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tonus is another name for muscle tone, the passive state of a muscle

in which spinal reflexes keep motor units in a muscle constantly stimulated to be ready

for greater stimulation? Sarcomeres of the muscle are maintained at optimal length and

temperature to facilitate muscle activation when needed. Tone also provides stability to

the body, even at rest, because without this state of constant contraction or tension in the

muscles, the body wouldnt be able to maintain posture or positioning as well.

For example, if the rotator cuff muscles of the shoulder dont maintain good tone, the

shoulder will be easily dislocated.

Summarize this text without missing details points of contact upon which loading is emphasized can affect the

way the kinetic chain is activated?

One can try this out with something as simple as a body-weight squat. The focus should be

on the way one feels the load in their feet while performing the squat. Emphasizing load on

the heel will activate the kinetic chain from the feet up differently than emphasizing load

through the ball of the feet. Similarly, emphasizing the tripod stance (big toe, little toe, and

heel) will feel more centered and balanced through the kinetic chain. Understanding this

will further help to find the best way to load the muscles one aims to build when performing

specific exercises.

Exercise has three ways of stimulating bone density: adaptation to stress on the bone, adaptation to shearing forces from

tendons, and a hormonal response. Weight-bearing activity, where the body pounds a bone into the ground, has a significant

impact on maintaining bone mass and density. The forces involved in changing momentum or direction, such as those occurring

when slowing down a limb, can also be effective for building bone. Tendon pulling on bone to cause joint movement imposes

shearing forces and bone-strengthening anabolic stimuli, ideally from multiangle pulling force. High intensity exercise can release

anabolic hormones, bone-building effects like testosterone, estrogen, and growth hormone, and reduce cortisol release, which

causes bone breakdown when chronically elevated. Finally, exercise can enhance blood flow in the bone and joints and alter

mineral homeostasis to promote bone anabolism.

Exercise affects bone cells by converting osteoprogenitor cells into osteoblasts which lay down bone material. Osteoblasts can be

converted into osteocytes, which maintain bone material, or stimulate osteoclasts, which break down bone matter. Exercise

decreases adipocyte differentiation and increases pre-osteoblast replication to increase osteoblast function and decrease
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s. Apoptosis occurs to allow more bone building. Mechanoreceptors are stimulated to induce growth factors that cause more bone

building, increase anti-inflammatory mechanisms, and reduce cortisol. The osteogenic threshold can be achieved through

weightlifting, moderate/high impact aerobic exercise, and ballistic and higher-impact body-weight exercises. Deceleration training,

changes of direction, agility, and multiplanar movements also apply adequate stress to bones.

Muscle hypertrophy occurs when the size of muscle fibers increases through consistent resistance training and periods of positive

net protein balance. This process is achieved through a rate of muscle protein synthesis that exceeds muscle breakdown.

Nutrition plays a significant role in muscle protein synthesis, while load is less important as long as the exercise is performed to

fatigue. Hypertrophy is a complex process that involves several mechanisms simultaneously, such as the activation of

inflammatory processes, satellite cells, mTOR, IGF-1, testosterone, and the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Temporary swelling or

edema-induced muscle swelling is not considered true hypertrophy. Resistance training at high intensity stimulates

mechanoreceptors and IGF-1, which activates a series of enzymes that cause protein synthesis.

Endurance exercise depletes ATP and increases AMP, activating AMPK, which leads to mitochondrial biogenesis and inhibits

mTOR. Resistance training activates muscle hypertrophy and inhibits muscle degradation, and dietary protein is important for

stimulating MPS. A combination of both resistance and endurance training techniques is important for increasing muscular

strength and performance. Another myostatin pathway is currently being investigated.

Evidence suggests that the phenomenon of "muscle memory" might be explained by satellite cells. Studies indicate that during

detraining, muscle fibers may atrophy, but satellite cells persist longer. Therefore, people who resume training after an extended

break may have an advantage due to the preexisting satellite cells, which can lead to faster adaptations than those who need to

generate them first.

Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS) is a phenomenon that occurs when someone performs a new activity, works out a body

region they have not worked on for a while, starts exercise after time off or after injury, or works out at a new intensity. DOMS

typically presents 24 to 72 hours after the exercise and is characterized by a temporary decrease in muscle force and endurance,

reduced joint range of motion, increased muscle soreness and swelling, and increased intramuscular proteins in the blood. The

exact physiological reasons for DOMS are unknown, but myofibrillar damage is known to cause inflammation, leading to soreness

and stiffness. DOMS is a normal part of the training process and can be expected. Some types of workouts, such as eccentric

contractions, high-intensity training, and larger muscle groups, are known to elicit DOMS more often.
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Muscle injury occurs at various levels of damage, with the lowest level being pulled fibers that can heal within days. Muscle tears

occur when fibers are severed, with small areas not requiring surgery. Healing times vary depending on the person’s age, gender,

metabolism, and activity levels, and surgery can take months to heal or, in rare cases, never regain total muscle performance.

Movement requires the neutralization or accommodation of external and internal forces. Connective tissue and internal structures

in muscles determine the body’s ability to tolerate joint and muscle forces. Tendons connect bone to muscle, while ligaments

connect bone to bone. Strain and sprain refer to tendon/muscle and ligament injuries, respectively. Tendons heal faster than

ligaments, and surgery could result in months of recovery time. Muscle contraction leads to a series of events that involve

shortening of the sarcomere, which pulls on the tendon, and then pulls on the bone to move. Overly forceful contractions increase

forces on joints and muscles. Eccentric contractions occur when high forces are imposed on tendons because muscles are

shortening and joints are lengthening.

The use of health information from wearable devices is a rapidly growing trend in the industry. Wearable devices can provide

information on training, heart rate, sleep quality, and even oxygen saturation through current technology.

Cardiovascular adaptations improve how the heart and blood vessels function by delivering more nutrients and oxygen to organs

and tissues. These adaptations include a stronger post-recovery heart muscle that increases cardiac output, a larger heart size

with larger ventricles for a larger stroke volume per the Frank-Starling law, and a more efficient heart muscle that lowers resting

and activity heart rates. Inadequate recovery can lead to a weakened cardiovascular system with slower recovery heart rate and

prolonged post-exercise hypotension, which lowers systolic blood pressure with poor cardiovascular recovery.

