distant tissues. Diseases of the endocrine system
can result from the oversecretion or undersecretion of hormones or from the inability of target
organs or tissues to respond to hormones effectively.

Endocrinology is the study of endocrine glands, hormones, and hormonal disorders. Thomas Addison is
the father of endocrinology.

The word endocrine is derived from a Greek word, which means “I separate within”.

It is important to distinguish between an endocrine gland, which discharges hormones into the
bloodstream, and an exocrine gland, which secretes substances through a duct opening in a gland onto
an external or internal body surface. Salivary glands and sweat glands are examples of exocrine glands.
Both saliva, secreted by the salivary glands, and sweat, secreted by the sweat glands, act on local tissues
near the duct openings. In contrast, the hormones secreted by endocrine glands are carried by the
circulation to exert their actions on tissues remote from the site of their secretion.

The animal body has two levels of coordination: nervous coordination

(see Chapter 29) and chemical coordination. Chemical coordination is
centered in a system of glands known as endocrine glands. These
glands are situated throughout the animal body and include such
organs as the pancreas, thyroid gland, and adrenal gland. The glands
secrete hormones, a series of chemical substances composed of
protein or sterol lipids.

Hormones bring about changes that help coordinate body systems in a

general way. For example, the pancreas secretes insulin, which
facilitates the passage of glucose into all body cells for use in energy
metabolism. Another example is thyroxine, a thyroid gland secretion
that regulates overall body metabolism. In contrast to chemical
coordination, the nervous system coordinates functions in the animal
body on a more localized level as it delivers nerve impulses to contract
body muscles or regulate gland activities.
The endocrine glands secrete their hormones into the bloodstream,
where the blood carries the hormones to the target organs. Because
the endocrine glands have no ducts, they are often called ductless
glands. Other glands of the body (such as the enzyme-secreting
salivary glands) deliver their enzymes via ducts and are referred to
as exocrine glands.

Thyroid and Parathyroid diseases

6. Thymus + diseases

7. Pancreas + diseases

Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is the biggest endocrine gland and is found in the front
of the neck, below the voice box (larynx) and on top of the trachea
(windpipe). It has a butterfly-like shape. The gland consists of 2 lobes, 1 on
each side of the windpipe, connected by a small bridge of thyroid tissue
called the isthmus.

The thyroid tissue has 2 types of cells:

follicular cells and parafollicular cells.

Most of the thyroid tissue consists of follicles lined by the follicular cells.
These secrete the iodine-containing thyroid hormones.

Thyroid hormones

The hormones made by the thyroid consist 80% of thyroxine (T4) and 20%
of triiodothyronine (T3)

Thyroxine: Thyroxine is the main hormone secreted into the bloodstream

by the thyroid gland. It plays vital roles in cellular metabolism, lipid
production, carbohydrate utilization, and central and autonomic nervous
system activation
Triiodothyronine: Triiodothyronine is a thyroid hormone that plays vital
roles in body's metabolic rate, heart and digestive functions, muscle
control, brain development and function, and the maintenance of bones.
The hypothalamus releases Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) when thyroid hormone levels are too
low, alerting the pituitary to create thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH).

Together, T4 and T3 play vital roles in regulating your body’s:

 Metabolic rate (the rate at which your body transforms the food you
eat into energy).

 Heart and digestive functions.

 Muscle control.

 Brain development.

 Bone maintenance.

Thyroidal Diseases

Some of the different thyroid diseases include:

 Goiter, an enlargement of the thyroid gland

 Hyperthyroidism, which happens when your thyroid gland makes

more thyroid hormones than your body needs

 Hypothyroidism, which happens when your thyroid gland does not

make enough thyroid hormones

 Thyroid cancer

 Thyroid nodules, lumps in the thyroid gland

 Thyroiditis, swelling of the thyroid

  Graves’ disease, is a form of hyperthyroidism, characterised by
enlargement of the thyroid gland, protrusion of the eyeballs,
increased basal metabolic rate, and weight loss

Parathyroid Gland
The parathyroid glands are two pairs of glands usually positioned behind
the left and right lobes of the thyroid. Each gland is a yellowish-brown flat
ovoid that resembles a lentil seed. There are typically four parathyroid
glands. The two parathyroid glands on each side which are positioned
higher are called the superior parathyroid glands, while the lower two are
called the inferior parathyroid glands.

Parathyroid hormone

There are two main types of Parathyroid hormone:

1. Parathormone/ Parathyroid hormone: The primary purpose of

parathyroid glands is to regulate calcium in the blood in a very strict
range between 9.0 and 10.1 mg/dL. Parathyroids also manage the
amount of calcium in the bones and determine their strength. PTH is
a hypercalcemic hormone, i.e., it increases the blood Ca2+ levels.
Along with TCT, it plays a significant role in calcium balance in the
body.
2. Calcitonin: Calcitonin is a hormone that plays a role in regulating the
level of calcium in your blood by decreasing it. The C-cells in your
thyroid gland produce calcitonin. Having abnormal levels of
calcitonin in your body seems to have no direct negative side effects.

Some of the target cells and action of Parathyroid hormones are:

Target cell -Bones

Action– The parathyroid hormone (PTH) stimulates the release of calcium
from stores of calcium present in the bones into the bloodstream.

Target Cell -Intestine

Action– PTH increases the calcium absorption in the intestine by food

through its impacts and affects the metabolism of vitamin D.

Target Cell -Kidneys

Action– PTH minimizes the calcium loss in the urine and also stimulates
active vitamin D formation in the kidneys.

