Module 2- Antenna: Radiation characteristics of antenna,

radiation resistance, short dipole antenna, half wave dipole

antenna, loop antenna
ELL 212
Instructor: Debanjan Bhowmik
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi

Abstract
In this module we first introduce a set of parameters that can be used to analyze the quality
of an antenna- whether it can radiate power in a particular direction, how much of the incoming
energy into the antenna is wasted as heat loss, etc. Next we calculate these parameters for the
short dipole antenna, the radiation pattern of which we have analyzed in the previous module.
Then we derive the radiation pattern of half wave dipole antenna and loop antenna and
calculate these parameters for the same.
(Reference: a) Electromagnetics for Engineers- T. Ulaby) b) Antenna Theory- Analysis and
Design- by Balanis )

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1 Antenna Radiation Characteristics
1.1 Normalized Radiation Intensity
In the previous module (Module 1), we have seen that the time averaged power radiated per unit
~0 ∗ (~r)) (equation 60 of previous module). From equation (61)
area (power density)= 12 Re(E~0 (~r) × H
of Module 1, we can write:

E~0 (~r) = |E~0 |ie−ikr θ̂; H

~0 (~r) = |H
~0 |ie−ikr φ̂ (1)

Then power per unit area (dA)=

dPrad 1 |E02 | 1 kI0 L 2 2

= = Z0 ( ) sin θ = S(r, θ, φ) = Smax F (θ, φ) (2)
dA 2 Z0 2 4πr

for a given radius r, where Smax = 21 Z0 ( kI4π0 L )2 r12

F (θ, φ) is the normalized radiated power per unit area, also known as ”normalized radiation inten-
sity”.
Total time averaged power radiated by antenna through surface of radius r about the source
(antenna) is given by:
Z Z π Z 2π Z
dPrad
Prad = dA = Smax F (θ, φ)(r2 sin(θ)dθdφ) = r2 Smax F (θ, φ)dΩ (3)
surf ace dA θ=0 φ=0 Ω
R
Ω
F (θ, φ)dΩ is known as pattern solid angle (ΩP )

1.2 Radiation Pattern

The normalized radiation intensity F (θ, φ) is a function of both polar angle θ and azimuthal angle
φ. The plane of a constant φ is called the elevation plane. In this plane radiation intensity F is a
function of different polar angles θ, and can be plotted as a rectangular plot (F on y-coordinate, θ
on x-coordinate) (Fig. 1(b)) or polar plot (F as radius r, and θ as angle θ) (Fig. 1(a)). F is plotted
in decibels.
The difference between two angles θ for which value of F (θ, φ) is half of that of maximum value,
which is 1, is known as 3dB beamwidth. From Fig. 1(b) 3dB beamwidth= θ2 − θ1
The polar plot in Fig. 1(a) shows the presence of radiation lobes. The antenna for which the
pattern is plotted here is fairly directive. Most of the energy is radiated in a narrow range, called
the main lobe. In addition, pattern exhibits several other lobes called minor lobes. The minor lobes
adjacent to the main lobe are called side lobes, while the minor lobes diametrically opposite of the
major lobe are called back lobes.
Similarly the plane for which polar angle θ is a constant is called the azimuth plane.

1.3 Antenna Directivity

By definition of normalized radiation intensity (F ) maximum value of F is 1. The average value of
F is given by: Z
1 1
Favg = F (θ, φ)dΩ = ΩP (4)
4π 4π

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Figure 1: Radiation pattern of a microwave antenna in (a) polar form (b) rectangular form. Figure
from Electromagnetics for Engineers by T. Ulaby

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 Directivity of the antenna is defined as the ratio of maximum normalized radiation intensity
(Fmax ), which is by definition equal to 1, to the average radiation intensity (Favg ). Thus directivity
(D) is given as:
Fmax 1 4π
D= = = (5)
Favg Favg ΩP
From equation (2) above, for a given radius r,
Z
1
S(θ, φ) = Smax F (θ, φ) ⇒ Savg = Smax F (θ, φ)dΩ = Smax Favg (6)
4π Ω

From equation (5) directivity:

1 Smax
D= = (7)
Favg Savg
So directivity (D) of the antenna can also be defined as the ratio of maximum power density
(Smax ) to the average power density for a given radius (Savg ). Also,
Z Z
1 1 Prad
Savg (θ, φ) = Smax F (θ, φ)dΩ = 2
Smax r2 F (θ, φ)dΩ = (8)
4π Ω 4πr Ω 4πr2
from equation (3).
Thus directivity can also be written as:

Smax 4πr2 Smax

D= = (9)
Savg Prad

1.4 Radiation Efficiency, Antenna Gain and Radiation Resistance

Ratio of power radiated by the antenna (Prad ) to the total power transmitted to the antenna (Ptotal )
is known as the radiation efficiency (ξ).
Prad
ξ= (10)
Ptotal
Multiplying radiation efficiency with directivity we get the gain of the antenna (G) as follows:

4πr2 Smax
G = ξD = (11)
Ptotal
Radiation resistance (Rrad ) is defined such that time averaged radiated power can be written
as:
1 2
Prad = (I )Rrad (12)
2 0
Similarly, the loss resistance (Rloss ) is defined time average power dissipated in antenna as heat
loss can be written as:
1
Ploss = (I02 )Rloss (13)
2
Efficiency ξ can be written as:
Prad Prad Rrad
ξ= = = (14)
Ptotal Prad + Ploss Rrad + Rloss

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1.5 Evaluation of antenna parameters for short dipole antenna
We now calculate the parameters we defined in this section for a short dipole antenna, the radiation
pattern of which we already derived in previous Module.
For short dipole antenna, the time averaged power radiated per unit area is given by:
1 kI0 L 2 2
S(r, θ, φ) = Z0 ( ) sin θ = Smax F (θ, φ) (15)
2 4πr
Sp,
1 kI0 L 2
Smax = Z0 ( ) ; F (θ, φ) = sin2 θ (16)
2 4πr
Pattern solid angle
Z Z π Z 2π
8π
ΩP = F (θ, φ)dΩ = sin2 (θ)(sin(θ)dθdφ) = (17)
θ=0 φ=0 3

Directivity
4π
D= = 1.5 (18)
ΩP
F (θ, φ) is half of maximum value (1) when θ=45 degree and - 45 degree. So 3dB beamwidth =
45- (-45)= 90 degrees.
Time-average radiated power
Z
2 8π 1 kI0 L 2 8π 1 I0 L 2 8π
Prad = r Smax F (θ, φ)dΩ = r2 Smax = Z0 ( ) = Z0 ( )
Ω 3 2 4π 3 2 2λ 3
I0 L 2 π
= Z0 ( ) (19)
λ 3
Comparing with expression for radiation resistance Rrad (equation 12)
2π L 2
Rrad = ( ) Z0 (20)
3 λ
For a given Rloss , radiation efficiency ξ and gain (G) are given as:
Rrad
ξ= ; G = Dξ (21)
Rrad + Rloss

2 Half wave dipole

In a half wave dipole antenna, the alternating signal is applied at the center of the dipole. At the
two ends of the dipole the current is zero from boundary conditions.There is a standing wave formed
for both current and voltage inside the dipole. Here we do not derive how current and voltage vary
along the dipole. We will do it in the next module, when we discuss transmission line in the next
module.
Let z direction be the direction of length of the dipole. For a half wave dipole
λ λ
− 6z6 (22)
4 4

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 i(z, t) = I0 cos(ωt)cos(kz) = Re(I(z)eiωt (23)
For each small current element of length dl with current I(z), we already know, from the previous
module (derivation of electric and magnetic fields radiated from a short dipole antenna) that at
a point away from the antenna with coordinates (r, θ, φ) (coordinates with respect to center of
antenna) or (s, θs , φs ) (coordinates with respect to that small current element)

µ0 kI(z)dz −iks
dE = ic
e sin(θs )θˆs (24)
4πs
We can take the following approximations:
1 1
≈ , θs ≈ θ, θˆs ≈ θ̂ (25)
s r
But we cannot assume e−iks ≈ e−ikr because of the complex exponential factor. This leads to a
phase error. Instead assuming
p
s = (r − zcos(θ))2 + (zsin(θ))2 ≈ r − zcos(θ) (26)