Hardiness is an individual’s ability to tolerate or withstand significant trauma and stress without developing mental disease.

Soldiers in desert wars with high hardiness levels showed psychological resilience. Hardiness has been widely studied in stressful

conditions and is essential in calculating stress or strain load. In the overtraining formula, exercise load and recovery should be

proportional, and someone can become overtrained by training too much or recovering too little. Life stress can cause overtraining

if the training volume is not reduced, unless the individual has high hardiness levels.
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Functional overreaching involves a short-term increase in training stress that results in a brief decrease in performance. It can be

tolerated occasionally, and when properly administered, it leads to a supercompensation where there is a significant improvement

in performance. Recovery time should be programmed into training, and an extension of the recovery period to five to seven days

may be necessary. If high levels of activity continue, the athlete may progress into full overtraining. The rate of progression and

performance enhancement after functional overreaching is high, but recovery time is longer than with acute overload. Modalities

like heat and stretching may be helpful during recovery, but the risk of injury is higher than with acute overload. Care must be

taken when using this level of training since it is the upper end of the bodys adaptation rate.

Nonfunctional overreaching is a low-level overtraining syndrome that requires significantly more recovery time than functional

overreaching. It is identified by a decrease in performance even after a recovery period, and it may take several weeks or even

months for performance improvements to be seen. This type of overreaching is more severe than functional overreaching and

requires more significant changes to the training program to recover fully.

Overtraining syndrome is characterized by physical and psychological issues that may take several weeks or months to recover

fully. Recovery time is not linear and is exponentially extended for every amount beyond the threshold. There are three stages of

overtraining syndrome, each marked by different symptoms. The first stage shows normal training volume but low recovery. The

second stage is caused by high training volume alone, which leads to nervous, hormonal, and mechanical imbalances as

symptoms. The third stage is caused by high training volume and intensity and leads to burnout, fatigue, and desensitization to

stimulus. It is important to note that overreaching was not mentioned in this three-stage system, and external stressors are not

included.

Overtraining syndrome can result in physical and psychological symptoms that occur simultaneously due to a loss of strength,

coordination, exercise capacity, tissue failure, and suppressed immunological functions. High cortisol levels can lead to low

testosterone levels, decreasing the capacity for anabolic adaptations. Psychological symptoms of overtraining syndrome include

fatigue, change in appetite, irritability, sleep disturbances, loss of motivation, and burnout. Overtraining symptoms can be grouped

into four categories: performance, physiological, psychological, and biochemical. In full-blown overtraining syndrome, there is an

overall feeling of tiredness, low-performance quality, changes in appetite and weight, anxiousness and lack of quality sleep, low

motivation, difficulty in mental concentration, and burnout. Such symptoms mimic clinical depression, which some experts believe

is the body’s protective mechanism to prevent further harm.

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The field of psychoneuroimmunology explores the connection between the brain, the endocrine system, and the immune system.

It looks at how stress can affect the immune system and how immune cytokines can impact the brain and mood. Research has

shown that stress can lower the immune response, and overtraining, which triggers the stress response, can also decrease

immune function.

Summarize this text without missing details HEART RATE RESPONSE TO OVERTRAINING

Several physiological factors can be monitored for indications of an overtrained state. Among

these is the heart rate. Heart rate is the product of several neural, biochemical, hormonal,

and mechanical operations within the body. There are four key heart rate readings that can

be measured and tracked:

¢ Wake-up/true resting heart rate: the heart rate immediately upon waking; taken

before elevating the head.

¢ Heart rate variability: the variation in the time between heartbeats; taken upon

waking or after resting from activity for five minutes.

¢ Maximum aerobic function test: a test to measure individual cardiovascular

function at low to moderate intensities associated with maximal fat oxidation; taken

while exercising at a specific heart rate.

¢ Recovery heart rate (time): the heart rate and how it changes after exercise; taken

immediately after and one, two, and three minutes post-exercise.

The heart is under constant control from the autonomic nervous system (ANS). When waking

up, the body is in a normal resting state, and the parasympathetic branch of the autonomic

nervous system is dominant, while the sympathetic system is silenced. All involuntary body

systems have autonomic nervous system control. Everything from glands, to organs, to smooth muscle around blood vessels,

bronchi, bronchioles, and digestive system are under

ANS control.

When the body needs to get ready for action and respond to a stimulus, the fight-or-flight

response is activated. The sympathetic nervous system reacts quickly and elevates the

activity of all the different systems to be stimulated for activity, except the digestive system.

The adrenal gland is largely responsible for the sympathetic nervous response. This gland

sits on top of the kidneys and has two regions: the medulla, which is toward the middle, and

the cortex, which is toward the outside. The cortex is subdivided into three regions from there,

but one of the regions, called the zona fasciculata, will release cortisol or some derivative of

it. The adrenal medulla will release epinephrine and norepinephrine, which have stimulating

effects on many different organs and systems. The parasympathetic branch controls the rest¿and-digest reflexes. It works to

reset the activated body systems and return the body to a

more restful state while restimulating the digestive processes.

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ol affects many organs and systems differently. In the cardiovascular system, it can cause high blood pressure, obesity,

hyperglycemia, insulin resistance, and lipid metabolism issues. In the digestive system, cortisol can inhibit digestion and

absorption of nutrients, and contribute to weight gain by increasing food cravings. In the renal system, cortisol causes salt and

water retention, while in the musculoskeletal system, it can break down muscle tissue and impair glucose entry into the skeletal

muscle. Finally, cortisol reduces the immune and inflammation response over time by suppressing B cell antibody production and

reducing the migration of neutrophils during inflammations

Summarize this text without missing details RESTING HEART RATE

When the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) dominates, the sympathetic nervous

system (SNS) signals are silenced or minimized. Thus, a wake-up heart rate should be as low

as possible for the individual and would represent the maximum amount of parasympathetic

influence. In an endurance athlete, their cardiac output is improved and a larger stroke

volume will lead to a lower heart rate at rest. This is known as training bradycardia and

is directly related to the efficiency of the individuals cardiovascular system. Many elite

endurance athletes will have resting heart rates in the high 30s to low 50s, while normal

individuals will be about 70 beats per minute, plus or minus 10. By knowing ones norm for

their wake-up heart rate, it can be used as a reference point to compare to heart rates when

determining if they are overtrained or overreaching.

