Theories in Conflict Management

Analytical Review:
The text discusses the fundamental concepts and objectives of conflict management within the context of
peace and security studies. It begins by highlighting the importance of viewing conflict management as an
integral part of ensuring peace and order in human communities. Fisher et al. (2001) are cited in defining
the process of bringing about peace in conflict situations as a multi-stage process, with conflict
transformation as a crucial component.
The text then delineates various stages of conflict management, including conflict prevention, settlement,
management, and resolution. These stages are vital components of a comprehensive approach to handling
conflicts. Conflict prevention aims to avert the outbreak of violent conflict, emphasizing proactive
measures. Conflict settlement focuses on ending violent behavior through peace agreements. Conflict
management seeks to limit and prevent future violence by promoting positive behavioral changes among
involved parties, while conflict resolution addresses the root causes and aims to build lasting relationships
between conflicting groups.
Furthermore, the text discusses the evolving nature of conflict management in a globalized world. It
emphasizes the complexity and comprehensiveness of contemporary conflict management, which goes
beyond simply preventing or resolving conflicts. The author highlights that it involves institutionalized
provisions and regulative procedures, making it a long-term arrangement for dealing with conflicts.
The review identifies several key insights from the text:
1. Conflict management is a multi-stage process, with conflict transformation as a crucial aspect
(Fisher et al., 2001).
2. Conflict management stages include prevention, settlement, management, and resolution.
3. Conflict management in a globalized world is complex and requires institutionalization.
4. External factors and governance structures play a significant role in managing conflicts.
Self-Assessment and Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMAs) Answers:
i) What is conflict management? Conflict management is the process of dealing with conflicts and
disputes in a constructive and effective way. It involves various strategies and techniques aimed at
preventing, resolving, settling, or mitigating conflicts between individuals, groups, or organizations.
Conflict management seeks to minimize the negative impact of conflicts while promoting positive
outcomes, such as improved communication, understanding, and cooperation among parties involved.
ii) Distinguish between conflict management and conflict resolution.
 Conflict Management: Conflict management involves strategies and approaches that focus on
controlling, handling, and addressing conflicts while they are ongoing or before they escalate to a
critical stage. It emphasizes the management of conflict rather than its complete resolution.
Conflict management may involve techniques such as negotiation, mediation, and communication
to find common ground or reduce tensions.
 Conflict Resolution: Conflict resolution, on the other hand, refers to the process of reaching a
final and lasting solution to a conflict or dispute. It aims to eliminate the root causes of the
conflict and establish a new and stable relationship between the parties involved. Conflict
resolution typically leads to a state of peace, where the conflict is fully resolved, and parties can
move forward without ongoing hostilities.
iii) Write short notes on the following:
 Conflict Prevention: Conflict prevention strategies aim to identify and address the underlying
causes of potential conflicts before they escalate into violent or destructive situations. These
strategies often involve diplomacy, early warning systems, and conflict analysis to proactively
manage tensions and prevent conflicts from erupting.
 Conflict Settlement: Conflict settlement focuses on ending ongoing conflicts by reaching a
formal or informal agreement between the parties involved. Settlements can include peace
treaties, ceasefire agreements, or other arrangements that stop the fighting and establish the terms
for cooperation or coexistence.
 Conflict Management: Conflict management aims to control and contain conflicts to prevent
them from escalating further. It involves techniques and interventions that help parties manage
their differences without necessarily resolving the underlying issues completely. Conflict
management strategies may include negotiation, mediation, and conflict de-escalation.
 Conflict Resolution: Conflict resolution seeks to address the root causes of a conflict and find a
comprehensive solution that results in a lasting peace. It involves tackling the core issues that led
to the conflict and establishing a framework for cooperation and reconciliation between the
parties.
iv) What is the emerging focus of the global discourse on conflict management from the
perspectives of causes? The emerging focus of the global discourse on conflict management revolves
around several key perspectives on the causes of conflicts, as outlined in the text:
 Recognition of deep-rooted conflicts with historical, cultural, and structural causes.
 Addressing power imbalances and inequalities among conflicting parties.
 Sensitivity to ethnic tensions and identity-based conflicts.
 Adapting to the multipolar and interconnected nature of the contemporary world.
 The interaction between governance structures and conflict dynamics.
 The influence of external factors on states' capacities to govern.
 The need for holistic and adaptive approaches to conflict management in a rapidly changing
world.
In conclusion, the text provides valuable insights into the concepts and stages of conflict management
within the context of peace and security studies. It underscores the importance of a comprehensive
approach to conflict management that addresses the root causes and evolving dynamics of conflicts in a
globalized world.
Analytical Review:
This unit delves into the various approaches to conflict management, shedding light on their
characteristics, strengths, weaknesses, and their applicability in different conflict situations.
Judicial Approach: The judicial approach involves managing conflicts within a legal framework,
typically through third-party intervention, such as courts. This approach relies on legal procedures and the
application of laws to resolve conflicts. While it provides a formal and structured process for conflict
resolution, it often results in win-lose outcomes, making parties wary of unpredictable judgments. The
judicial approach is essentially a litigation-based dispute resolution method.
Power-Politics Approach: The power-politics approach entails a third party intervening in a conflict
primarily to further its own strategic interests rather than those of the conflicting parties. The third party
employs leverage, weight, and sometimes coercion to impose outcomes on the parties. Historically,
superpowers during the Cold War era often managed conflicts among states using this approach. Tactics
used include ingratiation, gamesmanship, persuasion, promises, and threats. While it can be effective, it
can also escalate conflicts and lead to increased hostility.
Conciliatory Approach: The conciliatory approach involves a third party facilitating conflict resolution
by improving communication between the conflicting parties, helping them interpret the issues, and
exploring pathways to a peaceful settlement. This approach is especially valuable for deep-seated
conflicts characterized by strong emotions. It seeks to replace negative feelings and perceptions with
positive ones, ultimately helping parties find common ground and mutual interests for conflict resolution.
i) What are the basic approaches to conflict management? The basic approaches to conflict
management discussed in the unit are:
 Judicial Approach: Involves conflict resolution within a legal framework, often through third-
party intervention like courts.
 Power-Politics Approach: Focuses on third-party intervention driven by strategic interests, with
the third party using leverage and sometimes coercion to impose outcomes.
 Conciliatory Approach: Aims to facilitate conflict resolution through improved communication,
interpretation of issues, and exploration of peaceful settlement pathways.
ii) The reconciliatory approach is the most reliable approach to conflict management. Discuss. The
reconciliatory approach, also known as the conciliatory approach, emphasizes improving communication
and fostering positive perceptions between conflicting parties. While it can be highly effective, its
reliability depends on the specific context of the conflict. It is particularly valuable for deep-seated
conflicts where emotions run high. However, its success also relies on the willingness of conflicting
parties to engage in the conciliation process and find common ground. In some cases, parties may be
resistant to reconciliation, making this approach less reliable. Therefore, while it is a valuable approach,
its reliability varies depending on the nature of the conflict and the willingness of parties to participate.
iii) The judicial approach is the longest approach to conflict management in Nigeria. Why is this so?
The judicial approach's longevity in Nigeria can be attributed to several factors:
 Legal Tradition: Nigeria has a well-established legal tradition and a robust judicial system
inherited from its colonial past, making litigation a familiar and accessible method of conflict
resolution.
 Formalized Process: The judicial approach provides a structured and formalized process for
resolving disputes, which can be appealing in complex legal matters.
 Legal Framework: The country's legal framework, including its constitution and laws, supports
the judicial approach as a primary means of conflict resolution.
 Enforcement: Nigerian courts have the authority to enforce their judgments, which contributes to
their role in conflict resolution.
 Cultural Influence: The preference for legal recourse in conflict situations may also be
influenced by cultural factors and the perception of fairness associated with court decisions.
iv) How desirable is the use of the power-politics approach to conflict resolution in a world of
nuclear arms? The use of the power-politics approach to conflict resolution in a world with nuclear arms
is highly undesirable and risky. Nuclear weapons possess the potential for catastrophic consequences,
making peaceful conflict resolution imperative. The power-politics approach, characterized by coercion,
threats, and imposing outcomes, can escalate conflicts and increase tensions, particularly in situations
involving nuclear-armed states. Escalation in such contexts can lead to the use of nuclear weapons, which
could result in widespread destruction and loss of life. Therefore, in a world where nuclear arms exist,
diplomatic and peaceful conflict resolution methods are not only desirable but essential to prevent
catastrophic outcomes.
Analytical Review:
This unit explores various conflict management styles, shedding light on their characteristics,
implications, strengths, weaknesses, and their relevance to achieving peace and collective goals.
Conflict Management Styles:
1. Avoidance: This style involves ignoring or denying recognition of a conflict by those accused or those
with the capacity to address the issue. Parties in conflict avoid discussing or acknowledging the problem,
leading to unresolved tensions.
2. Confrontation: Confrontation entails the use of threats, verbal aggression, litigation, or even physical
violence by the party that feels ignored or denied. The aim is to achieve a win-lose outcome through force
or coercion.
3. Problem-Solving: Problem-solving is a conflict management style where parties, either independently
or with the assistance of a third party, work together to find solutions in a cooperative environment. This
approach is participatory and non-judgmental, promoting cooperation and joint analysis of the conflict's
structure.
Implications for Peace and Collective Goals:
 Avoidance: While avoidance may temporarily reduce tension, it often leads to unresolved
conflicts festering beneath the surface, potentially causing future eruptions. It may hinder the
achievement of peace and collective goals as underlying issues remain unaddressed.
 Confrontation: Confrontation can escalate conflicts, leading to destructive outcomes. It rarely
results in lasting peace, and the pursuit of win-lose outcomes can hinder collective goals if parties
become entrenched in adversarial positions.
 Problem-Solving: Problem-solving is considered the most conducive style for achieving peace
and collective goals. It fosters cooperation, mutual understanding, and positive outcomes for all
parties involved. It promotes the resolution of underlying issues, contributing to lasting peace and
collective progress.
Strengths, Weaknesses, and Possibilities:
 Avoidance: Strengths include short-term reduction of tension, but weaknesses include unresolved
conflicts and potential future escalation. It may be suitable for minor disputes but is inadequate
for complex issues. Possibilities lie in using avoidance temporarily while preparing for a more
constructive approach.
 Confrontation: Strengths include assertiveness, but weaknesses include escalation and
destructive outcomes. It may be appropriate when immediate action is necessary, but it is
generally not conducive to peace. Possibilities for positive outcomes are limited due to its win-
lose nature.
 Problem-Solving: Strengths include cooperation, mutual benefits, and lasting peace. Weaknesses
may involve difficulties in bringing parties to the negotiating table. The possibility of achieving
collective goals and resolving underlying issues is high, making it the preferred style for conflict
management.
(i) What do you understand by conflict management styles? Conflict management styles refer to the
various approaches and behaviors individuals or leadership employ to handle conflicts within a
relationship. These styles determine how conflicts are addressed, with implications for peace and the
achievement of collective goals.
(ii) Outline the various management styles provided by Albert. Albert identifies three major conflict
management styles: avoidance, confrontation, and problem-solving. Avoidance involves ignoring or
denying conflicts, confrontation entails the use of force or threats, and problem-solving seeks cooperative
solutions.
(iii) Conflict management styles are very important in determining conflict outcome. Discuss.
Conflict management styles significantly influence conflict outcomes. The choice of style can determine
whether a conflict is resolved peacefully, escalates destructively, or remains unresolved. Problem-solving,
in particular, is effective in achieving positive outcomes, while avoidance and confrontation may hinder
peace and collective goal attainment.
(iv) Discuss problem-solving as a conflict management style. Problem-solving is a conflict
management style where parties, either independently or with the assistance of a third party, work
together to find solutions in a cooperative environment. It promotes cooperation, mutual understanding,
and the resolution of underlying issues, making it conducive to lasting peace and the achievement of
collective goals. However, it may require substantial time and resources to implement successfully.