, we get
e−iks ≈ e−ikr eikzcos(θ) (27)
The net electric field for the entire dipole:
Z λ Z λ

~ =
4 µ0 k µ0 k 4
E ic I0 cos(kz)e−ikr eikzcos(θ) sin(θ)dz θ̂ = ic I0 e−ikr sin(θ) cos(kz)eikzcos(θ) θ̂dz
−λ
4
4πr 4πr −λ
4

µ0 k 2 cos( π2 cos(θ))
= ic I0 e−ikr sin(θ)( )θ̂
4πr k sin2 (θ)
1 I0 π e−ikr
= iZ0 cos( cos(θ)) θ̂ (28)
2π sin(θ) 2 r
q
µ0
where Z0 = 0 is the characteristic impedance of free space.Some trignonometry steps are
skipped.
Hence the magnetic field for the entire dipole is:
−ikr
~ = i 1 I0 cos( π cos(θ)) e
H φ̂ (29)
2π sin(θ) 2 r

Power per unit area is given by

I02 Z0 cos( π2 (cos(θ)) 2

S(r, θ, φ) = ( ) (30)
8π 2 r2 sin(θ)

Comparing the expression for power radiated for half wave dipole we obtained here with power
radiated for short dipole, we make the following observations:
1. Power radiated and radiation resistance are not dependent on the ratio of length of dipole to
wavelength. Since for short dipole, length to wavelength ratio is very small power radiated is also

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very small. However length to wavelength ratio is 1/2, as a result the final expression for power and
radiation resistance do not have length dependence. But power radiated and radiation resistance
of half wave dipole are much larger than short dipole.
2. The normalized radiation density function F (θ, φ) is more complex here than in the case
of short dipole. But the polar plots of the two are almost identical (check the homework problem
where you have done this numerically).
3. The directivity of half wave dipole can be evaluated numerically usingF (θ, φ) . The directivity
comes out to be 1.64, slightly higher than short dipole.

3 Dipole of finite length

For an antenna of arbitrary length L, the following boundary conditions are satisfied:
L L
I( ) = 0, I(− ) = 0 (31)
2 2
Standing wave is formed like before, the current distribution along the line is given by:
L L L L
I(z) = I0 sin(k( − z))∀0 6 z 6 ; I(z) = I0 sin(k( + z))∀ − 6 z 6 0 (32)
2 2 2 2
Total electric field phasor:
Z 0 Z L2
~ = ic µ0 k I0 e−ikr sin(θ)[
E
L
sin(k( + z))eikzcos(θ) dz +
L
sin(k( − z))eikzcos(θ) dz] (33)
4πr −2L 2 0 2

Z L Z L
2 L 2 L
sin(k( − z))eikzcos(θ) dz = sin(k( − z))(cos(kzcos(θ)) + isin(kzcos(θ)))dz
0 2 0 2
Z L
1 2 L L L L
= [(sin(k( −z)+kzcos(θ))+sin(k( −z)−kzcos(θ)))+i(cos(k( −z)−kzcos(θ))−cos(k( −z)+kzcos(θ)))]dz
2 0 2 2 2 2
L L
1 cos(k( 2 − z) + kzcos(θ)) 2
L cos(k( 2 − z) − kzcos(θ)) 2
L
= ([− ]0 + [− ]0
2 kcos(θ) − k −kcos(θ) − k
sin(k( L2 − z) − kzcos(θ)) L2 sin(k( L2 − z) + kzcos(θ)) L2
+ i[ ]0 − i[ ]0 )
−kcos(θ) − k kcos(θ) − k
1 cos( kL kL
2 ) − cos( 2 cos(θ)) cos( kL kL
2 cos(θ)) − cos( 2 )
= ( +
2k cos(θ) − 1 cos(θ) + 1
sin( kL kL
2 ) + sin( 2 cos(θ)) sin( kL kL
2 cos(θ)) − sin( 2 )
+i +i ) (34)
cos(θ) + 1 1 − cos(θ)

