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1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 General
The storage of granular solids in bulk represents an important stage in the production of
many substances derived in raw material form and requiring subsequent processing for
final use. These include materials obtained by mining, such as metal ores and coal;
agricultural products, such as wheat, maize and other grains; and materials derived
from quarrying or excavation processes, for example sand and stone. All need to be
held in storage after their initial derivation, and most need further processing to yield
semi- or fully-processed products such as coke, cement, flour, concrete aggregates,
lime, phosphates and sugar. During this processing stage further periods of storage are
necessary.

In the Southern African region, with its vast raw material resources, the storage of bulk
solids plays an essential part in many industries, including coal and ore mining,
generation of electricity, manufacture of chemicals, agriculture, and food processing.
The means of storage of these materials is generally provided by large storage vessels
or bins, built in steel or reinforced concrete, located at or above ground level.

1.2 Design
The functional planning and structural design of such containers represent specialised
skills provided by the engineering profession. Unfortunately there is a lack of
comprehensive literature, covering all aspects of bin design, available to the practising
engineer. It is the purpose of this publication to present the necessary guidelines to
enable the design function to be carried out efficiently and safely, as related to the wide
range of typical small, medium and fairly large storage containers or bins built in steel.

In the past the design of bins was based on static pressures derived from simple
assumptions regarding the forces exerted by the stored material on the walls of the bin,
with no allowance for increased pressures imposed during filling or emptying. In the
present text, advantage has been taken of a large amount of research work that has
been carried out during recent decades in various countries, especially the United
States and Australia. It is hoped that the application of the better understanding of flow
loads and the analysis of their effects will lead to the design of safer bins and the
avoidance of serious and costly failures such as have occurred in the past.

1.3 Terminology
Regarding descriptive terminology applicable to containment vessels, it should be noted
that the word "bin" as used in this text is intended to apply in general to all such
containers, whatever their shape, ie whether circular, square or rectangular in plan,
whether at or above ground level, whatever their height to width ratio, or whether or not
they have a hopper bottom. More specific terms, related to particular shapes or
proportions, are given below, but even here it must be noted that the definitions are not
necessarily precise.

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a) A bin may be squat or tall, depending upon the height to width ratio, Hm D, where
Hm is the height of the stored material from the hopper transition level up to the
surcharged material at its level of intersection with the bin wall, with the bin full,
and where D is the plan width or diameter of a square or circular bin or the lesser
plan width of a rectangular bin. Where Hm D is equal to or less than 1,0 the bin is
defined as squat, and when greater as tall.

b) A silo is a tall bin, having either a flat or a hopper bottom.

c) The hopper transition level of a bin is the level of the transition between the
vertical side and the sloping hopper bottom.

d) A bunker is a container square or rectangular in plan and having a flat or hopper

bottom.

e) A hopper, where provided, is the lower part of a bin, designed to facilitate flow
during emptying. It may have an inverted cone or pyramid shape or a wedge
shape; the wedge hopper extends for the full length of the bin and may have a
continuous outlet or several discrete outlets.

f) A multi-cell bin or bunker is one that is divided, in plan view, into two or more
separate cells or compartments, each able to store part of the material
independently of the others. The outlets may be individual pyramidal hoppers (ie
one per cell) or may be a continuous wedge hopper with a separate outlet for each
cell.

g) A ground-mounted bin is one having a flat bottom, supported at ground level.

h) An elevated bin or bunker is one supported above ground level on columns,

beams or skirt plates and usually having a hopper bottom.

1.4 Design procedure

The full design procedure for a typical steel bin would comprise a series of activities as
described in the ensuing text, but which can be summarised as follows:

a) Assessment of material properties

This involves an examination of the stored material with a view to determining its
properties as affecting both the functional and the structural design of the bin. The
properties include the density of the material, its compressibility, and its angle of
internal friction, angle of repose and angle of wall friction. For the majority of stored
materials such as ores, coal, grain, etc these properties can be obtained from the
tables given in Chapter 2, but for unusual materials or very large silos the
properties should be determined from laboratory tests or by reference to
specialist materials handling technologists.

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b) Assessment of flow characteristics

Based on the material properties mentioned above, it is necessary to determine
the flow characteristics of the material and thus determine the optimum shape or
geometry of the bin to ensure satisfactory emptying and the prevention of hang-
ups such as arching or bridging.

It should be noted that there are three main flow patterns when a bin is being
emptied, viz mass flow, funnel flow and expanded flow. These are discussed later,
but the particular type of flow applicable to a bin depends both on the geometry of
the bin and the flow characteristics of the material. Specialists should be
consulted in the case of uncommon or suspect materials.

c) Functional design of bin

The design of the bin from a functional or operating point of view, based on the
material characteristics described above, is usually undertaken by material flow
technologists. This will involve the selection of the required depth, width and height
to accommodate the specified volume of material, the slope of the hopper bottom,
location of hopper hip, size and location of outlets, etc. Some guidance is given in
chapter 3.

d) Determination of pressures and forces

The normal and frictional forces exerted by the material on the inner surfaces or
walls of the bin are determined, considering the dynamic effects during filling, the
static effects during storage and the dynamic effects during emptying, plus effects
due to temperature, expansion of contents, etc, when present.