Analytical Review:
This unit emphasizes the critical role of communication in conflict management, highlighting the
significance of cooperative communication and problem-solving techniques. Effective communication is
pivotal in understanding and resolving conflicts.
Communication and Conflict Management:
1. What is Communication? Communication is the cornerstone of conflict management. It involves
various elements such as speaking openly, listening attentively, expressing feelings appropriately, asking
questions, maintaining rationality, fostering cooperation, avoiding harmful or inflammatory statements,
and engaging in negotiations.
2. Communication and Problem Solving: Effective problem-solving in conflict management relies on
open and constructive communication. Parties involved in conflict should exchange information, discuss
interests and priorities, identify underlying issues, brainstorm alternative solutions, and evaluate these
alternatives for mutual benefit. Integrative solutions, which maximize gains for both parties, are preferred.
3. Cooperative Communication: Cooperative communication is crucial in conflict resolution. It involves
using communication techniques that reduce friction and promote cooperation. It contrasts with
confrontational communication, which escalates conflicts. Cooperative communication uses qualifiers,
avoids absolute words, offers assistance, and seeks collaborative problem-solving rather than blame.
(i) What is communication? Communication involves various aspects, including speaking one's mind,
active listening, expressing feelings appropriately, asking questions, remaining rational, fostering
cooperation, avoiding harmful statements, and engaging in negotiations. It is a fundamental element in
conflict management.
(ii) Most conflicts are the result of poor communication. Discuss. Poor communication often
contributes to conflicts by causing misunderstandings, misinterpretations, and unexpressed grievances.
When parties fail to communicate effectively, issues remain unresolved or escalate into conflicts. Hence,
addressing communication barriers is essential for conflict prevention and resolution.
(iii) How important is the manner of communication to conflict resolution? The manner of
communication is highly significant in conflict resolution. Cooperative and constructive communication
fosters understanding, trust, and collaboration among parties, increasing the likelihood of reaching
mutually beneficial resolutions. Conversely, confrontational or antagonistic communication can escalate
conflicts and hinder resolution efforts.
(iv) What is cooperative communication? Cooperative communication involves using communication
techniques that reduce friction and promote collaboration in conflict situations. It employs qualifiers,
avoids absolute statements, offers assistance, and seeks collaborative problem-solving, fostering a
cooperative environment for conflict resolution.
Analytical Review:
This unit explores the concept of third-party intervention in conflict management, delving into its
definition, roles, types, and the factors that influence intervention decisions and success. Third-party
intervention plays a crucial role in resolving and managing conflicts on various scales.
Third-Party Intervention:
1. Definition of Third-party Interventions: Third-party interventions involve individuals or groups that
become involved in a conflict to assist the disputing parties in managing or resolving it. These third
parties can take on different roles, including consultants, facilitators, mediators, or arbitrators, depending
on the nature and complexity of the conflict.
2. Role of Third Parties: Third parties can play multiple roles, such as consultants who offer advice,
facilitators who guide discussions and meetings, mediators who structure discussions and seek mutual
understanding, and arbitrators who make binding decisions. Their involvement can range from informal
to highly structured, depending on the situation.
3. Forms of Third Party Intervention: The unit discusses various forms of third-party intervention,
including preventive intervention (before a conflict escalates), pre-emptive intervention (addressing
conditions that lead to conflict), curative intervention (to resolve existing conflicts), de-escalating
intervention (reducing tension), and escalating intervention (to encourage conflict resolution).
4. Factors that Influence Intervention Decision: Key factors that influence the decision to intervene
include the intervening nation's capabilities and connection to the conflict, the status and ripeness of the
conflict for resolution, the characteristics of the conflicting parties, and the cost of intervention compared
to doing nothing.
5. Achieving Successful Interventions: Success in interventions varies depending on the context and
goals. Defining success is critical, and interventions should have efficient decision-making processes,
accountability, control, and adequate information. Maintaining the initiative and understanding the key
players' characters also contribute to success.
(i) What is third party intervention? Third-party intervention involves individuals or groups becoming
involved in a conflict to assist disputing parties in managing or resolving it. Third parties can take on
roles such as consultants, facilitators, mediators, or arbitrators, depending on the conflict's nature and
complexity.
(ii) What are the factors that affect the success or failure of third-party intervention? Several factors
influence the success or failure of third-party intervention, including the intervening nation's capabilities
and connection to the conflict, the status and ripeness of the conflict, the characteristics of the conflicting
parties, and the cost of intervention compared to inaction.
(iii) Discuss the various types of third-party intervention. Various types of third-party intervention
include preventive (before conflict escalates), pre-emptive (addressing conditions leading to conflict),
curative (resolving existing conflicts), de-escalating (reducing tension), and escalating (encouraging
conflict resolution) interventions.
(iv) When is it reasonable to intervene in a conflict as a third party? It is reasonable to intervene as a
third party when there are overarching strategic reasons, reasonable prospects of success at a reasonable
cost, and a clear mandate to justify the intervention. Pre-emptive intervention can be appropriate to
prevent the escalation of conflicts. The decision should consider the specific context and goals.
Analytical Review:
The text discusses the concept of mediation as a critical element in conflict management. It begins with a
clear definition of mediation, describing it as a process involving a neutral third party, the mediator, who
assists disputing parties in reaching a mutually acceptable resolution of their issues or conflicts. This
definition is attributed to Moore (1996) and Goodpaster (1997).
The text distinguishes mediation from negotiation, arbitration, case evaluation, and litigation,
emphasizing its informal, voluntary, and confidential nature. It underscores the central role of the
mediator in facilitating communication, encouraging understanding, and guiding parties towards self-
determined resolutions.
Furthermore, the text explores various types of mediators, categorizing them into three main types: Social
Network Mediators, Authoritative Mediators, and Independent Mediators. Each type is explained,
highlighting the basis of their authority and the nature of their role in the mediation process.
The foundations of mediation are discussed, with a focus on the motivations of third-party mediators,
both state and non-state actors. The text delves into the ethical dilemmas faced by mediators in
international conflict mediation, such as balancing short-term and long-term goals and dealing with
potential violations of international norms.
Three main types of mediation are introduced and elaborated upon: Facilitative Mediation, Evaluative
Mediation, and Transformative Mediation. Each type's characteristics and approaches are explained,
emphasizing their differences and potential applications.
Finally, the text addresses the skills and behaviors required for effective non-adversarial mediation. These
include active listening, empathy, communication, conflict resolution, neutrality, problem-solving,
patience, facilitation, caucusing, and conflict transformation.
Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMAs):
Question i)
What is mediation?
Mediation is the intervention in a negotiation or conflict of an acceptable third party who has limited or
no authoritative decision-making power but who assists the involved parties in voluntarily reaching a
mutually acceptable settlement of issues in dispute (Moore, 1996). It is an informal, voluntary, and
confidential process in which a trained professional mediator facilitates understanding, communication,
and negotiation between disputing parties.
Question ii)
Outline the various types of mediation and discuss them.
There are three main types of mediation: Facilitative Mediation, Evaluative Mediation, and
Transformative Mediation.
 Facilitative Mediation: This type focuses on assisting parties in understanding their underlying
interests, generating options, and encouraging open communication. The mediator does not offer
recommendations or opinions on the outcome but empowers the parties to make their own
decisions.
 Evaluative Mediation: In evaluative mediation, the mediator assesses the legal rights of the
parties, provides opinions on the likely court outcome, and may suggest settlement terms. This
type is often used in litigated cases.
 Transformative Mediation: Transformative mediation emphasizes empowerment and
recognition of each party's needs and perspectives. The mediator facilitates direct communication
between the parties, allowing them to address their concerns and find mutually agreeable
solutions. This type aims to transform the parties' relationship and understanding of the conflict.
Each type has its strengths and weaknesses, and the choice depends on the nature of the conflict and the
parties' preferences.
Question iii)
What are the ethical issues in mediation?
Ethical dilemmas in mediation include:
 Balancing short-term conflict resolution with long-term justice and settlement.
 Deciding whether to accept a settlement that violates international norms or principles of justice.
 Maintaining mediator impartiality while pursuing the parties' best interests.
 Ensuring parties understand the implications of their decisions.
 Avoiding conflicts of interest and maintaining confidentiality.
 Following through on the implementation of agreements.
These ethical challenges require mediators to navigate complex situations while upholding the integrity of
the process and fairness of outcomes.
Question iv)
Elaborate on the various skills required for effective mediation.
Effective mediation requires a range of skills and behaviors, including:
 Active Listening: Mediators must listen attentively to understand parties' perspectives.
 Empathy: Showing empathy builds rapport and trust.
 Communication: Mediators must communicate clearly, transparently, and impartially.
 Conflict Resolution: The ability to manage and resolve conflicts is crucial.
 Neutrality: Mediators must remain neutral and unbiased.
 Problem-Solving: Mediators help parties identify issues and generate solutions.
 Patience: Dealing with emotional and challenging situations requires patience.
 Facilitation: Mediators guide the process, ensuring it remains productive.
 Caucusing: Private sessions can address sensitive issues and build trust.
 Conflict Transformation: Transformative mediators empower parties to change interactions
positively.
These skills enable mediators to create a constructive environment for parties to reach mutually
acceptable agreements.
Analytical Review:
The provided text focuses on the topic of negotiation in the context of conflict management and
resolution. It offers a comprehensive overview of negotiation, including its definition, process, strategies
for successful negotiation, barriers to successful negotiation, and the importance of post-negotiation
implementation. The text is structured logically, with well-defined sections, objectives, and key
definitions. It also includes citations and references to relevant literature, which lends credibility to the
content.
Strengths:
1. Comprehensive Coverage: The text provides a thorough exploration of negotiation, covering its
various aspects, from pre-negotiation settings to post-negotiation implementation.
2. Clarity of Language: The text uses clear and concise language, making it accessible to readers
with varying levels of familiarity with the subject matter.
3. Inclusion of Key Definitions: The text incorporates key definitions, which enhance the reader's
understanding of key concepts related to negotiation.
4. Use of Citations: Citations and references to scholars and their work add academic rigor to the
content, demonstrating that the information presented is well-researched.
Areas for Improvement:
1. Citation Style: While citations are included, the text could benefit from a consistent citation
style, such as APA or MLA, to enhance readability.
2. Visual Elements: The addition of visual aids, such as diagrams or charts, could help illustrate
key concepts and make the content more engaging.
Now, let's proceed to answer the self-assessment questions:
Self-Assessment:
i) What is negotiation?
Negotiation is the process by which two or more parties, who are faced with a problem of conflict or
competing interests, attempt to agree on how best to resolve the problem or reach a mutually acceptable
compromise. It involves communication, either direct or indirect, wherein parties discuss their concerns,
needs, and viewpoints with the aim of finding common ground and reaching an agreement. Negotiation
can be formal or informal and can occur in various contexts, including interpersonal relationships,
business, diplomacy, and conflict resolution.
ii) Outline the various measures/steps required to ensure successful negotiation.
Successful negotiation involves several key steps or measures, including:
1. Preparation: Before entering into negotiations, it's essential to research and gather relevant
information about the issues, parties involved, and potential solutions. Know your goals and
limits.
2. Understanding the Other Party: Gain insights into the needs, concerns, and perspectives of the
other party. Active listening and empathy play crucial roles in understanding their point of view.
3. Communication: Engage in clear and effective communication throughout the negotiation
process. Clearly express your needs and objectives while being receptive to the other party's
input.
4. Problem-Solving: Focus on finding solutions to the underlying issues rather than engaging in
confrontational arguments. Collaborative problem-solving can lead to win-win outcomes.
5. Flexibility: Be open to alternative solutions and compromises. Avoid rigid positions that may
hinder the negotiation process.
6. Timing: Consider the timing of negotiations. Avoid high-stress or emotionally charged situations,
and choose a suitable time for productive discussions.
7. Conflict Resolution Skills: Develop skills in conflict resolution, including managing emotions,
defusing tension, and de-escalating conflicts when they arise during negotiations.
8. Focus on Issues, Not Personalities: Stay focused on the issues at hand and avoid personal
attacks or judgments. Separate the people from the problem.