For example, someone with a wake-up heart rate of 50, who is 57 or higher a few days in

a row, is likely in an overtrained state. Some variation is normal, but plus or minus 7 beats

per minute is a fair indicator of a change in training status. The increase in this heart rate

measure is attributed to a lack of recovery and the parasympathetic nervous system doing

more work than usual.

Summarize this text without missing details HEART RATE VARIABILITY

Similar to the wake-up heart rate, when the heart is not under much SNS drive, minor issues

like breathing or slight movement can be reflected by the heart rate variability (HRV). This is

observed by measuring the time between heartbeats. When overtraining syndrome activates

the sympathetic system, the heart rate will vary less between beats, meaning the reading will

be lower. Even minor changes in the ANS can be detected with HRV. This exercise stress is

normally temporary, but when someone is overtrained, it is long lasting.

There are many applications and devices available to measure heart rate variability. Many
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with existing smart watch technology, and some are integrated into the GPS-type sport

training watches. The free Elite HRV app uses an HRV score. This score averages 59.3, and

75% of users fall between 46.3 and 72. By enacting lifestyle changes, reducing stress, and

being more mindful, individuals can incrementally increase their HRV score.

MAXIMUM AEROBIC FUNCTION

The Maximum Aerobic Function (MAF) test was developed by Dr. Phil Maffetone, the trainer

of Mark Allen, who was arguably one of the greatest triathletes of all time. The test uses

the very consistent relationship between the heart and workload. Workload is the speed of

running, so the faster an individual runs, the higher their heart rate will be.

As someone trains, the heart rate will go down for a given speed because the systems that deliver

blood and oxygen to the tissues are stronger and more efficient. Stroke volume is improved,

and the heart becomes more efficient and contracts less often. This is one of the major desired

adaptations from cardiovascular training. The MAF test attempts to control the heart rate and

monitor running distance. A lower time in each mile interval would indicate a faster speed and a

positive training effect occurring. However, if an individual has slower speeds and increasing times

for each of the mile intervals, this is an indication that they are in an overtraining status.

MAF is calculated by subtracting an individuals age from 180. The MAF HR of a 30-year-old is

150. For a 50-year-old, it is 130. There is a list of corrections Maffetone provides, but the main

correction is that someone who is in good shape and trains often adds five beats, and someone

who is relatively sedentary subtracts five beats. In this test, the individual runs three miles at

their MAF heart rate, noting the times for each mile distance. They should observe incremental

increasing times with each mile and as the test progresses. If mile times decrease over the

duration of the test, they are likely not in an overtraining status. Again, either lower heart rates for

a given pace or faster paces for a given heart rate should be evident.

RECOVERY HEART RATE

A final indicator is called the recovery heart rate time. Using the maximum heart rate

calculation (208 (age x 0.7)), an individual must exercise hard enough to get to 7080% of

their maximum heart rate. For example, a 30-year-olds maximum heart rate would be 208

(30 x 0.7) or 208 21 = 187 bpm. To calculate 80% of this, they would multiply 187 x 0.8

= 149.6, rounded to 150. Ideally, they should see their heart rate decrease significantly two

minutes after exercise cessation.

If heart rate decreases by 66 bpm from the 7080% of maximum achieved during activity,

this is positive. A decrease of around 44 bpm is average, and a decrease of less than 40

bpm may indicate some level of overtraining is present. With the above example, if 150 bpm

was reached and heart rate was measured two minutes after stopping, heart rate should be

180 44 = 136 bpm or less. If the measure was 140 bpm or above, it is likely an indication
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status.

Another useful gauge is a decrease of 15 bpm in one minute, about 4044 bpm in two

minutes and 64 bpm in three minutes. Actual maximum heart rate and how recovery is

executed will affect how quickly and at what increments the heart rate will drop as well as

the individuals overall aerobic conditioning.

For example, if someone were to exercise at 80% of their heart rate reserve (HRR), they would

employ what is known as the Karvonen or HRR method. The individual would need to know

both their estimated maximum (MHR) and their resting heart rate (RHR). If they were 50 years

old and their RHR was 60 bpm, they would use 208 (age x 0.7) to figure their maximum

208 35 = 173. They would then subtract their resting (60 bpm) to get 113 as their heart

rate reserve. From there, they would multiply 113 x 0.8 to get 90.4 or 90 and add back their

resting HR of 60 to get 150 bpm. The overall formula is:

((MHR RHR) x some %) + RHR

The HR must be subtracted and added back because ones resting HR is essentially the zero

or start point. Someone exercising at 150 bpm is at 80% of their heart rate reserve. At 70%

HRR, it would be 113 x 0.7 = 79. Add 60 to get 139.

After reaching 150139 bpm for three minutes, one would stop and note the time. If they

were 140, then after one minute they should be 125 bpm, 96100 after two, and 76 after 3

minutes, for a normal to good recovery rate.

The concept of stress was founded by Hans Seyle, who adapted the term from physics and engineering to describe the bodily

reaction of animals to various stimuli. Seyle’s general adaptation syndrome (GAS) proposes three phases: alarm, resistance, and

exhaustion, which are all interlinked. A critical phase, recovery, was left out of the GAS by Seyle. The alarm phase is initiated by a

stressor, which could be physical or mental, and disrupts homeostasis. The resistance phase involves the body’s efforts to

maintain homeostasis and can take various forms, including fight, flight, freeze, or appease. The exhaustion phase occurs when

the body’s resources to meet the demand have been exhausted, leading to overtraining or permanent damage. Recovery is the

phase where the body adapts and strengthens its capacities to meet the demand in the future.