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 Z 0 Z 0
L L
sin(k( + z))eikzcos(θ) dz = sin(k( + z))(cos(kzcos(θ)) + isin(kzcos(θ)))dz
−L
2
2 −L
2
2
1 cos(k( L2+ z) + kzcos(θ)) 0 cos(k( L2 + z) − kzcos(θ)) 0
= ([− ]− L + [− ]− L
2 kcos(θ) + k 2 k − kcos(θ) 2

sin(k( L2 + z) − kzcos(θ)) 0 sin(k( L2 + z) + kzcos(θ)) 0

+ i[ ]− L − i[ ]− L )
k − kcos(θ) 2 k + kcos(θ) 2

1 cos( kL kL
2 cos(θ)) − cos( 2 ) cos( kL kL
2 − cos( 2 cos(θ))
= ( +
2k cos(θ) + 1 cos(θ) − 1
sin( kL kL
2 ) − sin( 2 cos(θ)) sin( kL kL
2 ) + sin( 2 cos(θ))
+i −i ) (35)
1 − cos(θ) 1 + cos(θ)

Then electric field phasor:

kL
~ = ic µ0 k I0 sin(θ)e−ikr (cos( 2 ) − cos( kL
2 cos(θ))) 1 1
E ( − )θ̂
4πr k cos(θ) − 1 cos(θ) + 1
Z0 I0 −ikr cos( kL kL
2 cos(θ)) − (cos( 2 )
=i e θ̂ (36)
2πr sin(θ)

Similarly the magnetic field phasor is given by:

kL kL
~ = i I0 e−ikr cos( 2 cos(θ)) − (cos( 2 ) φ̂
H (37)
2πr sin(θ)

(Magnetic fields due to each current element of length dl add up to give the net magnetic field
the same way as electric field)
Power density/ power radiated per unit area is given by:

I02 Z0 cos( kL kL
2 cos(θ)) − cos( 2 ) 2
S(r, θ, φ) = ( ) (38)
8π 2 r2 sin(θ)
This function can be evaluated numerically for antennas of different lengths L and then polar plot of
normalized radiation intensity (F (θ, φ)), directivity, 3 dB beamwidth etc. can be obtained. Please
refer to the ”Radiation patterns of long dipole antennas and large loop antenna” lecture slides for
that.

4 Small loop antenna

Let us consider a circular loop of radius a placed on the x-y plane with the center being at the
origin of the Cartesian coordinate system (x,y,z). Any point on the loop/ring is given by (x’,y’,z’)
where x0 = acos(φ0 ), y 0 = asin(φ0 ), z 0 = 0. For a given angle φ0 , the small section of the ring at
that position carries current as given below:
~ = Re(I0 eiωt φ̂0 = I0 eiωt (−sin(φ0 )x̂ + (cos(φ0 )ŷ))
dI (39)

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Current is assumed constant throughout the loop. Any point (x,y,z) where we want to find the po-
tential and the fields is given by (x,y,z) or (r, θ, φ) where x = rsin(θ)cos(φ), y = rsin(θ)sin(φ), z =
rcos(θ)
We can write:

x̂ = sin(θ)cos(φ)r̂ + cos(θ)cos(φ)θ̂ − sin(φ)φ̂; ŷ = sin(θ)sin(φ)r̂ + cos(θ)sin(φ)θ̂ + cos(φ)φ̂ (40)

Now expressing the current element in (r, θ, φ) coordinates

dI~ = Re(I0 eiωt (−sin(φ0 )x̂ + cos(φ0 )ŷ))

= Re(I0 eiωt (−sin(φ0 )(sin(θ)cos(φ)r̂+cos(θ)cos(φ)θ̂−sin(φ)φ̂)+cos(φ0 )(sin(θ)sin(φ)r̂+cos(θ)sin(φ)θ̂+cos(φ)φ̂))
= Re(I0 eiωt (sin(θ)sin(φ − φ0 )r̂ + cos(θ)sin(φ − φ0 )θ̂ + cos(φ − φ0 )φ) (41)