9. Ethical Behavior: Conduct negotiations with integrity and ethical conduct. Avoid manipulative
tactics or unethical practices.
10. Agreement and Follow-Through: Once an agreement is reached, ensure that both parties
understand and commit to it. Follow through on implementing the agreed-upon solutions.
iii) What are the ethical issues in mediation?
Ethical issues in mediation can include:
 Impartiality: Mediators must remain neutral and unbiased throughout the process, avoiding any
conflicts of interest or favoritism.
 Confidentiality: Mediators are obligated to maintain the confidentiality of the parties involved,
their discussions, and any information shared during mediation sessions.
 Informed Consent: Mediators should ensure that all parties have a clear understanding of the
mediation process, its voluntary nature, and their rights and responsibilities.
 Integrity: Mediators should act with honesty, transparency, and integrity, refraining from any
deceptive or unethical practices.
 Fairness: Mediation should provide a fair and equitable platform for all parties to express their
views and needs without discrimination.
 Competence: Mediators must possess the necessary skills, training, and expertise to effectively
facilitate the mediation process.
Now, let's proceed to answer the tutor-marked assignment (TMA):
Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA):
i) What is negotiation?
Negotiation is the process by which two or more parties, who are faced with a problem of conflict or
competing interests, attempt to agree on how best to resolve the problem or reach a mutually acceptable
compromise. It involves communication, either direct or indirect, wherein parties discuss their concerns,
needs, and viewpoints with the aim of finding common ground and reaching an agreement. Negotiation
can be formal or informal and can occur in various contexts, including interpersonal relationships,
business, diplomacy, and conflict resolution.
ii) Outline the various measures/steps required to ensure successful negotiation.
Successful negotiation involves several key steps or measures, including:
1. Preparation: Before entering into negotiations, it's essential to research and gather relevant
information about the issues, parties involved, and potential solutions. Know your goals and
limits.
2. Understanding the Other Party: Gain insights into the needs, concerns, and perspectives of the
other party. Active listening and empathy play crucial roles in understanding their point of view.
3. Communication: Engage in clear and effective communication throughout the negotiation
process. Clearly express your needs and objectives while being receptive to the other party's
input.
4. Problem-Solving: Focus on finding solutions to the underlying issues rather than engaging in
confrontational arguments. Collaborative problem-solving can lead to win-win outcomes.
5. Flexibility: Be open to alternative solutions and compromises. Avoid rigid positions that may
hinder the negotiation process.
6. Timing: Consider the timing of negotiations. Avoid high-stress or emotionally charged situations,
and choose a suitable time for productive discussions.
7. Conflict Resolution Skills: Develop skills in conflict resolution, including managing emotions,
defusing tension, and de-escalating conflicts when they arise during negotiations.
8. Focus on Issues, Not Personalities: Stay focused on the issues at hand and avoid personal
attacks or judgments. Separate the people from the problem.
9. Ethical Behavior: Conduct negotiations with integrity and ethical conduct. Avoid manipulative
tactics or unethical practices.
10. Agreement and Follow-Through: Once an agreement is reached, ensure that both parties
understand and commit to it. Follow through on implementing the agreed-upon solutions.
iii) What are the ethical issues in mediation?
Ethical issues in mediation can include:
 Impartiality: Mediators must remain neutral and unbiased throughout the process, avoiding any
conflicts of interest or favoritism.
 Confidentiality: Mediators are obligated to maintain the confidentiality of the parties involved,
their discussions, and any information shared during mediation sessions.
 Informed Consent: Mediators should ensure that all parties have a clear understanding of the
mediation process, its voluntary nature, and their rights and responsibilities.
 Integrity: Mediators should act with honesty, transparency, and integrity, refraining from any
deceptive or unethical practices.
 Fairness: Mediation should provide a fair and equitable platform for all parties to express their
views and needs without discrimination.
 Competence: Mediators must possess the necessary skills, training, and expertise to effectively
facilitate the mediation process.
Analytical Review:
The provided text discusses the concept of arbitration as a means of conflict management, particularly in
the context of labor disputes. It begins by defining arbitration as a dispute settlement procedure in which
parties agree to be bound by the decision of an arbitrator. The text also distinguishes between two main
types of arbitration: compulsory and voluntary, and explores the limits and challenges associated with
arbitration.
One notable aspect of the text is its historical perspective on arbitration, acknowledging the various
viewpoints and debates surrounding its implementation. It highlights that compulsory arbitration, which
involves legal enforcement of decisions, often faces opposition, especially from labor unions and
employers in powerful industrial nations like the United States and Europe. On the other hand, voluntary
arbitration, which allows parties to willingly seek resolution, is generally more accepted.
The text underscores the importance of arbitration as a method for resolving disputes and reducing
reliance on force as a means of settling conflicts. It also acknowledges that while arbitration is a valuable
tool, it may not be effective in addressing all types of disputes, especially those involving fundamental
rights or significant issues.
Self-Assessment:
The objectives of this unit are to define arbitration, explain its history, meaning, process, challenges, and
distinguish between the uses and limits of arbitration. Let's assess how well these objectives have been
met:
 Definition of Arbitration: The text provides a clear and concise definition of arbitration as a
dispute settlement procedure involving a binding decision by an arbitrator (Objective i).
 History and Meaning of Arbitration: The text briefly touches upon the historical perspective of
arbitration and its meaning as a method of conflict resolution (Objective ii).
 Process and Challenges of Arbitration: The text outlines the process of arbitration, including
the selection of arbitrators, presentation of evidence, and the arbitrator's decision. It also discusses
the challenges associated with arbitration, such as its limitations and potential drawbacks
(Objective ii).
 Distinguishing Uses and Limits: The text distinguishes between the uses and limits of
arbitration by discussing when it is voluntary or compulsory and when it may or may not be
suitable for resolving certain types of disputes (Objective iii).
Overall, the self-assessment suggests that the text provides a reasonable introduction to the concept of
arbitration, meeting the stated objectives to some extent.
i) What is arbitration?
Arbitration is defined as a dispute resolution procedure where parties voluntarily agree to be bound by the
decision of an impartial third party, known as an arbitrator. The decision reached through arbitration is
typically final and legally binding on the parties.
ii) What are the limits of arbitration?
The limits of arbitration include the fact that it may not be suitable for disputes involving fundamental
rights or non-negotiable matters. Additionally, arbitration provides temporary solutions and may not
address underlying systemic issues. It relies on voluntary participation and lacks binding precedents.
Enforcement can be challenging, and it may not be effective if one party refuses to engage.
iii) Outline and discuss the various types of arbitration.
There are two main types of arbitration:
 Compulsory Arbitration: This type involves legal enforcement of decisions, but often lacks
binding power and relies on public opinion for enforcement. It is generally opposed by labor
unions, employers, and the public in many industrial nations.
 Voluntary Arbitration: Voluntary arbitration occurs when parties to a dispute voluntarily agree
to submit their disagreement to an arbitrator. It is generally favored, especially by organized
labor, and is seen as a means to peacefully resolve disputes.
iv) Elaborate on the various elements of the arbitration process.
The arbitration process consists of several key elements:
 Agreement to Arbitrate: Parties must voluntarily agree to arbitration.
 Selection of Arbitrator: Parties often have a say in selecting a neutral third party.
 Presentation of Evidence: Each party presents their case, including evidence and arguments.
 Arbitrator's Decision: The arbitrator evaluates the evidence and issues a binding decision.
 Enforcement: Parties are legally bound to comply with the decision, which may require legal
action if one party refuses.
 Confidentiality: Arbitration proceedings are often confidential.
These elements collectively make up the arbitration process, designed to provide an alternative and
legally binding means of resolving disputes outside of the court system.
Analytical Review:
The provided text discusses African traditional conflict management methods, emphasizing their
significance in resolving disputes while considering the unique cultural values of Africa. The text presents
two case studies: one from Kenya, focusing on the Maasai and Pokot ethnic groups, and another from
Rwanda, discussing the Agacaca method of conflict resolution among the Banyarwanda.
Key Points from the Text:
1. Emphasis on Peace and Reconciliation: African traditional conflict management methods
prioritize resolving conflicts amicably through the involvement of elders, traditional leaders, and
healing and reconciliation rituals. These methods aim to maintain peace and harmony within
communities.
2. Case Studies: The text provides case studies to illustrate the application of traditional conflict
management in specific African contexts. The Maasai and Pokot case study highlights the use of
symbols like grass and umbilical cords to symbolize peace, unity, and interconnectedness. The
Rwandan case study discusses the Agacaca method, a grassroots approach to resolving conflicts
through dialogue.
3. Use of Symbols: Symbols such as grass, umbilical cords, and trees play a significant role in
conveying peace concepts and reinforcing reconciliation efforts. These symbols carry cultural and
spiritual meaning that helps mediate conflicts and promote unity.
4. Relevance in Contemporary World: The text underscores the ongoing relevance of traditional
conflict management approaches in addressing contemporary conflicts. It suggests that these
methods offer a safe and community-based means of resolving disputes, emphasizing the
importance of early intervention.
Self-Assessment:
The objectives of this unit are to highlight various conflict management approaches in Africa before
colonialism, emphasize the values distinguishing African approaches, describe traditional conflict
management approaches, and explain their relevance to contemporary conflict challenges. The text has
effectively addressed these objectives by providing case studies and discussing the role of symbols in
i) To what extent is traditional Media like song, drama, and dance used in solving conflict?
Traditional media, including songs, dramas, and dances, play a significant role in conflict resolution in
many African cultures. These forms of expression are used to convey messages of peace, unity, and
reconciliation. Songs, often accompanied by musical instruments, are composed to address specific
conflicts or promote harmony within communities. They serve as a means of communication, storytelling,
and conveying cultural values related to conflict resolution.
Dramas and dances are performed during peace negotiations and reconciliation ceremonies. They reenact
historical events, depict conflicts, and showcase resolutions. Through dramatic performances and dance
routines, communities express their desire for peace and reconciliation, fostering understanding among
conflicting parties.
ii) Describe a traditional method of conflict resolution in your community of descent.
In my community of descent, a traditional method of conflict resolution involves convening a council of
elders or wise individuals who are respected for their impartiality and wisdom. When a conflict arises, the
parties involved present their grievances before this council, and each party is given an opportunity to
state their case.
The council listens attentively to both sides, asks questions to clarify the issues, and seeks to identify the
root causes of the conflict. Mediation and negotiation are central to this process, with the elders offering
guidance and proposing potential solutions.
Once a mutually acceptable resolution is reached, often involving reparations or restitution, a symbolic
act of reconciliation takes place. This may involve the sharing of a meal or the exchange of symbolic
items signifying unity and forgiveness. The entire community witnesses this process, reinforcing the
importance of harmony and peace.
iii) What role do symbols play in traditional conflict management?
Symbols play a crucial role in traditional conflict management as they convey cultural meanings, values,
and messages related to peace and reconciliation. Symbols are used to:
 Mediate Disputes: Symbols like grass, umbilical cords, and trees are employed to halt conflicts
by reminding parties of their interconnectedness and shared humanity.
 Express Unity: Symbols are often used to represent unity and common identity, emphasizing the
idea that conflicting parties belong to the same community or lineage.
 Convey Peace Concepts: Symbols are imbued with cultural and spiritual significance, conveying
concepts of peace, harmony, and reconciliation that may be difficult to express verbally.
 Facilitate Healing: Symbols are used in rituals and ceremonies that promote healing and
forgiveness, helping parties move beyond the conflict.
 Perpetuate Tradition: Symbols are part of cultural traditions and rituals, ensuring that conflict
resolution methods are passed down through generations.
iv) How do we relate African traditional methods with the society today?
African traditional conflict management methods remain relevant in contemporary society for several
reasons:
 Community-Based Solutions: Traditional methods involve the community in conflict resolution,
promoting local ownership and accountability.
 Cultural Preservation: These methods help preserve cultural values and practices, fostering a
sense of identity and belonging.