The stress response involves both the nervous and endocrine systems. The nervous system quickly and specifically stimulates

individual cells, while the endocrine system releases hormones that affect tissues in organs. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal

axis (HPA axis) is a three-organ linkage that regulates the release of cortisol in response to stress. Cortisol has a flight-or-fight

response on many different organs and is useful in the short term. However, chronically elevated cortisol levels can lead to

various issues such as high blood pressure, low HDL cholesterol, and mental problems, among others.
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obiome has a significant impact on physical and mental health. The digestive system has its own nervous system, known as the

enteric nervous system, that communicates with the brain and immune system. A diverse gut microbiome, known as symbiosis,

optimizes function, while stress can reduce bacterial species leading to conditions like leaky gut syndrome, depression, and lack

of energy. Exercise, balanced diet with fiber and fermented foods, and the use of prebiotics and probiotics in proper combination

(synbiotics) can produce many positive training benefits.

Progressive muscle relaxation is a technique that involves deep, controlled breathing to systematically relax the body, resulting in

reduced muscle tension and anxiety. This technique can be practiced in various ways, often combined with deep breathing and

imagery to induce the relaxation response. The purpose of this technique is to break the stress cycle and activate the relaxation

circuit. A daily practice of 10 to 20 minutes can yield benefits.

balance, and optimize the body’s adaptive response to stressors. Rest and recovery are two different concepts, with rest being a

transitional period between physical activity and can be either passive or active while recovery is the physiological process taking

place during rest. Recovery plays an essential role in optimizing physical fitness, and understanding how the body adapts to

stressors is necessary to create effective training programs. The general adaptation syndrome (GAS) describes the three phases

of adaptation: alarm or reaction, resistance or supercompensation, and exhaustion or overtraining. The main goals of recovery are

to normalize function, maintain homeostatic balance, and optimize the body’s adaptive response to stressors to achieve optimal

health and fitness results.

Intermittent Rest

The concept of intermittent rest is adapted from the idea of intermittent fasting, which

proposes fasting for one day, for example, and eating the next or fasting for 14 hours and

eating during the remaining 10 hours of the day. How intermittent fasting is scheduled is not

as important as recognizing the key that it uses clearly defined periods of eating with periods

of fasting or not eating.

Intermittent training focuses on rest versus training days. Intermittent rest is built on the

premise of exercising or abstaining within each 24-hour period. Intermittent rest exercise

programming is based on a 24-hour schedule and suggests rest on two nonconsecutive days

per week and training the remaining five days per week.

An intermittent rest schedule is contrary to the popular five days per week training with weekends

off. The rationale behind an intermittent rest programming schedule is that the master clock in

the brain synchronizes all clocks to a 24-hour schedule, and this resets every 24 hours. Therefore,

all body clocks, including those located in the musculoskeletal system, are looking for 24-hour

schedules and rhythms. Taking 72 hours off on the weekend or training on Friday evening and not

again until Monday evening confuses the bodys internal clocks, which are accustomed to training
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a certain time and then again the next day at that time, or resting.

Intersession timing tools such as intraset and interset rest periods are effective for developing muscle strength and power and

promoting recovery during sessions, but intermittent rest days are needed for full recovery between training sessions. However,

full rest and recovery days are still necessary and the standard recommendation is 48 hours of rest following high-intensity

resistance training. Research shows that muscles need this time to return to baseline strength. Alternating days or every other 48

hours for high-intensity resistance training and cardiovascular exercise or rest is suggested for optimal results.

The focus of rehydration during recovery should be to arrive at the next training or competitive event in a state of euhydration.

Proper hydration is essential for recovery, since arriving in a hypohydrated state may lead to performance decrements due to the

loss of blood volume, which contributes to hyperthermia and a degraded ability to deliver oxygen and nutrients to working

muscles. Sodium loss is also an important consideration, and ingesting sodium through meals or supplementation after exercise

will assist in fluid retention and stimulate thirst. Dehydration contributes to increased core body temperature, potentially leading to

worsened perceptions of muscle soreness. Poor rehydration practices after exercise may affect the autonomic nervous system,

which controls various aspects of recovery such as stress, sleep, digestion, blood pressure, and heartbeat. Proper hydration

during recovery may positively affect a client’s ability to relax between training sessions or bouts of competition.

Proper hydration during and after exercise can enhance hormonal responses to aid recovery. Exercise-induced dehydration

increases catabolism and decreases anabolism, leading to reduced testosterone, increased cortisol, and altered carbohydrate and

fat metabolism. The risk of hypohydration is associated with various types of activities, affecting an individual’s hydration status

and overall performance.

In addition to proper rehydration, coaches and trainers should also educate their clients

on the importance of proper clothing and equipment to reduce risk of dehydration and

heat-related illnesses. Encouraging clients to wear light-colored, breathable clothing and

to stay in shaded areas or use sunscreen can also help reduce the risk of dehydration and

heatstroke. Coaches and trainers should also monitor their clients closely during training

and competition to ensure they are properly hydrating and showing no signs of dehydration

or heat-related illnesses. Overall, proper hydration and management of environmental factors

are essential in ensuring the safety and success of clients participating in high-risk team

sports.
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Clients participating in longer endurance events are at a higher risk for dehydration due to prolonged activity resulting in higher

sweat and sodium losses. Performance decrements are also well documented in longer events. Body mass loss due to sweating

can result in decreased aerobic performance and illness, with clients recommended to drink enough to prevent body mass loss in

excess of 2 percent. Endurance events with higher dehydration risks include marathons, ultramarathons, and long-distance

activities such as cycling and running. Rehydration should be gradual, preferably with electrolyte-containing beverages.

Supplementation may be required for clients with high sweat sodium concentration. Exercise-associated hyponatremia, a rare but

dangerous condition, presents with symptoms similar to dehydration.

