CRUSTAL DEFORMATION

and Geologic Structures

 Deformation
• Deformation involves:
– Stress – the amount of force applied to
a given area.
– Types of Stress:
– Confining Stress – stress applied
equally in all directions.
– Differential Stress – stress applied
unequally in different directions.
 Deformational Stress
• Types of Differential Stress:
(1) Compressional Stress – shortens and thickens a
rock body (associated with convergent plate
boundaries).
(2) Tensional Stress – tends to elongate and thin or
pull apart a rock unit (associated with divergent
plate boundaries).
(3) Shear Stress – produces a
motion similar to slippage that
occurs between individual
playing cards when the top of
the stack is moved relative to
the bottom (associated with
transform plate boundaries).
Deformation
of the Earth’s
Crust Caused
by Tectonic
Forces and
Associated
Differential
Stresses
 Deformation
• Differential stress applied to rocks during
tectonic activity causes rocks to respond via
deformation.
• Strain – changes in the shape or size of a rock
body caused by stress.
• Strained rock bodies do not retain their original
configuration during deformation.
 How Do Rocks Deform?
• Rocks subjected to stresses greater than their
own strength begin to deform usually by
folding, flowing, or fracturing.
– General Characteristics of Rock Deformation:
• Elastic deformation – the rock returns to nearly
its original size and shape when the stress is
removed.
• Once the elastic limit (strength) of a rock is
surpassed, it either flows (ductile deformation)
or fractures (brittle deformation).
 How Do Rocks Deform?
• Factors that influence the strength
of a rock and how it will deform:
• Depth
• Temperature
• Confining Pressure
• Rock Type
• Availability of Fluids
• Time
 How Do Rocks Deform?
• Rocks near the surface, where confining
pressures and temperatures are low, will
behave as a brittle solid and fracture
once their strength is exceeded.
• Rocks at depth, where confining
pressures and temperatures are high,
will exhibit ductile behavior or solid-
state flow, in which changes occur
without fracturing.
 Crustal Structures
• Folds – During crustal deformation rocks
are often bent into a series of wave-like
undulations.
– Anticlines and Synclines
– Domes and Basins
– Monoclines
• Characteristics of Folds:
• Most folds result from compressional
stresses which shorten and thicken the crust.
• Most of them occur in a series.
 Anatomy of a Fold
• Limbs – Refers to the two sides of a fold.
• Axis (or Hinge) – A line drawn down the
points of maximum curvature of each layer.
• Axial Plane – An
imaginary surface
that divides a fold
symmetrically.
• Plunge – In
complex folding,
the axis is often
inclined at an angle
called plunge.
(A) Horizontal
Anticline
and
(B) Plunging
Anticline
 Common Types of Folds
• Anticline – upfolded
or arched rock
layers.

Photo courtesy of J. T. Daniels

http://disc.gsfc.nasa.gov/geomorphology/GEO_2/GEO_PLATE_T-42.shtml

• Syncline – downfolds
or troughs of rock
layers.

Photo courtesy of Brennan T. Jordan, Department of Earth Sciences,

University of South Dakota
http://www.usd.edu/~Brennan.Jordan/
 Common Types of Folds
• Depending on their orientation, anticlines and
synclines can be described as…
• Symmetrical, asymmetrical, overturned, recumbent
(a type of overturned fold – “lying on its side”), or
plunging.
 Other Types of Folds
• Monoclines
• Large, step-like folds in otherwise horizontal sedimentary strata.
• Closely associated with faulting.
 Other Types of Folds
• Dome
• Up warped displacement of rocks.
• Circular or slightly elongated structure.
• Oldest rocks in center, younger rocks on the flanks.

• Basin
• Circular or slightly elongated structure.
• Down warped displacement of rocks.
• Youngest rocks are found near the center, oldest
rocks on the flanks.
 Crustal Structures
• Faults – Fractures in rocks along which appreciable displacement
has taken place.
• Fault Zone – Displacements along multiple interconnected faults.
• Sudden movements along faults are the cause of most
earthquakes.
 Types of Faults
• Classified by their relative movement which
can be Horizontal, Vertical, or Oblique.
 Summary of Fault Types
• Dip-Slip Faults:
• Normal (gravity) – associated with divergent plate
boundaries.
• Reverse and Thrust – associated with convergent
plate boundaries.
• Strike-Slip Faults:
• Lateral (right and left) – associated with transform
plate boundaries.
Dip-Slip Faults
• Movement is
mainly parallel to
the dip of the
fault surface.
• Parts of a dip-slip
fault include the
hanging wall
(rock surface
above the fault)
and the footwall
(rock surface
below the fault).
 Dip-Slip Faults
• Normal Fault (gravity)
Dip-Slip Faults
– Hanging wall block moves
down relative to the footwall
block.
– Tensional stress
– Accommodate lengthening or
extension and thinning of the
crust.
– Associated with divergent plate
boundaries.
– Most are small with
displacements of a meter or so.
– Larger scale normal faults are
associated with structures
called fault-block mountains
(Teton Range in Wyoming,
Basin and Range Province in
Nevada).
 Dip-Slip Faults
• Reverse and Thrust Dip-Slip Faults
– Hanging wall block moves up relative to the
footwall block.
– Reverse faults have dips greater than 45o
– Thrust faults have dips less than 45o.

• Strong compressional
stress.
• Accommodate
shortening and
thickening of the crust.
• Associated with
convergent plate
boundaries.
 Strike-Slip Faults
• Dominant displacement is horizontal
and parallel to the strike of the fault.
• May produce broad zones of roughly
parallel fractures up too several
kilometers in width.
• Shear stress.
• Associated with transform plate
boundaries.
 Types of Strike-Slip Faults
• Right-Lateral – as you face the fault, the
opposite side of the fault moves to the right.
• Left-Lateral – as you face the fault, the
opposite side of the fault moves to the left.
Right-Lateral
Strike-Slip Fault

Animations:
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/savageearth/animations/
 Types of Strike-Slip Faults
• Transform Fault
- Large strike-slip
fault that cuts
through
accommodates
motion between
two large crustal
plates.
– Example: San
Andreas Fault
System