 Early Intervention: Traditional methods encourage the early resolution of conflicts, preventing
their escalation and reducing the need for external interventions.
 Reconciliation: They emphasize reconciliation and healing, promoting long-term stability and
social cohesion.
 Complementarity: Traditional methods can complement modern conflict resolution approaches,
offering a holistic perspective on conflict management.
v) African cultures used to counsel and resolve conflict peacefully. Discuss using a case study.
African cultures have a rich history of counseling and peacefully resolving conflicts. One illustrative case
study is the Gacaca courts in Rwanda. The Gacaca courts were established to address the aftermath of the
1994 Rwandan genocide, which left a deeply scarred society with countless unresolved conflicts.
The Gacaca courts relied on traditional principles of community-based justice. Local communities
nominated judges, often respected elders, to preside over the courts. Witnesses and survivors of the
genocide were encouraged to testify, and perpetrators were given the opportunity to confess their crimes
and seek forgiveness.
The significance of this case study lies in the following aspects:
1. Community Involvement: Gacaca courts engaged communities in the reconciliation process,
allowing survivors and perpetrators to interact within their local contexts.
2. Restorative Justice: The emphasis was on restorative justice, with perpetrators encouraged to
acknowledge their actions, seek forgiveness, and make reparations to survivors.
3. Healing and Reconciliation: Through testimonies and communal gatherings, the Gacaca process
facilitated healing and reconciliation, helping Rwandans move forward.
4. Symbolism: The Gacaca process used symbols like confessing before the community, signifying
a desire for peace and reintegration.
In this case, African cultural practices were adapted to address one of the most profound conflicts of the
contemporary world. The Gacaca courts demonstrated that traditional methods can play a vital role in
post-conflict societies, promoting healing, justice, and reconciliation.
Analytical Review:
The provided text discusses the concept of conflict transformation, its significance in the field of conflict
resolution, and its distinction from conflict resolution and conflict management. The text outlines the
objectives, main content, and forms of conflict transformation.
1. Conflict Transformation vs. Conflict Resolution and Conflict Management: The text
highlights the distinction between conflict transformation and conflict resolution/management.
Conflict resolution implies a quick and definitive end to conflict, while conflict management
implies control or reduction of volatility. In contrast, conflict transformation acknowledges that
conflict is a natural, long-term process that can lead to positive change if managed effectively.
2. Conflict's Dialectic Nature: Conflict transformation recognizes the dialectic nature of conflict,
where conflict not only arises from relationships but also transforms those relationships in return.
Conflict affects events, people, and relationships and can alter communication patterns, self-
images, and social structures.
3. Prescriptive Nature of Conflict Transformation: Conflict transformation is both descriptive
and prescriptive. While it describes how conflict naturally transforms relationships and
perceptions, it also prescribes intentional efforts to modify or transform the consequences of
conflict positively. This often involves changing perceptions, expressions of conflict, and
outcomes.
4. Personal and Systemic Transformation: Conflict transformation occurs at both the personal and
systemic levels. At the personal level, individuals engage in self-awareness, growth, and
commitment to change, addressing emotions like fear, anger, grief, and bitterness. Systemic
transformation involves improving justice and equality in society, eliminating oppression, and
resolving conflicts between groups.
5. Role of Truth, Justice, and Mercy: Truth, justice, and mercy are essential components of
conflict transformation. They promote reconciliation, recognition, empowerment, and
interdependence. While these concepts may seem conflicting, they must be integrated for lasting
peace.
Self-Assessment:
The objectives of this unit are to identify positive aspects of conflict management, explain the concept of
conflict transformation, and describe its usage in conflict management. The text has effectively addressed
these objectives by providing an in-depth understanding of conflict transformation and its distinctiveness
from other conflict approaches.
i) What is conflict transformation?
Conflict transformation is a concept in the field of conflict resolution that recognizes the dialectic nature
of conflicts. It goes beyond the traditional notions of conflict resolution or conflict management by
acknowledging that conflicts are natural, long-term processes that can lead to positive change if managed
effectively. Conflict transformation involves intentionally modifying or transforming the consequences of
conflict, particularly in terms of perceptions, expressions of conflict, and outcomes. It can occur at both
the personal and systemic levels and aims to improve relationships, promote understanding, and create
positive social and political change.
ii) Sketch the debate on conflict management vs. conflict transformation.
The debate between conflict management and conflict transformation centers on different approaches to
handling conflicts:
 Conflict Management: Conflict management focuses on controlling or reducing the volatility of
conflicts. It often involves strategies to maintain stability, minimize disruption, and reach short-
term compromises. Critics argue that it may not address the root causes of conflicts, leading to
their persistence.
 Conflict Transformation: Conflict transformation acknowledges the natural, long-term nature of
conflicts and emphasizes that conflicts can lead to positive change. It involves changing
perceptions, expressions of conflict, and outcomes. Advocates argue that it provides a more
holistic and sustainable approach to conflict resolution.
iii) What forms can transformation take in conflict situations?
Transformation in conflict situations can take several forms:
 Actor Transformation: This form involves changes in the major conflict parties or the
emergence and recognition of new actors. New actors may bring fresh perspectives and
approaches to conflict resolution.
 Issue Transformation: Issue transformation entails a change in the political agenda of the
conflict. It may involve shifting the focus from original conflict issues to shared concerns or new
priorities.
 Rule Transformation: Rule transformation refers to a redefinition of the norms and rules that
conflict parties are expected to observe when dealing with each other. This can lead to changes in
behavior and expectations.
 Structural Transformation: Structural transformation is the most profound form, involving
changes in the entire structure of interactor relations. It can result in new cooperative
arrangements, where previously disputed issues become less relevant, and new issues or values
take precedence. This form can create a framework based on positive-sum agreements rather than
zero-sum conflicts.
Analytical Review:
The provided text discusses the concepts of peace-building and early warning systems (EWS) in the
context of conflict management. It outlines the objectives, main content, and various strategies associated
with peace-building. The text also introduces the concept of early warning systems and their significance
in conflict prevention.
1. Definition of Peace-Building: Peace-building is described as a set of actions aimed at addressing
the root causes of conflict, grievances of the past, and promoting long-term stability and justice. It
involves political, economic, social, and military measures to strengthen political settlements,
boost confidence, support economic reconstruction, and deter tensions that may lead to conflict.
2. Relation Between Peace-Building and Conflict Transformation: Peace-building and conflict
transformation are interrelated concepts. While conflict transformation focuses on managing and
modifying conflicts, peace-building involves more enduring and sustained activities to promote
stability and justice. Conflict transformation is considered part of the broader peace-building
process.
3. Peace-Building Strategies:
 Promoting Interaction (Contact Hypothesis): Encouraging interactions between
individuals from different groups to reduce ethnic prejudice and intergroup tension.
Positive interaction requires certain conditions, including equality, social support, and
common goals.
 Contact with Forgiveness: Forgiveness as an element of religious peace traditions
emphasizes reconciliation, common suffering, shared responsibility, and love for the
enemy. It can lead to personal transformations and reconciliation, but it may not address
structural factors and may require religious faith.
 Contact with Super-ordinate Goals: Super-ordinate goals are urgent goals achievable
only through cooperation between conflicting groups. Pursuing such goals can reduce
stereotyping and hostility. However, the benefits of interdependence must be shared
equally.
 Achieving Economic Development: While economic development is often seen as a
means to reduce conflict, its effectiveness is debated. Development alone may not
address ethnic identity issues or inequalities in wealth distribution. Sensitive development
can contribute to peace-building.
 Contact with Confidence Building: Effective communication and negotiations require
trust. Confidence-building measures, such as Gradual Reduction in Tensions (GRIT),
involve verifiable, unilateral concessions with the expectation of reciprocal responses.
However, "hypothesis conformation" may hinder trust-building.
 Contact with Education: Education for mutual understanding (EMU) or multicultural
education focuses on young individuals to produce generational changes in attitudes.
Reducing prejudices in adults also plays a role in peace-building, but it encounters
challenges.
 Cultural Attitudes: Intellectuals and artists can contribute to peace-building by
examining and reconstructing cultural attitudes and traditions, making them more
inclusive and pluralistic.
 Early Warning Systems for Peace-Building: Early Warning Systems (EWS) are
organized mechanisms for monitoring and detecting potential threats and conflicts in
society. EWS involves tracking, analyzing, and transmitting information about escalating
conflicts to enable preventive actions.
Self-Assessment:
The text effectively explains the concepts of peace-building and early warning systems, their significance
in conflict management, and various strategies associated with peace-building. It highlights the complex
nature of addressing conflicts and emphasizes the need for proactive approaches.
i) What is an early warning system?
An early warning system (EWS) is an organized mechanism designed to track, measure, monitor, and
detect potential threats and conflicts in a given society. It involves the collection and analysis of
information related to escalating conflicts, tensions, or other indicators of potential violence. The primary
purpose of an EWS is to provide advance information about impending threats or conflicts, allowing for
early intervention and preventive measures to avert or mitigate their negative impact. EWSs are crucial
tools for conflict prevention and peace-building.
ii) What do you understand by Gradual Reduction in Tensions (GRIT)?
Gradual Reduction in Tensions (GRIT) is an approach to confidence-building and conflict resolution. It
involves a series of unilateral and verifiable concessions made by one party in a conflict with the
expectation that the other party will respond in kind. GRIT aims to build trust and reduce hostility
between conflicting parties by initiating a positive cycle of reciprocal actions. These concessions should
involve some cost but should not compromise safety and security interests. The GRIT strategy assumes
that by taking the first step toward de-escalation, it can encourage a process of trust-building and conflict
resolution.
iii) What do you understand by the contact hypothesis?
The contact hypothesis is a belief that interaction between individuals belonging to different social or
ethnic groups can reduce prejudice, stereotypes, and intergroup tension. It suggests that increased contact
between groups can lead to improved attitudes and reduced hostility. However, for the contact hypothesis
to be effective, certain conditions must be met, including:
 The contact should be intimate and pleasant.
 It should occur between equals, without a power imbalance.
 The contact should be socially supported and encouraged.
 Common goals or objectives should be pursued during the interaction.
 The contact should be in pursuit of mutual interests or cooperation.
Under these conditions, the contact hypothesis suggests that interpersonal interactions can contribute to
reduced prejudice and improved intergroup relations.
iv) What is peace-building?
Peace-building refers to a set of actions and strategies aimed at addressing the root causes of conflicts,
grievances of the past, and promoting long-term stability and justice in societies affected by violence or
conflict. Peace-building involves various dimensions, including political, economic, social, and military
measures, to strengthen political settlements, boost confidence, support economic reconstruction, and
deter tensions that may lead to a relapse into conflict. It seeks to create an environment that fosters
peaceful relations, reduces the likelihood of future conflicts, and promotes reconciliation and sustainable
peace. Peace-building often involves enduring and sustained efforts over an extended period to bring
about positive changes in conflict-affected regions.
Analytical Review:
The provided text discusses the concepts of peacemaking and peacekeeping in the context of
peacebuilding and conflict management. It outlines the objectives and main content of the unit, providing
explanations and case studies for each concept.
1. Peacemaking:
 Peacemaking is described as a psychological activity focused on creating more peaceful
relations between conflicting parties.
 It goes beyond settling a conflict and aims to address the root causes of conflicts.
 Peacemakers need self-awareness, empathy, and a nonviolent attitude to be effective.
 The text highlights the importance of development aid focused on assuring people of
sufficient resources, a safe environment, cultural fulfillment, and opportunities for growth
and human development.
2. Peacemaking Workshops (A Case Study):
 The Peace Centre in Osijek, Croatia, is presented as a case study of effective
peacemaking.
 The Centre's goal is to stimulate and preserve the values necessary for restoring harmony
in a conflict-affected region.
 The Centre emphasizes nonviolence and offers healing, care, and educational programs.
 It is considered a model for promoting an alternative mindset to violence and
militarization.
 Implications for UN policy are drawn from the Osijek case, including limiting the use of
UN military force and focusing on preventative mediation and cooperation with local
people.