MAGNESIUM

The mineral magnesium has a large role in the nervous system. This is also the mechanism

that it affects when it comes to sleep and recovery. Magnesium has been found to increase

the bodys natural melatonin production, expedite growth and healing, reduce symptoms

of anxiety and depression (which can prevent sleep), and ease the neural communication

between the brain stem and hypothalamus to allow for the transitions between wake and

sleep. For athletes and active individuals, magnesium has a role in learning, memory, and

neural synaptic plasticityall factors affecting both recovery and performance.

The recommended daily intake (RDI) of magnesium is between 30 and 420 milligrams, based

on age and pregnancy status. However, research has determined that doses of 1252,500

milligrams daily are required for maximum sleep and recovery benefit. While this may seem

high, toxicity symptoms do not present with magnesium unless the doses exceed 5,000

milligrams per day for an extended period of time. Excess beyond the bodys needs and

capacity is filtered out by the kidneys for excretion.

Topical magnesium is becoming more prevalent to help reduce side effects related to

gastrointestinal distress.

TRYPTOPHAN

This essential amino acid is key for the growth of infants and, in adults, the synthesis and

maintenance of proteins, neurotransmitters, and enzymes. It is naturally found in poultry,

yogurt, eggs, fish, bananas, oats, tofu, pumpkin seeds, and cheeses but can be supplemented

as well. In recent years, foods such as infant formula, corn tortillas, and rice have been

fortified or genetically modified to increase their tryptophan content.

When supplemented, it comes in the isomer form of L-tryptophan. In large quantities, like

after a huge turkey dinner, tryptophan can promote non-REM sleep. However, when taken
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er doses for recovery, tryptophan has been found to help lower an individuals core

temperature, making it easier to fall and stay asleep. IN the brain, tryptophan is metabolized

into serotonin.

Regarding recovery, uninterrupted sleep is key for the stages of muscle repair and energy

system replenishment. Some research suggests it can also enhance moods and combat the

symptoms of anxiety and depression, but studies are ongoing.

It should be noted that tryptophan supplementation should be approved by a physician, the

dosing should be carefully determined and adhered to, and tryptophan supplementation is

not recommended for pregnant women.

Flexibility in recovery is essential and can be achieved through stretching, which increases blood flow and circulation, reduces

muscle tension, and promotes joint mobility. Greater blood flow before and after activity also warms the body, provides necessary

nutrition, and promotes metabolic by-product clearance which improves muscle repair and reduces symptoms of fatigue.

Recovery techniques such as stretching, fascial therapies, and massage can reduce muscle soreness and lower performance

decrement. While stretching alone is less effective, dynamic and static stretching immediately after exercise improves range of

motion for up to 30 minutes. Different recovery therapies compound to provide the most effective recovery including stretching,

massage, cold therapies, and other fascial therapies. Studies have shown that reducing muscle soreness and perceived fatigue

can lead to extended workout time and intensity, resulting in chronic performance enhancements.

Fascial therapy and stretching are a good combination.

One study found that when applied for up to 10 minutes, joint range of motion was

improved by 6.2 percent with static stretching, with a minimal effect from foam rolling

alone, but by 9.1 percent when stretching and foam rolling were done together.

Muscle pliability is the amount of a muscle tissues give or movement. The more pliable

muscles are, the easier it is for them to move, stretch, and recover from bouts of activity.

When muscles become more pliable with the use of recovery techniques, proper nutrition,

and hydration, the hard, dense muscle tissue becomes softer, more movable, and more

capable of contracting with greater force once recovered.

Research suggests that whether recovery and muscle pliability techniques are completed

immediately after the activity or sport, or within 48 hours, the benefits for recovery and
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ormance improvements are comparable. Muscle pliability and power production are

increased while the subjective occurrence of muscle soreness is reduced.

Flexibility training promotes an ideal range of motion at one or more joints, which in turn can

improve a clients resisted range of motionthe range of motion accomplished at a joint

while a load is imposed on the joint movement. An example is when a physical therapist

applies pressure downward on the hand while a client attempts to perform a biceps curl. The

resisted range of motion can be limited as the load applied increases.

Full range of motion during resistance training leads to greater muscle damage and increased subjective sensations of soreness

compared to partial resisted range of motion, which can support a heavier load. Despite this, full range of motion training, when

done with appropriate loads and repetitions, can result in greater hypertrophy specifically in lower-body musculature. Research

supports these findings.

Active Isolated Stretching

Active isolated stretching (AIS) is a method where one holds each stretch for two to

three seconds then repeats it, going a little further in depth with each hold as the

muscle fibers lengthen. About 8 to 10 repetitions are completed per joint. AIS has

been found to expedite recovery time and increase range of motion

Self-myofascial release (SMR) is a technique that applies intense pressure to overactive tissue and uses autogenic inhibition to

release the excitability of targeted tissue. It can increase short-term flexibility and is ideal to use before and after training. Before

exercise, SMR facilitates optimal length-tension relationships and increases range of motion, while after exercise, SMR aids in

returning muscle fibers back to their optimal length and prevents the formation of tissue adhesions. SMR can be performed on

nearly any region of the body except the lumbar spine, which lacks external protection, and the application of pressure directly to

the spine is contra-indicated.

In the pursuit of maximum performance and physical strength, athletes, coaches, and fitness enthusiasts place too little emphasis

on the importance of sleep. The average amount of sleep has decreased by two hours per night compared to previous

generations. Both avoidable and inevitable factors such as screens, caffeine, alcohol, and medication can compromise the quality

and length of sleep. Understanding the stages, benefits, and physiology of sleep are crucial to physical recovery, and knowing
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to get more and better sleep and how sleep affects exercise is essential to achieving optimal performance.

Sleep is important for many bodily processes, including brain waste clearance and cognitive function, and is regulated by the

circadian rhythm. Circadian rhythm is a 24-hour cycle of cellular signaling that regulates the daily functioning of organs through a

centralized control system and is affected by environmental factors. Disruption of the circadian rhythm can lead to hormonal

imbalances, cardiovascular disorders, and metabolic diseases. Restoring regular sleep-wake cycles, regulating feeding times, and

engaging in physical exercise can restore dysregulated circadian rhythms and prevent adverse outcomes to major organ systems.