Distance between point on the ring/ loop (x’y’,0) and point (x,y,z) is given by :
p p
s = ((x − x0 )2 ) + ((y − y 0 )2 ) + ((z − z 0 )2 ) = (r2 ) + (a2 ) − 2(rasin(θ)cos(φ − φ0 )) (42)

Hence vector potential due to all such current elements (dl’) in the loop/ ring is:
Z −iks
~ = Re( µ0
A I~
e
dl0
4π s
Z φ0 =2π
µ0
= Re( I0 eiωt (sin(θ)sin(φ − φ0 )r̂ + cos(θ)sin(φ − φ0 )θ̂ + cos(φ − φ0 )φ))
4π φ0 =0
√2 2 0
e−ik r +a −2rasin(θ)cos(φ−φ )
p adφ0 (43)
r2 + a2 − 2rasin(θ)cos(φ − φ0 )

Let √2 2 0
e−ik r +a −2rasin(θ)cos(φ−φ )
f (a) = p (44)
r2 + a2 − 2rasin(θ)cos(φ − φ0 )
e−ikr 0 df ik 1
f (0) = ; f (0) = = ( + 2 )sin(θ)cos(φ0 )e−ikr (45)
r da a=0 r r
Thus,
1 ik 1
f (a) = f (0) + f 0 (0)a = ( + a( + 2 )sin(θ)cos(φ0 ))e−ikr (46)
r r r
The potential and fields should be independent of φ coordinate at the point where we want to
calculate potential and fields owing to symmetry of the problem. The ring/ loop is a circle of radius
a on x-y plane about the origin.
Hence,
Z 2π
µ0 aI0 1 ik 1
Aφ = Re( ei(ωt−kr) ( + a( + 2 )sin(θ)cos(φ0 ))cos(φ0 )dφ0
4π 0 r r r
µ0 aI0 i(ωt−kr) ik 1
= Re( e a( + 2 )sin(θ)); Aθ = 0, Ar = 0 (47)
4 r r

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 ~ =∇
~ ×A
~ = r̂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
B ( (Aφ sin(θ)) + θ̂((− ) (rAφ )) (48)
rsin(θ) ∂θ r ∂r
1
Only considering the r component of the field,
2 2 2
~ = Re(θ̂( −µ0 a I0 sin(θ)ei(ωt) ∂ (e−ikr (ik + 1 )) = −µ0 k a I0 sin(θ) cos(ωt − kr)θ̂
B (49)
4r ∂r r 4r

2 2 2 2
~ = Re( c (∇
E ~ = Re( c 1 ∂ (rBθ )) = −cµ0 k a I0 sin(θ) cos(ωt − kr)φ̂
~ × B)) (50)
iω iω r ∂r 4r
The expressions for electric field and magnetic field for loop antenna are similar to that of short
dipole antenna, but for loop antenna electric field is along φ̂ and magnetic field is along θ̂.
Power density/ power radiated per unit area:
4 2 2 4 2 2
1 ~ ∗ ) = cµ0 ((ka) )I0 (sin(θ) ) = Z0 ((ka) )I0 (sin(θ) )
~ ×H
S(r, θ, φ) = Re(E (51)
2 32r2 32r2
The normalized radiation intensity function

F (θ, φ) = sin2 (θ) (52)

is identical to that of short dipole antenna. Directivity=1.5

Total power radiated=
Z 2π Z π
Z0 4 2 sin2 (θ) 2 Z0 π 2πa 4 2
Prad = ((ka) )(I0 ) 2
r sin(θ)dθdφ = (( ) )I0 (53)
32 φ=0 θ=0 r 12 λ

As opposed to ( λl )2 factor for short dipole power radiated by loop antenna depends on ( λa )4 ,
making the power very small. If there are N turns in the loop, then electric field gets multiplied by
N times and magnetic field gets multiplied by N times making the power go up by N 2 times.
For large loop antennas, the current distribution cannot be assumed constant throughout the
loop. Nodes and anti-nodes are formed. The field pattern for large loop antennas can be solved
numerically. Results can be found in the ”Radiation patterns of long dipole antennas and large
loop antenna” lecture slides.

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