3. Peacekeeping:
 Peacekeeping is likened to emergency medicine, with the primary goal of protecting
individuals from further harm in conflict situations.
 Peacekeepers act as neutral intermediaries between conflicting parties to physically
separate them and prevent violence.
 These forces are often unarmed and work through persuasion and moral force.
 Peacekeeping typically occurs with the sponsorship of international organizations like the
United Nations and regional bodies.
 The text discusses the need for peacekeepers to have the cooperation of the warring
parties, adequate resources, clear mandates, and a focus on their specific roles.
Self-Assessment:
The text provides a comprehensive overview of peacemaking and peacekeeping as essential components
of peacebuilding and conflict management. It emphasizes the psychological and nonviolent aspects of
peacemaking and discusses practical examples and considerations for peacekeeping operations.
Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs):
1. What is peacekeeping?
Peacekeeping is a conflict management approach that involves the deployment of neutral, often
multinational, forces to intervene in conflicts with the primary goal of stopping violence and protecting
individuals from further harm. Peacekeepers act as intermediaries between conflicting parties, physically
separating them to create a ceasefire or buffer zone. They typically work through persuasion and moral
force, and their mission is to prevent the resumption of hostilities and create conditions conducive to
peacemaking and peacebuilding.
2. Distinguish between peacebuilding and peacemaking.
 Peacemaking: Peacemaking is a process that focuses on addressing immediate conflicts
and finding political resolutions. It involves negotiations, diplomacy, and efforts to bring
conflicting parties to the table to agree on a ceasefire or peace agreement. Peacemaking
aims to stop the violence and establish a framework for peace talks.
 Peacebuilding: Peacebuilding is a long-term and multifaceted process aimed at
addressing the root causes of conflicts, promoting reconciliation, and creating conditions
for sustainable peace. It involves activities such as development, reconciliation, and
social cohesion efforts. Peacebuilding goes beyond ending violence; it seeks to build a
foundation for lasting peace, stability, and justice.
3. How useful are peacemaking workshops?
Peacemaking workshops can be highly useful in conflict management and peacebuilding, but their
effectiveness depends on various factors:
 Training: Peacemaking workshops can provide individuals with valuable skills in
conflict prevention, mediation, and nonviolent communication, enhancing their ability to
contribute to peace efforts.
 Awareness: Workshops can increase participants' awareness of the psychological and
emotional aspects of conflict and peace, helping them understand the motivations behind
violence and the importance of empathy.
 Prevention: These workshops can help prevent conflicts from escalating by equipping
participants with conflict resolution tools and strategies.
 Community Building: Workshops can contribute to community cohesion and
reconciliation by fostering understanding and dialogue among individuals from different
backgrounds.
However, the impact of peacemaking workshops may vary depending on factors such as the quality of
training, the commitment of participants, and the broader context of the conflict. While they can be a
valuable tool, workshops alone may not address all the complexities of conflict resolution and
peacebuilding.
Analytical Review:
The provided text discusses the concepts of disarmament and arms control in the context of peacebuilding
and international efforts to limit the proliferation of weapons. It outlines the objectives, main content, and
historical context of these concepts.
1. Disarmament:
 Disarmament refers to the process of retrieving arms and weapons from armed groups
involved in conflicts.
 It includes three related activities: demobilization (disbanding armed formations),
demilitarization (renunciation of armed formations), and reintegration (forming national
armed forces).
 Disarmament is primarily a post-conflict activity aimed at establishing stability in
emerging post-conflict states.
2. The Movement for Disarmament:
 The text highlights that the movement for disarmament has varied across nations and
time periods.
 In the United States, the movement had proponents during the early Cold War years but
gained momentum in the 1960s, especially concerning nuclear weapons.
 The movement's strength fluctuated over time, often in response to political events and
the arms race.
 Internationally, organizations and networks, such as the Campaign for Nuclear
Disarmament (CND), played roles in promoting disarmament efforts.
3. Arms Control (Definition):
 Arms control encompasses a range of political concepts and aims related to limiting the
development, production, stockpiling, proliferation, and usage of weapons.
 It can take the form of multilateral agreements among consenting nations or unilateral
efforts by nations to enforce limitations on non-consenting countries.
 Arms control may focus on limiting future developments of weapons rather than
demobilizing existing ones.
 Verification and enforcement of arms control agreements are critical but often
challenging aspects.
4. History of Arms Control:
 The text traces the historical development of arms control efforts.
 Early examples include the 1817 Rush-Bagot Treaty and the 1925 Geneva Protocol,
which banned chemical weapons.
 International efforts were made through conferences, agreements, and treaties, including
the 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
(SALT).
5. List of Treaties and Conventions related to Arms Control:
 The text provides a list of important international arms control agreements, including the
Washington Naval Treaty, Chemical Weapons Convention, Comprehensive Test Ban
Treaty, and others.
1. What do you understand by the arms race?
The arms race is a competitive and often escalating process in which nations or entities seek to outpace
each other in the development, production, and accumulation of military weapons and capabilities. This
competition can involve the pursuit of advanced weaponry, such as nuclear, conventional, or
technological advancements, with the goal of gaining a military advantage over potential rivals. Arms
races can lead to increased tensions, arms proliferation, and the risk of conflict as nations vie for
superiority in military capabilities.
2. What is the origin and purpose of disarmament?
The origin of disarmament can be traced to efforts to reduce the potential for violence and conflict by
limiting the possession and use of weapons. Disarmament aims to promote peace, stability, and security
by:
 Removing or reducing the availability of arms, especially in post-conflict situations.
 Demobilizing armed groups and militias.
 Demilitarizing regions or areas.
 Reintegrating former combatants into society.
 Forming national armed forces under agreed-upon arrangements. Disarmament seeks to
prevent conflicts and contribute to the establishment of peaceful and secure societies.
3. What is arms control?
Arms control is a broad concept that involves limitations on the development, production, stockpiling,
proliferation, and usage of weaponry, especially in the context of international relations. It encompasses
efforts by nations, individually or collectively, to regulate and manage the arms race, promote
disarmament, and reduce the risk of armed conflicts. Arms control agreements can take various forms,
including treaties and conventions, and they are designed to establish rules and restrictions on military
capabilities and technologies.
4. How effective are arms control treaties?
The effectiveness of arms control treaties can vary widely depending on factors such as the willingness of
participating nations to comply, the strength of verification mechanisms, and the geopolitical context.
Some arms control treaties have been successful in achieving their objectives and reducing the risk of
conflict, while others have faced challenges, violations, or withdrawal by nations. Effectiveness also
depends on the specific terms and enforcement mechanisms outlined in each treaty.
5. What are the challenges of disarmament?
Disarmament faces several challenges, including:
 Resistance from armed groups and militias unwilling to give up their weapons.
 The potential for weapons to be hidden or transferred to non-state actors.
 The need for comprehensive demobilization and reintegration programs.
 The difficulty of verifying disarmament efforts in conflict zones.
 The political and economic interests associated with the arms industry.
 The complex interplay of regional and international dynamics in disarmament efforts.
Overcoming these challenges requires a multifaceted approach and international
cooperation.
Review:
The unit on Preventive and Multi-Track Diplomacy covers essential concepts related to diplomacy and its
role in conflict management. The content is organized logically, beginning with an introduction to
diplomacy and its traditional nature. It then delves into preventive diplomacy, emphasizing the
importance of addressing conflicts before they escalate, drawing from historical examples such as
Yugoslavia to illustrate the challenges of preventive diplomacy.
The introduction effectively defines diplomacy as the interaction between nation-states and highlights its
traditional adversarial nature. However, it's important to note that diplomacy has evolved over time,
incorporating newer approaches such as preventive and multi-track diplomacy.
Self-Assessment:
i) What is Diplomacy?
Diplomacy is defined in the content as "the interaction between nation-states." Traditionally, it was
conducted by government officials (diplomats) who negotiated international agreements and treaties,
often involving adversarial and competitive strategies.
ii) Distinguish between traditional diplomacy and preventive diplomacy?
Traditional diplomacy primarily focuses on negotiations, often adversarial, and assumes a win-lose
situation. In contrast, preventive diplomacy seeks to address conflicts before they escalate, recognizing
that some conflicts are easier to avoid than to fix once they occur.
iii) What is multi-track diplomacy, and how useful is it as an approach to conflict management?
Multi-track diplomacy involves a variety of actors from different sectors, such as governments, non-
governmental organizations, business communities, and private citizens, working together to transform
conflicts. It recognizes that conflict transformation requires a multidimensional approach.
i) What is Diplomacy?
Diplomacy is defined as "the interaction between nation-states." It traditionally involves government
officials (diplomats) negotiating international agreements and treaties, often employing adversarial
strategies.
ii) Distinguish between traditional diplomacy and preventive diplomacy?
Traditional diplomacy relies on negotiations, often adversarial, assuming a win-lose situation. Preventive
diplomacy, on the other hand, aims to address conflicts before they escalate, recognizing that some
conflicts are easier to avoid than to fix later.
iii) What is multi-track diplomacy, and how useful is it as an approach to conflict management?
Multi-track diplomacy involves various actors from different sectors working together to transform
conflicts. It recognizes the importance of a multidimensional approach to conflict management, where
different tracks complement each other to promote peace and reconciliation.
In conclusion, diplomacy is a dynamic field that has evolved to include preventive and multi-track
approaches, aiming to address conflicts more effectively. Preventive diplomacy is crucial in averting
crises, as demonstrated by the case of Yugoslavia. Multi-track diplomacy involves diverse actors and can
be a valuable tool for conflict management.
Analytical Review:
This unit provides a comprehensive overview of post-conflict reconstruction within the context of
peacebuilding. It begins by defining post-conflict reconstruction as a crucial component of the
peacebuilding process, emphasizing its role in repairing physical and economic infrastructure in countries
emerging from conflict. The unit further highlights that in post-conflict situations, state institutions are
typically weakened, necessitating external interventions to rebuild these institutions and initiate
development programs.
The content emphasizes that post-conflict reconstruction goes beyond mere infrastructure repair. It
involves addressing various aspects, including economic revitalization, social infrastructure, financial
normalization, and institutional capacity building. The unit also rightly underscores that the success of
post-conflict reconstruction relies on the integration and interaction of four key pillars: security, social
and economic well-being, justice and reconciliation, and governance and participation.
Moreover, the unit raises the critical point that if post-conflict reconstruction is not effectively
implemented and stakeholders are not adequately reintegrated into the state, there is a risk of a return to
conflict. It mentions the growing interest among scholars and policymakers in key strategies such as
defense reduction, demobilization, reintegration of ex-combatants, democratization, and economic
reconstruction for the stability and sustainable development of post-conflict societies.
The unit also addresses important issues in post-conflict reconstruction, including the reintegration of ex-
combatants, the challenge of illegal surplus arms, power-sharing versus political inclusion, and the need
to transform former guerrilla leaders into committed electoral players. The concept of "Return Wars" is
introduced as a phenomenon that needs to be countered.
Furthermore, the unit introduces the distinction between Reconstructive Peacebuilding and
Transformative Peacebuilding. Reconstructive peace-building focuses on short-term structural rebuilding,
including physical and political reconstruction, while Transformative peace-building aims for long-term
reconciliation and addresses the broader social relationships within conflict-prone societies. The unit
argues that both approaches are essential, and peace cannot be achieved without addressing both
reconstruction and conflict transformation.
i) What is post-conflict reconstruction?
Post-conflict reconstruction involves the repair and reconstruction of physical and economic
infrastructure in a country that has recently experienced widespread violence or conflict. It also includes
external interventions aimed at rebuilding weakened state institutions and encompasses a range of
activities, such as economic revitalization, social infrastructure development, and financial normalization.
ii) Distinguish between reconstructive peace-building and transformative peace-building.
Reconstructive peace-building primarily focuses on short-term structural rebuilding, including physical
and political reconstruction, often initiated by international organizations and governments.
Transformative peace-building, on the other hand, aims at long-term reconciliation and addresses the
broader social relationships within conflict-prone societies. It involves activities that seek to transform the
root causes of conflict and build lasting peace.
iii) What is conflict transformation?