External cues such as light and dark cycles are not necessary for individuals to acclimate to a normal 24-hour sleep-wake rhythm.

sleep cycle 90 minutes and exercise improve sleep quality

The body’s circadian rhythm impacts which genes are expressed or suppressed and can determine whether DNA methylation

causes healthy growth or diseases. Other epigenetic processes also play a role in gene regulation during sleep. Research is still

in its early stages for many of these processes. Sleep disturbances increase the risks for depression and inflammation, which can

lead to social and medical problems.

Hormones play a significant role in regulating sleep. Some hormones such as melatonin, GH, prolactin, ADH, and oxytocin are

primarily released during sleep. Hormones such as ghrelin, leptin, insulin, aldosterone, and cortisol fall out of balance with

insufficient sleep and can cause problems. The circadian rhythm of the body affects the typical cycle of these hormones. Shift

workers like first responders, nurses, and hospital physicians experience hormonal changes due to intense light, which affects

their sleep and restfulness, causing grogginess, trouble falling asleep, disrupted sleep, and low immunity.

Sleep hygiene, or healthy sleep habits, is crucial for recovery and growth in athletes. Adults should aim for 7-9 hours of sleep,

while adolescents need more to promote growth and development. Eight hours of continuous, deep sleep is optimal, but this is

different from tossing and turning or having an inconsistent sleep schedule. Three factors must be considered for analyzing the

relationship between sleep, performance, and recovery: sleep length, sleep phase, and sleep quality. Going to bed at the same

time each night and improving sleep quality are essential for maximizing the benefits of sleep hygiene.
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The University of California San Diego Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine offers ten strategies to improve

sleep hygiene, which is crucial for individuals to get at least eight hours of sleep in a 24-hour cycle. The strategies include

avoiding going to bed until sleepy, establishing regular bedtime routines, getting up at the same time every morning, avoiding

naps during the day, using the bed for sleep and intimacy only, avoiding caffeine, alcohol, and smoking, considering avoiding

high-intensity exercises before bedtime, and ensuring the bedroom is quiet, dark, and cool. The goal is to avoid sleep deprivation

and benefit physical and cognitive performance, especially during intense training phases or adolescence.

Improving sleep hygiene can be achieved through various strategies such as avoiding devices that suppress melatonin two hours

before bed, considering a new mattress if it is old, avoiding sleeping with the TV on, using magnesium supplements, maintaining a

cool room temperature with warm hands and feet, drinking tart cherry juice before bed, avoiding pressing the snooze button, and

meditating or practicing mindfulness for 15 to 20 minutes before bed. These strategies can help individuals achieve better quality

sleep and improve their overall health.

MASSAGE AND CHRONIC CONDITIONS

Massage has been found to help reduce not only injury risk but also the risk of chronic

diseases, including hypertension, heart disease, and stress-related issues of disordered

sleep, tension headaches, anxiety, and depression. At their core, each of these conditions

is related to tension in the bodytension on the blood vessels, tension in the muscles

that cover the skull, and tension in the upper back and neck that lead to poor posture

and discomfort. Even the act of sitting for extended periods can lead to muscle tension.

This extends beyond the obvious hip flexor issues and weak glutes. Considering the spinal

erectors, trapezoids, rhomboids, and scalenes, all are affected and altered due to excessive

sitting. Excess muscle tension can also greatly reduce the supply of blood moved throughout

the body due to the pressure placed on the vessels of the circulatory system.

Common chronic sports injuries that massage can address include

¢ tennis elbow

¢ golfers elbow

¢ plantar fasciitis

¢ hamstring strains / tendinopathy

¢ ankle sprain

¢ rotator cuff injury

¢ shin splints
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heel inflammation

¢ groin pull

Many of these injuries are related to excessive tension and repeated improper technique.

For this reason they often present in individuals who perform cyclic activitiesthose with

repeated movement patterns such as cycling, running, and swimming.

Tension headaches are caused by muscle tension, particularly in the upper back and neck, which can migrate to the muscles of

the skull. This muscular tension puts pressure on the occipital nerve and temporomandibular joint, as well as the vertebral artery

that supplies blood to the posterior side of the brain, leading to sensations of headaches or tension in the eyes, temple, or jaw.

Tension headaches are also linked to higher blood pressure due to their effects on the vertebral artery and other blood vessels.

MASSAGE FOR MUSCLE IMBALANCE

A final important role of massage therapies is to reduce and prevent muscle imbalances. It

addresses both muscular tension and fascia throughout the body. During exercise, seemingly

simple muscle imbalance can equate to larger issues when it comes to the body evenly

distributing weight. For example, a loaded barbell weighing 195 pounds is placed on a

medical scale with the center of the barbell directly balanced on the platform. The scale

reads 195 pounds. When the bar is moved a few inches to the left or the right, the reading

changes. It will read less than 195 pounds. This small shift simulates a muscle imbalance,

which causes one side of the barbell to be heavier than the other.

When relating this example to a barbell back squat, the discrepancy becomes clear. If a

client has unaddressed muscle tension in their left trapezoid muscle, their left shoulder will

be altered. Essentially, depending on the severity, the entire left side of the body may be

altered as well. In many cases, a visual difference in shoulder height may be observed. Then,

a barbell can be added in the high bar position (sitting on the traps). The elevated or tense

left side shifts the barbell and its load toward the right side of the body. Should the client

shift their weight to accommodate, they are creating more of an imbalance. However, should

they squat following their presently altered movement pattern, they will be lifting more load

with the right leg than with the left without noticing. A compensation is forced to occur due

to the imbalance in the upper back.

While certified personal trainers, corrective exercise specialists, and other fitness

professionals can and should be looking for and identifying muscle and movement imbalances

and dysfunction, not all will be easy to spot. Implementing medical massage on the entire

body (with a focus on the areas that need extra work) can simply work to prevent or minimize
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muscle imbalances that may not be overtly identified. The benefits of this recovery

technique are twofold: stress management and relaxation and the elimination of potentially

harmful static disturbances throughout the body that can lead to movement imbalance and

dysfunction.