The magnitude and distribution of the wall forces will depend on the applicable flow
mode, the effects of switch pressure in bins with hopper bottoms, and the effects
of eccentric discharge where applicable. Pressure diagrams showing the
magnitude and distribution of pressure and frictional force are prepared for each
inner surface of the bin for the filling and emptying phases, for use in the structural
design of the bin.

e) Structural design
The structural design of the bin, including all of its components, can now be carried
out, for the various loads and load combinations applicable. Methods are given in
the text for the analysis of rectangular and circular bins, bunkers, hoppers and
silos, using conventional design practice or more recently developed methods.

1.5 Flow chart

A flow chart depicting the activities described above is given in Fig 1.1 for easy
reference. The four main phases, viz (a) assessment of material characteristics, (b)
functional design of bin, (c) determination of design loading, and (d) structural design,
are clearly identified. The first two activities, may be undertaken by the client or by a

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specialist retained by him. The third and fourth activities would be the responsibility of
the structural design engineer.

(a) MATERIAL FLOW

TESTS

(b) FUNCTIONAL DESIGN OF BIN

MASS FLOW FUNNEL FLOW EXPANDED FLOW

(c) DESIGN LOADING

FILLING EMPTYING ECCENTRIC DISCHARGE

CONDITIONS CONDITIONS CONDITIONS

(d) STRUCTURAL
DESIGN OF BINS

CIRCULAR BINS Plating, RECTANGULAR BINS

stiffeners, ring beams, Plating, stiffeners,
columns, hoppers, skirt hoppers, support beams
plates and columns

Fig.1.1 – Flow chart of bin design activities

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1.6 Scope of text

The contents of this publication are intended to serve as guidelines for the design of the
various types of containment vessel built in steel for the storage of bulk solids, including
bins, bunkers, hoppers and silos. The subject matter presented covers the large
majority of such vessels of small, medium and fairly large size and of conventional
shape, containing materials with known or predictable properties and flow
characteristics. It will thus be of assistance in the typical engineering design office and
will enable the structural design of bins to be carried out efficiently and safely.

As implied in the title of the publication, and as stated above, the text concentrates on
the structural aspects of bin design, on the assumption that the functional or operating
aspects have been dealt with by a specialist materials flow technologist.

It must be emphasized that the text does not cover all aspects of bin design, because of
the wide range of variables that may apply in the case of non-standard material types,
bin geometries, etc. Such variables would include eccentric filling and emptying points,
asymmetric bin geometry, stored materials having unusual properties, etc.

Where any of these unusual circumstances are present, reference should be made to
the publications or papers dealing with the particular topic, as quoted in the text.
Alternatively advice may be obtained from specialist sources locally, as mentioned in
Chapter 8.

Finally, it must be stated that the structural design of the bin must be undertaken by
persons suitably experienced in this class of work, and especially in the interpretation of
the theories and methods employed. The overall responsibility for the structural design
must be taken by a registered Professional Engineer.

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2 PROPERTIES OF STORED MATERIALS

2.1 Introduction

Materials stored in bins have their own material flow characteristics which have to
be taken into account in the design of the bins and silos. These flow
characteristics govern the flow pattern during discharge and the loads on the
vertical and hopper walls are governed by the flow pattern.

Not taking account of the flow characteristics can lead to improper

functioning of the bin, and assumptions of loading conditions which are not
concurrent with the flow pattern occurring in the bin during discharge can
lead to serious problems.

The recommended procedure is to test the material for its flow characteristics,
perform the functional or geometrical design, ie establish the desired flow pattern
in the bin during discharge conditions, and only then establish all design loads for
the structural design.

Chapter 4 gives all of the equations necessary to determine the forces on the
vertical walls and hopper walls for mass flow and funnel flow conditions, as well as
filling (or initial) and emptying (or flow) conditions.

2.2 Material flow tests

In order to establish the flow characteristics of a stored material, a sample of the

material is tested by means of specially designed test equipment. In most
countries of the world equipment designed by Jenike and Johanson is used, and
tests are performed in accordance with the procedures and recommendations
developed by them.

The test procedures used are outlined in the publications Storage and Flow of
Solids, by Dr Andrew W Jenike, Bulletin No 123 of the UTAH Engineering
Experiment Station of the University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah.

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The following information is obtained from the tests:

• Bulk density, γ;
• Angle of internal friction, φ;
• Effective angle of internal friction, δ;
• Angle of friction between the solid and the wall or liner material, φw.

All of the above values are obtained by test under varying pressures.

Additional results may be derived from the tests, but these are not relevant to this
guideline because they are mainly used for the functional or geometrical design of
a bin or silo. (some guidance is given in chapter 3)

A report, reflecting all minimum requirements for continuous gravity flow conditions
derived from the test results, can be obtained from bulk solids flow consultants.
This report is used for the final geometrical or functional design of the bin, and the
chosen geometrical design governs flow patterns and subsequent loading
conditions.