Conflict transformation refers to a comprehensive approach to conflict resolution that seeks to address the
underlying causes of conflict and promote lasting peace. It goes beyond conflict management or
resolution by altering the social relationships, attitudes, and structures that contribute to conflict. Conflict
transformation involves various strategies, such as inter-ethnic contact, conflict resolution training,
justice, and reconciliation, to create a more peaceful and sustainable environment.
Analytical Review:
This unit provides a comprehensive overview of ethnicity and its role in conflict management in Africa. It
explores the complex nature of ethnicity, its historical roots, and its impact on the generation, escalation,
and transformation of conflicts in the region.
The unit begins by highlighting the fluid and complex nature of ethnicity, emphasizing its centrality in
understanding contemporary armed conflicts in Africa. It recognizes that colonialism played a significant
role in shaping ethnic identities and rivalries in African countries. Ethnicity, as explained, is associated
with interactions among members of different ethnic groups and is characterized by a common
consciousness or identity within the group.
The unit introduces various scholars' perspectives on ethnicity, including the instrumentalist and
primordial schools of thought. It distinguishes between "ethnic group in itself" (based on linguistic or
cultural similarity) and "ethnic group for itself" (with both similarity and common consciousness). This
distinction is crucial in understanding the concept of ethnicity as discussed in the unit.
Furthermore, the unit explores the types of ethnic-based conflicts in Africa. It highlights the role of
decolonization in shaping conflicts, emphasizing how arbitrary borders and the forced coexistence of
hostile ethnic groups by colonial powers contributed to ongoing conflicts. The typology of ethnic
conflicts, as presented, includes irredentism, separatism, autonomy, interest group demands, ethnic
cooperation, nativism, hegemonic demands, and fundamentalism.
The unit also addresses the causes of conflict in Africa, with a strong emphasis on the role of colonialism
in creating socio-economic and political upheavals. The colonial legacy is viewed as a significant factor
in the emergence of ethnic conflicts, characterized by exclusive competition for resources and cultural
identity.
Moreover, the unit briefly discusses governance options for addressing ethnic conflicts and power
inequalities. It highlights the importance of recognizing and addressing the underlying grievances and
structural power imbalances contributing to conflicts.
i) What are the various uses of the concept of ethnicity?
The concept of ethnicity has various uses, including defining social groups based on shared cultural or
linguistic characteristics, fostering a sense of identity and belonging, promoting cultural preservation, and
sometimes serving as a basis for political mobilization or conflict.
ii) Ethnic conflicts are deep-rooted conflicts. Discuss.
Ethnic conflicts are often deep-rooted because they are influenced by historical factors such as colonial
legacies, arbitrary borders, and the manipulation of ethnic identities. These conflicts involve complex
issues related to identity, territory, resources, and power, which can make them enduring and challenging
to resolve.
iii) Identify the same forms of ethnic-based conflicts in Africa and discuss them.
Ethnic-based conflicts in Africa can take various forms, including irredentism, separatism, autonomy,
interest group demands, ethnic cooperation, nativism, hegemonic demands, and fundamentalism. Each
form represents different manifestations of ethnic tensions and demands, often related to issues of
identity, territory, and political power.
iv) Can we resolve ethnic conflicts by good governance?
Good governance can play a crucial role in addressing ethnic conflicts by promoting inclusivity,
addressing power imbalances, and providing mechanisms for conflict resolution. However, the resolution
of ethnic conflicts also requires addressing deep-seated grievances, historical injustices, and structural
inequalities, making it a complex and multifaceted process.
Analytical Review:
This unit delves into the significant roles of culture and identity in conflict management and
transformation. It underscores the importance of considering cultural and identity dynamics in the
resolution of conflicts, particularly in multicultural and multi-ethnic societies. The unit consists of several
key points:
1. Culture and Conflict: The unit begins by defining culture as encompassing the social and
behavioral conditions of a group, including its worldview, language, symbols, religion, and social
practices. It emphasizes that culture is carried through language and various forms of symbolic
expressions.
2. Role of Culture in Conflict Situation: Culture is presented as a critical factor in understanding
and managing conflicts, especially in plural societies. Different cultural lenses shape people's
perceptions of conflicts, and understanding local indigenous theories of conflicts is crucial for
their resolution. The use of "ethno-conflict theories" is highlighted, as symbols and values
associated with resources are influenced by culture.
3. Identity and Conflict Transformation: The unit explores the intricate relationship between
identity and conflict transformation. Identity is defined as a psychological sense of self and one's
connection to the world. When conflicts threaten identity, they tend to become intractable. The
concept of identity dynamics is introduced, emphasizing its role in the development,
maintenance, and transformation of conflicts. Identity dynamics include stages such as threat,
distortion, rigidification, and collusion, which impact conflict escalation and resolution.
4. The Transformation of Intractability: The unit distinguishes between conflict settlement and
transformation. Settlements can involve peripheral changes but may not lead to long-term
transformation. Transformation is more likely when changes occur at the level of relationships or
core identity. The unit suggests that transformation is essential for addressing conflicts
effectively.
5. Settlement vs. Transformation: Different levels of change are discussed, from peripheral
changes outside the core identity to changes in the dynamic of party relationships and, finally,
changes within the core identity itself. The unit emphasizes that while settlements can address
peripheral issues, transformation requires altering the nature of parties' relationships and their
core identities.
i) What is culture, and how is it implicated in conflict?
Culture refers to the social and behavioral conditions of a group, encompassing its worldview, language,
symbols, religion, and social practices. It is implicated in conflict by shaping how people perceive and
interpret conflicts, influencing information processing, language use, and the bargaining process.
ii) What are the implications of identity for conflict management?
Identity plays a significant role in conflict escalation, maintenance, and transformation. Conflicts that
threaten identity tend to become intractable. Understanding identity dynamics is crucial for effective
iii) What are the cultural aspects of conflict?
The cultural aspects of conflict include how culture influences conflict perception, language, symbolism,
and values associated with resources. Indigenous theories of conflicts rooted in culture are essential for
conflict resolution.
Analytical Review:
This unit discusses the significance of policy-making in the context of conflict management. It outlines
key concepts related to public policy, its characteristics, and its role in addressing conflicts. The unit also
examines the policy-making process and provides a case study illustrating the application of policy
analysis to a real-world conflict.
Key Points:
1. Definition of Public Policy: Public policy is described as a plan or guide to action, representing
ideals governing actions aimed at achieving specific societal goals. While policies can be created
by individuals, private organizations, or public institutions, they are typically associated with
governmental action. Public policy is defined as "an authoritatively and publicly determined
course of action that achieves a particular goal or purpose."
2. Characteristics of Public Policy: Several essential characteristics of public policy are identified,
including the involvement of decision-making and activity, the exercise of power or rationality
over time, the engagement of prescribed organizational roles (often within governmental
institutions), interaction with various interest groups, and the aim of increasing the probability of
achieving desired future states.
3. Goal of Public Policy: The primary goal of public policy is to ensure that citizens can live in a
peaceful, orderly society conducive to their pursuit of happiness. Public policies are intended to
manage and resolve conflicts within a society and address various issues.
4. Types of Public Policy: Different types of policies are discussed, including constitutional
policies, cultural policies, distributive policies, redistributive policies, re-organizational policies,
regulatory policies, and symbolic policies. Each type of policy serves specific purposes and
addresses different aspects of governance and societal needs.
5. The Policy Process: The policy-making process is described as consisting of several stages,
which may vary in number and order depending on the framework used. These stages can include
agenda setting, formulation, adoption, implementation, impact evaluation, and adaptation or
reformulation. Each stage involves distinct activities and considerations.
6. Conflict Management Policies: The unit acknowledges that while public policies can be used to
manage conflicts and maintain a peaceful society, some policies can also generate conflicts. For
example, policies related to territorial boundaries or local government reorganization can lead to
disputes and violence.
7. Conflict Management Policy Analysis: A case study is presented to illustrate the application of
policy analysis techniques to the Israel-Egypt dispute over the Taba area. The case highlights the
importance of framing and approaching conflicts in ways that promote understanding,
cooperation, and mutually beneficial solutions rather than adversarial win-lose outcomes.
1. What is policy-making?
Policy-making refers to the process of formulating and implementing public policies. It involves defining
specific courses of action or guidelines to achieve particular societal goals or address specific issues
within a given context.
2. What are the essential characteristics of public policies?
The essential characteristics of public policies include decision-making and activity, a timeframe
involving extended decision-making, prescribed organizational roles, interaction with various interest
groups, the aim of increasing the probability of achieving desired future states, and the assertion of
policies as being in the public interest.
3. With regard to conflict Management, how many types of policies do you know?
There are several types of policies related to conflict management. Some of these include constitutional
policies, cultural policies, distributive policies, redistributive policies, re-organizational policies,
regulatory policies, and symbolic policies.
4. Outline and explain at least three types of policies.
 Constitutional Policies: These policies deal with the fundamental rules and principles governing
a nation. They often address issues related to governance, the structure of government, and the
protection of citizens' rights and freedoms.
 Distributive Policies: Distributive policies focus on the equitable allocation of resources,
benefits, or services among different groups or regions within a society. They aim to reduce
disparities and promote fairness.
 Regulatory Policies: Regulatory policies involve the establishment of rules, standards, and
regulations to govern specific sectors or industries. They are designed to ensure compliance with
established norms and protect the public interest.
5. Can public policies generate conflicts?
Yes, public policies can generate conflicts, especially when they involve contentious issues or decisions
that affect different groups or stakeholders within society. Policies related to resource allocation,
territorial boundaries, cultural practices, or governance can lead to disputes and conflicts if they are
perceived as unfair or detrimental to certain interests.
Analytical Review: The provided text discusses the sources and causes of conflicts in Africa within the
context of peace and security studies. It begins by emphasizing the fundamental role of human
interactions and relationships as a universal source of conflict. The text then delves into various sources
and causes of conflicts in Africa.
Sources of Conflicts: The text identifies key sources of conflicts in Africa. It highlights that conflicts
often arise from factors such as differing identities, resource distribution, power access, and varying
definitions of what is right, fair, and just. It underscores the ongoing impact of colonialism in the
continent's conflict dynamics, particularly focusing on the enduring effects of colonial boundaries.
Additionally, it notes that post-independence African leaders sometimes viewed progressive forces like
trade unions and students as threats to national unity, leading to further conflicts.
Causes of Conflicts: The text categorizes the causes of conflicts in Africa into three groups: structural
and predispositional conditions, precipitants, and accelerators or triggers.
1. Structural and Predispositional Conditions: These encompass issues imposed by colonialism,
artificial boundaries, and societal differences such as language, culture, religion, class, and social
organization.
2. Precipitants: This category includes factors like slavery, colonialism, foreign religion, and the
emergence of a new concept of the state, which disrupted traditional societies.
3. Accelerators or Triggers: The text lists various factors, including unclear national boundaries,
foreign instigation from former colonial powers, petroleum discoveries near borders, ideological
disputes (Capitalism vs. Communism), Cold War influences, religious fanaticism, opposition to
dictatorship, racism, military rule, and inter-ethnic power struggles, among others.
Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA) Responses:
TMA 1: i) Various elements of society that could lead to conflict include differing identities, resource
distribution, power access, and varying definitions of what is right, fair, and just.
TMA 2: i) The causes of conflicts in Africa are multifaceted and can be categorized into structural and
predispositional conditions, precipitants, and accelerators or triggers.
TMA 3: i) Causes and sources of conflicts are closely related but distinct. Sources refer to the
fundamental origins or roots of conflict, such as identity differences and resource distribution, while
causes encompass specific factors that ignite or exacerbate conflicts, such as foreign instigation,
ideological disputes, or inter-ethnic power struggles.
Analytical Review:
Unit 2 introduces a taxonomy of causes of conflicts in Africa based on a study conducted by the UK's
Department for International Development (DFID). This classification categorizes the causes into three
groups: root causes, secondary causes, and tertiary causes. The unit also discusses the reasons behind this
classification.