Massage therapy utilizes the nervous system to activate mechanoreceptors in the body. These receptors send signals to the

central nervous system, providing feedback on the environment and sensations such as pain and temperature. Massage involves

compressing sensory organs to send signals to the brain and spinal cord, resulting in vasodilation, increased blood supply, and

muscular relaxation. The legs typically carry more tension due to their mass and workload during movement, and muscular

tension can lead to reduced performance and increased injuries. Therefore, it is essential to focus on lower body relaxation and

massage to help prevent these issues, even if symptoms manifest in the upper body.

The amount of pressure used during massage can affect the outcome of therapy. Clients need to be educated on ideal pressure

during self-massage. Excessive pressure can cause pain, muscle spasms, and does not promote muscle relaxation. Gradual

pressure can elicit a relaxation response, allowing deeper layers of muscle tissue to be accessed. Ideal pressure releases

acetylcholine and may border on pain, but gradually increasing pressure can increase the pain threshold and promote deeper

relaxation. This positive neural change allows pressure to reach deeper layers of muscle tissue.

DID YOU KNOW:

Did you know massage therapists keep their hands touching the skin during a treatment?

Not only are they moving deoxygenated blood back toward the heart, they are applying

constant pressure (when possible) to continuously stimulate the mechanoreceptors that

generate the muscular relaxation response. The more connected to the skin and the longer

the strokes of the massage therapist, the better the vasodilation, blood flow, and muscular

relaxation is.

Preventing muscle soreness is a key goal of pre- and post-exercise massages, which research has shown is not caused by lactic

acid buildup. Instead, vigorous activity can cause microtears in muscle tissue and leave behind biological debris, which phagocytic

cells work to clear through a process called phagocytosis. However, when these cells are allowed to stay in the tissue too long,

they can become a detriment. Postexercise massages starting at two hours after cessation can help prevent this buildup.
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Muscle strain can cause inflammation and pain and can result from unprotected athletic movements or repetitive use, leading to

altered range of motion in the attached ligaments and increased susceptibility to trauma, tearing, and sprain. Soreness is

transient, but pain can last longer and signal that something is wrong due to insufficient blood supply, leading to an immune

response with histamine increasing capillary permeability. Histamine can cause the buildup of fluids and lymph (lymphedema) if

not effectively cleared, making self-massage for recovery with kneading motion important to promote blood flow and lymph flow to

prevent lymphedema after strenuous activity or exercise.

The pre-event massage aims to increase muscle tone and prevent injury by using a fast and vigorous pace of about 100

movements per minute for around 30 minutes. This massage focuses on the tendons and musculotendinous junctions and works

to release acetylcholine, which promotes faster muscle contraction. Additionally, it increases blood flow to the muscles and

delivers more glucose, resulting in a reduction in muscle fatigue and faster by-product clearance. The pre-event massage should

be done before a warm-up and should be allowed 15-45 minutes of passage time before competing or exercising.

Post-event rehabilitative massage is a technique that aims to reduce muscle tension and fatigue, increase blood supply and

promote the flow of nutrients to muscle tissues. The massage is performed about two hours after activity, allowing natural

inflammation response to occur. This technique keeps neutrophil levels low by preventing them from migrating to tissues, causing

excessive soreness. The most effective hand movement for this technique is kneading at a rate of about 60-70 movements per

minute. A full-body massage can take about 40-50 minutes, but it is worth the effort to prevent muscle soreness and aid recovery.

Massage can be done with or without lotions and oils for lubrication, which can make the hand motions easier to perform and

reduce the risk of skin irritation or breakage. When using lubrication, it is recommended to use specific sports massage creams

like Bioderma or CryoDerm, which are formulated to be less greasy. For pre-event massage, it is important to wash the skin well

before the sport or activity to remove excess oils and lotions that can prevent natural sweating and cooling mechanisms.

Ischemic compression is a massage technique that involves the use of pinpoint compression to deliberately block blood flow to an

area, so that when the pressure is released, a resurgence of blood flow in the localized area will occur. To apply the pressure, the

muscle should be stretched and pressure can be applied with fingers or tools such as TheraCane or a massage hook. The

pressure should be firm but not painful, increasing as the subjective pain level goes down, with brief periods of rest in between,

and followed by self-massage to encourage blood flow and waste clearance.

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Ice massage is a recovery technique that involves using a large piece of ice to gently massage the target area. It is more effective

than ice packs as it stimulates the brain to increase arterial blood flow to the region and is best used after manual massage. It is

important to protect the skin by applying little to no pressure and a constant circular movement of the ice. Icing for no more than 5

to 10 minutes at a time and repeating every two hours is recommended. Direct application of ice packs for 30 minutes may cause

sores on the skin as it can quickly increase in temperature against warm skin, rendering it less useful. It can also cause nerve

damage when applied on uncushioned body regions like the knee.

The neck and upper back can become tense due to daily activities and repeated movement patterns, leading to chronic health

issues. A self-massage technique for the back of the neck, specifically the splenius capitis muscle and its overlaying fascia, can

help alleviate this tension. The muscle originates at the nuchal ligament and the spinous process of the seventh cervical vertebrae

and inserts at the mastoid process of the temporal bone, and is responsible for extending, laterally flexing, and rotating the head.

It is important to avoid massaging directly on the cervical spine when performing this technique.

Active recovery is a low-intensity exercise that helps the body recover from high-intensity workouts by improving blood flow to

muscles and flushing out unwanted metabolites. Prolonged high-intensity workouts can lead to lactate and hydrogen ions

accumulating at high levels, increasing the acidity of muscle cells and slowing down the metabolic pathway. Active recovery

strategies include cool-downs and low-level exercises like swimming, walking, or yoga for less than 30 minutes. It is considered

safe and effective for reducing lactate levels, aiding in the healing process, and reducing the effects of DOMS. There are no

definitive rules for the time or intensity of active recovery exercise.