2.3 Tables of material properties

Although it is advisable to test materials in order to establish their flow

characteristics, tables reflecting typical flow properties of various materials with
different moisture contents are provided at the end of this chapter.

These tables have been developed from averaged-out results derived from
numerous tests, and it should be noted that some of these material characteristics
show large variances.

The data provided should only be used for the loading assessment of small bins
with capacities not exceeding about 100 t. In order to eliminate arching, piping and
other related flow problems, the functional or geometrical design, ie the design
required for proper functioning of the bin, should always be based on test results.

For storage facilities with capacities in excess of 100 t, it is highly recommended

that the stored material be tested for its flow characteristics prior to the design of
the geometrical arrangement or the determination of the loading on vertical and
hopper walls.

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2.4 Flow patterns

Bins may be classified into three different types, each type having its relevant
vertical and hopper wall loads.

2.4.1 Mass flow bins (Type 1)

Mass flow bins are bins in which all of the stored material is in motion during
discharge. These bins are especially recommended for cohesive materials,
materials which degrade in time, fine powders, and material where segregation
causes problems. The smooth, steep hopper wall allows the material to flow along
its face and this will give a first-in, first-out pattern for the material. When material
is charged into a bin it will segregate, with coarse material located at the wall face
and fines in the middle of the bin. When material is discharged from a bin, it will
remix in the hopper and segregation is minimised. Fine powders have sufficient
time to de-aerate and so flooding and flushing of material will be eliminated.

Pressures in a mass flow bins are relatively uniform across any horizontal cross
section of the hopper. The bins should not have any ledges, sudden hopper
transitions, inflowing valleys, and particular care should be taken in assuring flow
through the entire discharge opening.

2.4.2 Funnel flow bins or silos (Type 2)

A funnel flow bin is a bin in which part of the stored material is in motion during
discharge while the rest is stagnant. These bins are suitable for coarse, free
flowing, slightly cohesive, non-degrading materials and where segregation is not a
problem. The hoppers of these bins are not steep enough to allow material to flow
along their face. Material will flow through a central core and this will give a first-in,
last-out flow pattern for the material. Flow out of these bins can be erratic, and fine
powders can aerate and fluidize. If not properly designed the non-flowing solids
might consolidate and a pipe will form through which the material will flow while
the rest will remain stagnant.

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D D

Hm

Hm

(a) Squat bin Hm ≤ D (b)Tall bin Hm ≤ D (c) Plan Shapes

Fig 4.1: Bin classification – Squat or tall

In all cases the pressures normal to the surfaces are obtained from the calculated
vertical pressures by use of a factor K, which is the ratio of horizontal to vertical
pressure. This factor is dependent on the effective angle of internal friction δ, and
since the latter has upper and lower limits for each type of stored material, K also
has maximum and minimum values.

The wall loads are furthermore dependent on the coefficient of friction µ between the
material and the vertical wall and hopper of the bin. This value also has upper and lower
limits for each type of stored material and type of bin wall or lining material.

4.3.1 Loads on vertical walls of squat bins

The method used for determining the loads during the filling or initial condition is based
on the Rankine theory. The maximum K and µ values derived from the lower limits for δ
and .φ are used. The minimum K and µ values are used to obtain maximum loads on
the hopper walls and in cases where internal columns are used, to obtain extreme
maximum and minimum loads on these structural members.

For the emptying or flow condition the maximum K and µvalues derived from the
upper limits for δ and .φ are used.

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So =
1
µ1 K1
(
1 − e− µ1K1 h R ) (4.5.11)

( )
− K h Mm − 1 (So − N) e− x + Mm µ1−1 − K h N ( )
A =
( ) (
K h Mm + 1 e x − K h Mm − 1 e− x ) (4.5.12)

B = So − N − A (4.5.13)
γ1R µ 
Ph = 1 − ( A − B ) 1m  (4.5.14)
µ1  M 

In calculating the horizontal pressure Ph from the top of the vertical wall down
wards, a maximum value will be reached somewhat below mid point of the vertica
wall. This value shall be used for the remaining part of the vertical wall.

For frictional force U kN per linear m circumference:

M = 2(1 − ν ) (4.5.7)
2ν
N = (4.5.8)
µ1 M 2(1− m )
ν
Kh = (4.5.9)
1− ν
µ1 H
x = m (4.5.15)
M R
( ) (
− K h M m − 1 (− N )e − x + M m µ1 − K h N
−1
)
A =
( ) (
K h M m + 1 e x − K h M m − 1 e −x ) (4.5.16)

B = –A–N (4.5.17)
γ 1D2  H Ae x + Be − x + N 
U =  −  for circular and square bins (4.5.17a)
4  D 4 
γ 1 LBa 
=  H −
2(L + Ba ) 
LBa
2(L + Ba )
(
Ae x + Be − x + N ) for rectangular bins (3.5.17b)


where D = Di = diameter of circular bin

= Da = width of square bin
Ba = width of rectangular bin
L = length of rectangular bin

— 4.11 —