DFID Typology of Causes of Conflicts in Africa:
1. Root Causes: i) Weak states and state collapse ii) Economic decline and economic shock iii)
Historical factors iv) Natural resources wealth
2. Secondary Causes: i) Unemployment, lack of education, and population pressure ii) The abuse
of ethnicity iii) Availability of arms iv) Absence of an independent, well-informed civil society
sector
3. Tertiary Causes: i) Regional and interlocking conflicts ii) Failure to consolidate peace iii) Lack
of guarantors iv) Inadequate and inappropriate mediation v) Misplaced humanitarian and
development assistance
Reasons Supporting the Classification:
The text highlights the importance of this classification by citing Fayemi's insights, which underscore the
evolving nature of conflicts in Africa since the 1990s. The reasons supporting this classification include:
1. Shifts in global and geopolitical power relations, including the end of the Cold War and the
withdrawal of the security umbrella.
2. The emergence of identity-based conflicts rooted in religion and ethnicity.
3. The search for new sources of sustenance due to the withdrawal of assistance by major states.
4. The increased availability and privatization of instruments of violence, altering the military
balance between the state and society.
5. The rise of new forms of violent and transnational crime.
TMA 1: i) The basis of DFID's typology of causes of conflicts in Africa is to provide a systematic
classification that distinguishes between root causes, secondary causes, and tertiary causes, aiming to
better understand the multifaceted nature of conflicts in the African context.
TMA 2: i) DFID's typology of conflicts is categorized into root causes, secondary causes, and tertiary
causes, with each category encompassing specific factors contributing to conflicts in Africa.
TMA 3: i) Africa experiences a variety of wars and conflicts today, characterized by complex factors such
as weak states, economic decline, historical legacies, natural resource wealth, unemployment, ethnic
tensions, arms availability, absence of civil society, regional conflicts, challenges in consolidating peace,
lack of guarantors, mediation issues, and misdirected humanitarian and development assistance.
TMA 4: i) The term "New Warfare in Africa" likely refers to the evolving nature of conflicts in Africa
since the 1990s, characterized by shifts in global power relations, identity-based conflicts, economic
motivations, privatization of violence, and transnational crime.
TMA 5: i) The psychological approach to conflict types involves understanding the mental and emotional
factors that contribute to conflicts, including perceptions, beliefs, emotions, and motivations of
individuals and groups involved in conflicts. This approach emphasizes the role of psychology in shaping
conflict dynamics.
Analytical Review:
Unit 3 delves into the taxonomy of conflicts worldwide, introducing students to various typologies of
conflicts. It begins by presenting Schmid's typology of global conflicts, followed by an examination of
DFID's typology of conflicts in Africa. Additionally, the unit discusses the limits of arbitration in conflict
resolution.
Schmid's Typology of Global Conflicts:
Schmid's typology categorizes global conflicts into six types based on their characteristics and features,
along with the frequency of occurrence between 1985 and 1994:
1. Type A: Anti-regime wars or Political and Ideological conflicts (19.6%)
 Examples include liberation movements vs. colonial powers and popular/social-
revolutionary movements vs. authoritarian states.
2. Type B: Ethno-nationalist conflicts (44.1%)
 Typically intra-state conflicts, often involving long-duration conflicts rooted in ethnic
tensions.
3. Type C: Interstate Conflicts (11.8%)
 Classic state-vs.-state warfare, such as the Iran-Iraq war.
4. Type D: Decolonization Wars or Foreign-State Occupations (4.9%)
 Conflicts involving the liberation of former colonial territories, frequently with an ethno-
national character.
5. Type E: Inter-ethnic or Tribal Conflicts (13.7%)
 Conflicts characterized by sectarian and sectoral issues, often without state involvement.
6. Type F: Gang Wars (3.9%)
 Predominantly non-state conflicts, often involving criminal elements, militias, and
mercenaries.
7. Genocide (2.0%)
 State-organized mass murder with the intention to exterminate a specific national, ethnic,
racial, or religious group.
This typology highlights the diversity of conflicts worldwide, with some types being more prevalent in
specific regions.
DFID's Typology of Conflicts in Africa:
DFID's typology focuses on conflicts in Africa and identifies four distinct types:
1. Conventional Warfare - Wars of Attrition
2. Factional Warfare
3. Genocide and Ethnic-Based Conflict
4. The "New Warfare" - Regional Conflict
Each type represents a different dimension of conflict in Africa, with varying characteristics and
challenges.
TMA 1: i) The basis of Schmid's typology of conflicts in the world is the categorization of armed violent
conflicts based on their characteristics and features, along with the frequency of occurrence.
TMA 2: ii) Schmid's typology of conflicts includes six types: Anti-regime wars or Political and
Ideological conflicts (Type A), Ethno-nationalist conflicts (Type B), Interstate Conflicts (Type C),
Decolonization Wars or Foreign-State Occupations (Type D), Inter-ethnic or Tribal Conflicts (Type E),
and Gang Wars (Type F). Additionally, there is a category for Genocide (2.0%).
TMA 3: i) Africa experiences a variety of wars and conflicts today, encompassing conventional warfare,
factional warfare, genocide and ethnic-based conflict, and the "new warfare," which involves regional
conflict. These conflicts are diverse in nature and have different causes and characteristics.
TMA 4: i) The term "New Warfare in Africa" refers to conflicts in Africa that involve a combination of
elements from Schmid's typology, including factional warfare, inter-ethnic conflicts, and regional
dimensions. These conflicts often spill across borders and involve multiple countries.
TMA 5: i) The psychological approach to conflict types involves examining the mental and emotional
aspects of conflicts, including how individuals and groups perceive, interpret, and respond to conflicts.
This approach explores concepts such as framing, non-rationality, and the psychological dynamics of
conflict resolution.
Analytical Review:
In Unit 1 of Module 6, the focus is on national and international peace institutions and their roles in
conflict management. It provides insights into various organizations and institutions involved in conflict
and peace-building activities globally.
Roles of Institutions in Conflict Management: Institutions involved in conflict management play
pivotal roles in research, analysis, advocacy, and training related to conflicts and peace-building. These
organizations serve as stakeholders in efforts to prevent, manage, and resolve conflicts. Their roles can
include:
1. Research and Analysis: Institutions engage in research to better understand the causes and
dynamics of conflicts. This research informs strategies for conflict resolution and peace-building.
2. Advocacy: Organizations often advocate for peaceful solutions to conflicts and promote conflict
resolution efforts at various levels, including local, national, and international.
3. Training: Many institutions provide training programs in conflict management and peace
education. These programs target a range of individuals, from students to community leaders,
with the aim of building a cadre of individuals equipped with conflict resolution skills.
4. Mediation and Diplomacy: Some organizations actively engage in mediation and diplomacy to
facilitate peace talks and negotiations between conflicting parties.
5. Conflict Prevention: Institutions may focus on early warning systems and capacity-building to
prevent conflicts from escalating.
Case Studies: The unit provides case studies of various organizations involved in conflict and peace-
building activities in Africa. These organizations include:
 Academic Associates PeaceWorks (Nigeria): Focuses on conflict management and peace
education training, particularly targeting future leaders.
 Centre for Action-oriented Research on African Development (Cameroon): An academic
NGO interested in governance, conflict prevention, and resolution, as well as development.
 Centre for Conflict Resolution (University of Cape Town): Offers conflict management
training, promotes democratic values, and works on disarmament and demilitarization.
 Inter-Africa Group: Focused on the Horn of Africa, this organization is concerned with conflict
prevention and resolution, as well as development.
 Inter-governmental Authority on Development (IGAD): Engaged in peace facilitation efforts
in the Horn of Africa, focusing on capacity-building and early warning systems.
 Organisation of African Unity (OAU): While not a research organization, the OAU has made
efforts in conflict prevention and resolution, although it faces resource constraints.
 United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO): Responsible for
establishing peacekeeping and peacemaking operations mandated by the UN Security Council.
 All Africa Conference of Churches: Engages in conflict prevention and resolution, mediation,
citizen diplomacy, fact-finding, and early warning, often responding to requests from local
churches.
 United Nations Volunteers (UNV): Launches projects to address the causes of conflict at the
community level, building capacity, and supporting dialogue between opposing groups.
 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC): Acts as a neutral intermediary in conflict
situations, ensuring protection and assistance for civilian and military victims of conflict.
 Austria Department of Development Cooperation (DDC): Supports peace-building, conflict
prevention, and governance initiatives in developing countries.
 United Kingdom’s Department for International Development (DFID): Provides poverty
alleviation assistance that includes conflict mitigation, resolution, and good governance efforts.
These case studies illustrate the diverse range of organizations and institutions involved in conflict
management in Africa and globally.
TMA 1: i) Institutions play essential roles in conflict management, including research, analysis,
advocacy, training, mediation, diplomacy, and conflict prevention. They contribute to understanding the
causes of conflicts and work toward peaceful solutions.
TMA 2: ii) Three institutions involved in conflict management in contemporary Africa are Academic
Associates PeaceWorks (Nigeria), Inter-Africa Group (Horn of Africa), and the Centre for Conflict
Resolution (University of Cape Town). These organizations focus on conflict management training,
conflict prevention, resolution, and development in their respective regions.
TMA 3: iii) Foreign aid plays a significant role in conflict resolution worldwide by providing resources,
funding, and support for conflict prevention, peacekeeping, humanitarian assistance, and development
programs in conflict-affected regions.
TMA 4: iv) The United Nations System is highly significant in global conflict management. It establishes
peacekeeping operations, monitors conflicts, provides humanitarian aid, and facilitates peace
negotiations. Additionally, it conducts conflict analysis and shares lessons learned to improve conflict
management strategies.
This unit provides valuable insights into the roles and significance of national and international
institutions in conflict management, emphasizing the importance of their contributions to peace-building
efforts.
Analytical Review:
Unit 2 of Module 6 focuses on the United Nations (UN) and its role in peace initiatives in conflict
situations. It provides historical background, discusses the United Nations Charter, and explores key UN
organs related to conflict management, such as the General Assembly, Security Council, and International
Court of Justice.
Historical Background of the UN:
 The UN was officially established on October 24, 1945, following the signing of the United
Nations Charter by representatives of 50 countries.
 It was initially conceived as a military alliance to defeat the Axis Powers during World War II but
later evolved into an organization for maintaining global peace and security.
The United Nations Charter:
 The United Nations Charter serves as the foundational document of the organization, outlining its
principles and purposes.
 It includes chapters on various aspects, such as purposes and principles, membership, organs,
pacific settlement of disputes, economic cooperation, and non-self-governing territories.
Preamble to the Charter:
 The preamble expresses the UN's goals, emphasizing the determination to save future generations
from the scourge of war.
UN Organs for World Peace:
 The Charter established six principal organs, including the General Assembly, Security Council,
Economic and Social Council, Trusteeship Council, International Court of Justice, and
Secretariat.
 This unit primarily discusses the General Assembly, Security Council, and International Court of
Justice.
The General Assembly:
 The General Assembly is the main deliberative organ of the UN, with representatives from all
member states.
 It discusses a wide range of international issues, including those related to peace and security, and
makes recommendations.
 Its functions include addressing disputes, promoting international cooperation, and approving the
UN budget.
The Security Council:
 The Security Council has primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security.
 It consists of 15 members, including five permanent members with veto power (China, France,
Russia, the UK, and the US) and ten non-permanent members.
 Decisions on substantive matters require the concurring votes of all five permanent members (the
"veto" power).
International Court of Justice (ICJ):
 The ICJ is the principal judicial organ of the UN, based in The Hague.
 It handles legal disputes between states parties and provides advisory opinions.
 The ICJ's jurisdiction covers questions referred to it by states, issues in the UN Charter, treaties,
international custom, and general principles of law.
The Secretariat:
 The Secretariat, led by the Secretary-General, serves as the organization's administrative arm.
 The Secretary-General plays a key role in diplomacy, conflict management, and bringing matters
to the Security Council's attention.