Aquatic exercise is a low-impact form of exercise that is popular for both training and recovery. It provides resistance that builds

endurance, strengthens muscles, and improves cardiovascular fitness. Traditional swimming is categorized by intensity level, but

rest periods should vary based on individual goals and fitness levels. Other aquatic exercises include resistance training, spinning,

walking/jogging, and stretching, using various props like treadmills, bikes, weights, and more. The type of exercise chosen should

depend on desired intensity and intended use.

Cryotherapy is a type of therapy that involves using cold therapy to speed up recovery between intense bouts of exercise. Cold

therapy can include different methods such as ice packs, cold showers, and cryotherapy chambers and can offer a variety of

benefits such as reducing pain, inflammation, and muscle soreness. Whole-body cryotherapy is a recent and popular form of

cryotherapy that involves exposing an individual for two to five minutes in a chamber with dry, cold air of -100´C to -140´C to
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hieve the same benefits as localized cryotherapy. Localized cryotherapy is another form of cryotherapy that offers the same

benefits but targets a specific area under the same cold conditions and is commonly used in populations that are not able to

endure a whole-body treatment.

Contrast water therapy is a popular recovery strategy used by athletes that involves alternating cold and warm water immersion.

Common protocols include intervals of one minute at 10´C12´C and two minutes at 38´C40´C, for a total of three to five

cycles. This method is thought to decrease edema by alternating peripheral vasoconstriction and vasodilation and potentially

assists recovery by altering tissue temperature and blood flow, reducing muscle spasm, and improving range of motion.

Whole-body vibration (WBV) was created in the 1800s and has been used to improve health and wellness. It has been

researched and found to be effective in increasing muscular strength, improving blood and lymph flow, and stimulating bone

growth. It was used by the Soviet space program in the 1960s to prevent muscle and bone loss in zero gravity. Smaller and more

affordable vibrating devices have become popular to improve strength and recover from exercise. There are two types of vibration

therapies, local vibration (LV) and WBV, which have different effects on the targeted muscles. Devices claim to improve blood

flow, range of motion, performance and reduce muscle pain. The mechanical and neurophysiological effects of vibration work by

improving the viscoelastic properties of the muscle and stimulating sensory afferents affiliated with the stretch reflex. Research

shows that vibration lowers the pain-pressure threshold and reduces delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) more quickly

following resistance exercise. Vibration treatment also results in an acute increase in range of motion.

Whole-body vibration therapy has been found to increase muscular strength, blood flow, lymph flow, and stimulate bone growth. It

has been used by the Soviet space program to prevent muscle and bone loss in zero gravity. There are two types of vibration

therapies, local vibration and WBV. Devices claim to improve blood flow, range of motion, performance, and reduce muscle pain.

WBV has been found to increase blood flow and muscle temperature, which can help recovery by increasing oxygen and nutrient

delivery needed for repair. It has also been theorized to trigger the tonic vibration reflex, which increases muscle spindle activity.

The ideal frequency for an effective muscle contraction is between 30 and 50 Hz. Local vibration therapy allows for targeted relief

and focus on recovery or muscle performance. The vibration gun and vibration plate are the two most common local devices.

Massage therapy can be done by a licensed therapist or by a client themselves with guidance on specific techniques. Trigger

point therapy is a commonly used term in massage therapy but there is still debate on what exactly a trigger point is and how it

should be identified and treated. There are two types of trigger points: active and latent. Trigger points are thought to be caused

by continuous contraction of muscle fibers, which can lead to muscle damage if left untreated. Trigger point therapy involves

applying pressure to the specific taut and painful area until the tissue relaxes and proper blood flow is restored. Therapy may
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be repeated for a few weeks depending on the underlying cause of the trigger point.

Assisted stretching is a form of stretching performed by a licensed therapist or doctor that involves holding a joint at its end range

of motion for at least 30 seconds. It is particularly beneficial for those who may not be able to stretch properly on their own due to

stiff muscles. Regular stretching, which can be done daily, is an important part of overall fitness and can help prevent muscle

imbalances and improve muscle performance. Certain muscles such as the hamstrings, iliopsoas, and pecs tend to be prone to

tightness, which can cause joint instability or affect body alignment. Maintaining optimal muscle length can help prevent injury and

improve overall muscle performance.

After sorting through the science, the general conclusions on pre-exercise meals are that

CHO-rich foods with a moderate amount of protein 60 minutes ahead of activity are most

effective for improving performance. Research that found the largest effect on performance

recommends between 1 and 2 grams of CHO per kilogram of body weight and between 0.5

and 1 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight. For an average 150-pound person,

that equates to 2857 grams of protein and 57114 grams of carbohydrates to improve

exercise performancea consistent 2:1 carbohydrate-to-protein ratio. A high-fat meal prior to

exercise has not been found to affect performance (negatively or positively) and is generally

not recommended.

The postexercise nutrition needs for someone restarting activity within four hours of finishing

a bout (e.g., a soccer player starting a second match two hours after completing the first

in a tournament) will differ from someone who ends activity and is able to allow time for

recovery (e.g., a soccer player finishing a match with no subsequent match that day). For

those requiring rapid glycogen restoration, the recommendation is 0.81.2 grams CHO per

kilogram (0.360.55 grams per pound) of body weight (with a preference toward higher¿glycemic index options) combined with

0.20.4 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight

(0.10.18 grams per pound), between a 3:1 and 4:1 carbohydrate-to-protein ratio. This

aggressive postexercise CHO loading will quickly restore glycogen levels, while the presence

of amino acids will encourage the initiation of muscle repair.

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weight in kg) + 4.799 ˆ (height in cm) 5.677 ˆ (age) + 88.362

Women = 9.24 ˆ (weight in kg) + 3.098 ˆ (height in cm) 4.330 ˆ (age) + 447.593

” The Katch-McArdle formula can also be used to take lean body mass into account:

BMR = 370 + (21.6 x Lean Body Mass [kg])

To calculate lean body mass:

Men: LBM = 0.407 x weight [kg] + 0.267 x height [cm] - 19.2

Women: LBM = 0.252 x weight [kg] + 0.473 x height [cm] - 48.3