Functions of the Parathyroid Gland

Calcium: The parathyroid hormone functions to release calcium from the

bones by stimulating the osteoblasts. It facilitates gastrointestinal calcium
absorption by activating Vitamin D. It also promotes calcium reabsorption
in the kidneys. Normal calcium levels in the body support strong nervous
and muscular systems.

Phosphorus: It inhibits the absorption of phosphorus in the kidneys,

however, the hormone increases the absorption of phosphorus in the
gastrointestinal tract by activating Vitamin D.

Activation of Vitamin D: The PTH also helps in the activation of Vitamin D

by upregulating the enzyme 1-α-hydroxylase.

Disorders of the Parathyroid Gland

 Hyperparathyroidism: This condition is developed when an

individual produces too much of the PTH hormone. Overproduction
of the hormone releases large amounts of calcium, which causes
hypercalcemia. The symptoms include extreme thirst, more urine
production, abdominal pain and mood changes.Undetected high
levels of calcium lead to bone thinning or osteoporosis and can also
cause stones in the kidneys.
  Hypoparathyroidism: Low levels of PTH hormone causes
hypoparathyroidism and hypocalcemia. The symptoms include
tingling sensations, muscle cramps and spasms.

THYMUS GLAND

It is a single, bilobed, flattened, pyramidal gland, situated in the mediastinal space just
in front of the heart located on the dorsal side of the heart and the aorta . It is also called
Throne of immunity. It is degenerated in the old individuals (after the age of 25 years)
resulting in the decreased production of thymosin.

It is partly endocrine and partly lymphoid, covered by a connective tissue capsule and
consists of two zones: (i) Outer cortex with lymphocyte-like cells; and (ii) Inner medulla
comprising reticular cells, few lymphocytes and Hassal’s corpuscles. These are
phagocytic

Hormone production

Thymus produces and releases several hormones including:

 Thymopoietin: fuels the production of T-cells and tells

the pituitary gland to release hormones.

 Thymosin and thymulin: help make specialized types of T-cells.

 Thymic humoral factor: keeps your immune system working

properly

The thymus produces several hormones. Most notably, it produces thymosin,

which stimulates T cell production.Thymosins play a major role in the
differentiation of T-lymphocytes, which provide cell-mediated
immunity. In addition, thymosins also promote production of antibodies
to provide humoral immunity.

Functions
One of the most important functions of the thymus is to stimulate the
production of very specialized cells called T-cells (also called T-
lymphocytes). These cells are responsible for directly fending off foreign
pathogens such as viruses and bacteria. They also regulate the immune
system, helping to prevent autoimmunity, wherein, the body’s immune
system elicits immune responses on its own healthy cells.

Thymus also secretes thymosin to stimulate the development of T-cells.

Thymus Gland Disorders

The most common disorders caused by the dysfunctioning of thymus gland

are- Myasthenia gravis, pure red cell aplasia, and
hypogammaglobulinemia.

Myasthenia gravis, is caused due to abnormal enlargement of the thymus.

The enlarged thymus produces antibodies that destroy the muscle receptor
sites. Thus the muscles become very weak.

Pure red aplasia, is caused when the patient’s own immune cells attack the
blood-forming stem cells. This happens when there is a tumour in the
thymus.

Hypogammaglobulinemia, occurs when the body does not produce

enoughantibodies.

Pancreas
The pancreas is an elongated, tapered organ located across the
back of the belly, behind the stomach. The right side of the organ
—called the head—is the widest part of the organ and lies in the
curve of the duodenum, the first division of the small intestine.
The tapered left side extends slightly upward—called the body of
the pancreas—and ends near the spleen—called the tail.
The pancreas is made up of 2 types of glands:

 Exocrine. The exocrine gland secretes digestive enzymes. These enzymes

are secreted into a network of ducts that join the main pancreatic duct. This
runs the length of the pancreas.
  Endocrine. The endocrine gland, which consists of the islets of Langerhans,
secretes hormones into the bloodstream.

Functions

Exocrine Function:
The pancreas contains exocrine glands that
produce enzymes important to digestion. These enzymes include
trypsin and chymotrypsin to digest proteins; amylase for the digestion
of carbohydrates; and lipase to break down fats. When food enters the
stomach, these pancreatic juices are released into a system of ducts
that culminate in the main pancreatic duct. The pancreatic juices
and bile that are released into the duodenum, help the body to digest
fats, carbohydrates, and proteins.

Endocrine Function:

The endocrine component of the pancreas consists of islet cells (islets

of Langerhans) that create and release important hormones directly
into the bloodstream. Two of the main pancreatic hormones
are insulin, which acts to lower blood sugar, and glucagon, which
acts to raise blood sugar. Maintaining proper blood sugar levels is
crucial to the functioning of key organs including the brain, liver, and
kidneys.

Diseases of the Pancreas

Pancreatitis

Pancreatitis is inflammation of the pancreas that occurs when

pancreatic enzyme secretions build up and begin to digest the organ
itself. It can occur as acute painful attacks lasting a matter of days, or
it may be a chronic condition that progresses over a period of years.
Pancreatic Cancer

The most common form of pancreatic cancer is pancreatic

adenocarcinoma, an exocrine tumor arising from the cells lining the
pancreatic duct. A far less common form, endocrine tumors, account
for less than 5% of all pancreatic tumors and are sometimes referred
to as neuroendocrine or islet cell tumors.

Diabetes mellitus

Prolonged hyperglycemia leads to a complex disorder called diabetes mellitus

which is associated with loss of glucose through urine and formation of harmful
compounds known as ketone bodies.