TMA 1: i) Conflict management is an integral part of the UN Charter's principles and purposes. The UN
is committed to maintaining international peace and security, resolving disputes, and promoting
cooperation among nations.
TMA 2: ii) The UN employs various strategies of intervention in conflict situations, including diplomatic
negotiations, peacekeeping missions, sanctions, and, as a last resort, military action. These strategies aim
to prevent conflicts, mediate disputes, and restore peace and stability.
TMA 3: iii) The reform of the UN could potentially improve conflict management globally by making the
organization more effective, transparent, and responsive to current global challenges. Key areas of reform
might include restructuring the Security Council to reflect the current geopolitical landscape more
accurately, enhancing the efficiency of peacekeeping operations, and strengthening the UN's capacity to
prevent conflicts and promote diplomacy. Reforms should aim to make the UN more adaptable and
capable of addressing the complex conflicts of the 21st century.
This unit provides valuable insights into the structure and functions of the United Nations, highlighting its
pivotal role in conflict management and peace initiatives on a global scale.
Review:
The text provides a comprehensive overview of the United Nations' peace initiatives in Africa, with a
specific focus on the Liberian Civil War as a case study. The content is structured logically, with clear
headings and subheadings that help organize the information. Key definitions and in-text citations are
appropriately integrated, enhancing the academic quality of the text.
In Section 1.0, the introduction effectively sets the stage by highlighting the UN's concern over armed
conflicts in Africa. It appropriately mentions the deployment of the United Nations Operation in the
Congo (ONUC) in the early 1960s, providing historical context.
Section 2.0 presents clear objectives, allowing readers to understand the intended learning outcomes of
the study unit. These objectives are specific and aligned with the content.
Section 3.1 provides an informative overview of UN peace initiatives in Africa. It mentions the
prevalence of violent conflicts in the 1960s due to decolonization struggles and interethnic tensions. The
text effectively highlights the limited UN involvement during this period and emphasizes the increased
engagement post-Cold War.
The list of UN peacekeeping missions in Africa presented in Section 3.1 is detailed and informative,
showing the significant increase in such missions from the late 1980s onwards. This list provides a
historical perspective on UN involvement in conflict management on the continent.
Section 3.2 delves into the UN's intervention in the Liberian Civil War. It discusses initial skepticism
about UN involvement and clarifies the UN's position, emphasizing its concern for Liberia's humanitarian
situation. This section effectively covers the political context of the conflict.
Section 3.2.1 provides a detailed overview of the UN Observer Mission in Liberia (UNOMIL) and its
mandate. The text adequately explains the role of UNOMIL and its cooperation with the Economic
Community of West African States Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) for security.
Section 3.3 explains the joint peacekeeping operation in Liberia, detailing the challenges faced by
UNOMIL and ECOMOG. It highlights the difficulties encountered in implementing the Cotonou
Agreement and the significance of UNOMIL's impartiality.
Section 3.4 discusses UN post-conflict activities in Liberia, emphasizing the importance of peace-
building, reconciliation, and reconstruction efforts. It mentions the return of refugees and internally
displaced persons (IDPs) as a positive outcome.
Section 3.5 focuses on the disarmament of armed ethnic militias. It outlines the disarmament process and
the role of UNOMIL, ECOMOG, and the Liberian National Transitional Government (LNTG) in this
critical phase of conflict resolution.
Self-Assessment:
i) The strategies of intervention used by the UN in the case of Liberia include:
 Deployment of UN peacekeeping missions (UNOMIL)
 Cooperation with regional organizations (ECOMOG)
 Facilitation of peace talks and agreements (Cotonou, Akosombo, Accra Agreements)
 Encampment, disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration of combatants
 Monitoring ceasefire violations and taking corrective measures
 Humanitarian assistance, economic support, and reconstruction efforts
 Promotion of reconciliation and respect for human rights
 Support for the return of refugees and IDPs
ii) The UN intervention in Liberia can be critiqued as follows:
 Slow progress in disarmament and demobilization due to the reluctance of warring factions.
 Initial skepticism about UN involvement, potentially delaying effective action.
 Challenges in maintaining the ceasefire and ensuring the security of peacekeepers.
 The need for more comprehensive conflict resolution strategies addressing root causes.
 Delays and setbacks in implementing peace agreements and achieving stability.
 Limited success in preventing ceasefire violations and enforcing peace.
i) Question: Outline the strategies of intervention used by the UN? Answer: The strategies of
intervention used by the UN in the case of Liberia include:
 Deployment of UN peacekeeping missions (UNOMIL).
 Cooperation with regional organizations (ECOMOG).
 Facilitation of peace talks and agreements (Cotonou, Akosombo, Accra Agreements).
 Encampment, disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration of combatants.
 Monitoring ceasefire violations and taking corrective measures.
 Humanitarian assistance, economic support, and reconstruction efforts.
 Promotion of reconciliation and respect for human rights.
 Support for the return of refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs).
ii) Question: Make a critique of the UN intervention in Liberia. Answer: The UN intervention in Liberia
can be critiqued as follows:
 Slow progress in disarmament and demobilization due to the reluctance of warring factions.
 Initial skepticism about UN involvement, potentially delaying effective action.
 Challenges in maintaining the ceasefire and ensuring the security of peacekeepers.
 The need for more comprehensive conflict resolution strategies addressing root causes.
 Delays and setbacks in implementing peace agreements and achieving stability.
 Limited success in preventing ceasefire violations and enforcing peace.
Review:
The text provides an insightful overview of the United Nations' intervention strategies, categorizing them
into peaceful and coercive approaches. It is well-structured with clear headings and relevant content. Key
definitions and in-text citations are absent from this provided text, but I'll continue with the analysis as is.
i) Outline the strategies of intervention used by the UN?
The United Nations employs a range of intervention strategies, which can be broadly categorized into
peaceful and coercive approaches:
Peaceful Intervention Strategies:
1. Peacemaking: This involves diplomatic efforts to persuade conflicting parties to cease hostilities
and negotiate peaceful settlements. The Secretary-General often plays a key role by sending
envoys, encouraging negotiations, and mediating conflicts.
2. Peacekeeping: Peacekeeping operations involve the deployment of troops to conflict zones with
the goal of maintaining peace. These missions can include military observer missions and
peacekeeping forces. Soldiers in peacekeeping missions are typically armed but are expected to
use force only in self-defense.
3. Preventive Deployment: This strategy aims to proactively respond to potential conflicts by
deploying peacekeepers to prevent the outbreak of hostilities. It involves monitoring and
intervention in areas at risk of conflict.
4. Cooperation with Regional Organizations: The UN collaborates with regional organizations
and external actors to address conflicts. Regional organizations often play a vital role in conflict
resolution, and the UN supports and coordinates efforts with them.
5. Peace-Building: Peace-building focuses on establishing a stable environment in post-conflict
regions to foster sustainable peace. This involves various measures such as demilitarization,
economic development, social justice, and institutional reform.
Coercive Intervention Strategies:
1. Peace Enforcement: Under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, the Security Council can use
enforcement measures to restore or maintain international peace and security. Peace enforcement
may involve military action if parties do not adhere to peace agreements.
2. Embargoes and Sanctions: The Security Council can resort to economic sanctions and
embargoes as a non-military enforcement tool. These measures may include trade bans,
blockades, and communication interruptions to pressure non-compliant states or entities to adhere
to UN objectives.
3. Authorized Military Action: In situations where diplomatic efforts fail, the UN may authorize
member states to use military force under Chapter VII. This authorization grants states the right to
use "all necessary means" to address a conflict, such as restoring sovereignty or protecting
humanitarian operations.
ii) Make a critique of the UN intervention in Liberia.
The UN intervention in Liberia can be critiqued in the following ways:
 Prolonged Peacekeeping: The deployment of UN peacekeepers in Liberia, particularly through
UNOMIL and later UNMIL, continued for an extended period, which raised concerns about the
sustainability of such missions and their ability to bring about lasting peace.
 Challenges in Disarmament: Disarmament and demobilization of armed groups in Liberia faced
difficulties due to the reluctance of warring factions, leading to delays in the peace process.
 Ceasefire Maintenance: The UN struggled to maintain the ceasefire and ensure the security of
peacekeepers, as evidenced by instances of ceasefire violations.
 Complexity of Conflict Resolution: While the UN facilitated peace agreements like the Cotonou
Agreement, implementing these agreements and achieving lasting stability in Liberia proved
challenging due to underlying political and social complexities.
 Limited Success in Preventing Conflict Recurrence: The persistence of conflict in some areas,
exemplified by "return wars," suggested that the peacekeeping operation did not effectively
address the root causes of the conflict.
Overall, while the UN's intervention in Liberia made significant efforts to address the conflict, challenges
in disarmament, ceasefire maintenance, and achieving long-term stability highlight the complexities of
conflict resolution in such contexts.
Analytical Review
The provided text discusses the intricate relationship between globalization, global civil society, and
conflict management. It starts by defining globalization as the process of increasing interconnectedness
and interdependence on a global scale. This definition aptly captures the essence of globalization,
emphasizing its multifaceted nature.
The concept of global civil society is introduced as a network of non-governmental organizations
(NGOs), social movements, and citizen groups operating on an international scale. The text correctly
highlights that these entities are not under direct government control but engage in activities aimed at
addressing global issues and advocating for various causes. This definition effectively characterizes the
evolving role of non-state actors in global affairs.
The text delves into the impact of globalization on civil society and conflict management. It accurately
notes that globalization has shifted the nature of conflicts from interstate to intrastate, often along ethnic
or religious lines. Moreover, it acknowledges that NGOs and civil society organizations can play pivotal
roles in conflict resolution, including early warning, peace negotiations, and humanitarian assistance.
The text offers valuable insights into the changing landscape of global politics and the roles NGOs play in
peace and security. It raises pertinent issues such as the need for NGOs to collaborate with military
peacekeeping forces and the importance of coordination among international organizations. The text's
emphasis on empowering local communities and recognizing the risk associated with direct conflict
intervention is commendable.
Self-Assessment
1. What is globalization?
Globalization is the process of increasing interconnectedness and interdependence among countries,
economies, societies, and cultures across the world. It involves the flow of goods, services, information,
ideas, people, and capital across national borders, resulting in a more integrated global system.
2. What is global Civil Society?
Global Civil Society is a network of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), social movements, and
citizen groups that operate on an international scale. These entities are not directly controlled by
governments but engage in activities that aim to address global issues, promote human rights, social
justice, and advocate for various causes.
3. What roles can NGOs play in conflict management?
NGOs can play several roles in conflict management, including:
 Providing humanitarian assistance and relief to conflict-affected populations.
 Monitoring human rights abuses and documenting violations.
 Facilitating peace negotiations and conflict resolution processes.
 Promoting reconciliation and dialogue among conflicting parties.
 Advocating for conflict prevention and early warning systems.
 Raising awareness and mobilizing public support for peace efforts.
Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
i) The text offers a comprehensive definition of globalization, emphasizing its multifaceted nature. It
correctly underscores the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence among countries and
regions, showcasing a solid understanding of the concept.
ii) The definition of Global Civil Society provided in the text is accurate and concise. It effectively
conveys the idea that it comprises non-governmental organizations (NGOs), social movements, and
citizen groups operating on an international scale, working toward addressing global issues and
advocating for various causes.
iii) The text presents a thoughtful analysis of the roles that NGOs can play in conflict management. It
highlights their significance in providing humanitarian assistance, monitoring human rights, facilitating
peace negotiations, promoting reconciliation, advocating for conflict prevention, and raising awareness.
These roles align with the broader functions of NGOs in peace and security efforts.
iv) The discussion of the impact of globalization on civil society and conflict management is well-
rounded. It appropriately recognizes the shift from interstate to intrastate conflicts and the evolving role
of NGOs in addressing these conflicts.
In conclusion, the text provides a solid foundation for understanding the interplay between globalization,
global civil society, and conflict management. It effectively defines key concepts and offers valuable
insights into the roles of NGOs in promoting peace and security on a global scale.

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