Image: Blocken et al.

(2012)

Prof.dr.ir. Bert Blocken

MODULE QUESTION
Which statement is correct?
A) Errors are assessed by verification, and uncertainties by validation
B) Errors are assessed by validation, and uncertainties by verification
C) Both errors and uncertainties are assessed by verification
D) Both errors and uncertainties are assessed by validation
LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR MODULE 6

At the end of this module, you will:

• Understand errors and uncertainty in CFD
• Understand verification and validation
Importance of accuracy and reliability in CFD

“The consequences of inaccurate CFD results are at best wasted time, money and
efforts, and at worst catastrophic failure of components, structures or machines.”
(Versteeg & Malalasekera 2007)
Definitions of error and uncertainty (AIAA 1998; Oberkampf & Trucano 2002; Versteeg
& Malalasekera 2007):

Error: a recognizable deficiency in a CFD model that is not caused by lack of knowledge.
Uncertainty: a potential deficiency in a CFD model that is caused by lack of knowledge.
Definitions of error and uncertainty (AIAA 1998; Oberkampf & Trucano 2002; Versteeg
& Malalasekera 2007):

Error: a recognizable deficiency in a CFD model that is not caused by lack of knowledge.
Causes or errors are:
1. Numerical errors
1. Round-off errors
2. Iterative convergence errors
3. Discretization errors
2. Coding errors: mistakes or “bugs” in the software
3. User errors: human errors due to incorrect use of the software
Definitions of error and uncertainty (AIAA 1998; Oberkampf & Trucano 2002; Versteeg
& Malalasekera 2007):

Uncertainty: a potential deficiency in a CFD model that is caused by lack of knowledge.

Main sources of uncertainty are:
1. Input uncertainty: inaccuracies due to limited information or approximate
representation of geometry, boundary conditions, etc.
2. Physical model uncertainty: discrepancies between real flows and CFD due to
inadequate representation of physical processes (e.g. turbulence) or due to simplifying
assumptions in the modeling process (e.g. steady flow).
Coding errors: responsibility of the code developer / vendor, not of the user
User errors: should be reduced or eliminated by adequate training and experience
Roundoff errors: the difference between an approximation of a number used in
computation and its exact (correct) value. It is due to the representation of real numbers
by a finite number of significant digits (= machine accuracy).
Example: use of gauge pressure in CFD relative to a specified based pressure 
ensures that pressure values within the domain are of same order as the pressure
difference driving the flow.

Absolute pressure = 101325 Pa

+ gauge pressure (at MSL)
Iterative convergence errors:
• The numerical solution of a flow problem requires an iterative process of solving the
discretized algebraic equations.
• Due to limitations in computer power and time, the iteration sequence will be stopped
when the solution is sufficiently close to the final solution.
• Iterative convergence error = difference between given solution and solution that
would be obtained after infinite number of iterations.
Iterative convergence errors:
• Truncation of iterative process often occurs based on so-called residuals and a limit for
those residuals.
• Let the discretized equation for general flow variable  at grid cell i be given by:

( Φ ) Φ +

The final solution (after an infinite number of iterations) will satisfy:

Φ + ( Φ ) 0
Iterative convergence errors:
• The final solution (after an infinite number of iterations) will satisfy:

Φ + ( Φ ) 0

• However, after “k” iterations, the final solution will not yet have been attained, so:

Φ + ( Φ ) 0
Iterative convergence errors:
• The difference is called the local residual (for grid cell i):

Φ Φ + ( Φ )

• The global residual is the sum of the local residuals over all M grid cells:

Φ Φ + ( Φ )
Iterative convergence errors:
• Residual is often normalized: scaled residual.
• Be careful with pre-set residual thresholds / limits in CFD codes: these are often not
sufficiently stringent! Often, it is needed to reduce these limits.
Discretization errors:
• Control of the magnitude and distribution of discretization errors by careful and high-
quality grid design is a major concern in CFD.
• Requires care, time and ingenuity to balance high-quality and low discretization
errors on the one hand and feasible grid size on the other hand.

Blocken et al. (2012) van Hooff & Blocken (2010)

Discretization errors:
• Control of the magnitude and distribution of discretization errors by careful and high-
quality grid design is a major concern in CFD.
• Requires care, time and ingenuity to balance high-quality and low discretization
errors on the one hand and feasible grid size on the other hand.
• Estimating discretization error, Richardson extrapolation and uniform reporting of
grid-convergence studies: see Module 4.
• Additional guidelines: see later in this module.
Input uncertainty:
• Domain geometry: often simplified to a certain degree
Input uncertainty:
• Boundary conditions:
• Cut-off of domain
• Sometimes boundaries that are not present
in reality
• Boundary conditions also often simplified
• Special care needed
Physical model uncertainty (Versteeg & Malalasekera 2007):
• Limited accuracy or lack of validity of submodels
• RANS with turbulence models
• LES with sub-grid scale models
• Turbulence model constants
• Wall functions
• …

• Limited accuracy or lack of simplifying assumptions

• Steady versus transient
• 2D versus 3D
• Incompressible versus compressible
• …
Verification and validation (AIAA 1998; Oberkampf & Trucano 2002; Versteeg &
Malalasekera 2007):

Verification:
• The process of determining that a model implementation accuracy represents the
developer’s conceptual description of the model and the solution to the model.
• “Solving the equations right” (Roache 1998)
• Quantifying the errors

Validation:
• The process of determining the degree to which a model is an accurate representation
of the real world from the perspective of the intended uses of the model.
• “Solving the right equations” (Roache 1998)
• Quantifying the uncertainty
Verification and validation (AIAA 1998; Oberkampf & Trucano 2002; Versteeg &
Malalasekera 2007):

Verification:
• Estimation of discretization error: systematic refinement of grid and time steps with
monotonic reduction of discretization error on at least two but preferably three
successive levels of grid refinements.

(Ramponi & Blocken, 2012)

Verification and validation (AIAA 1998; Oberkampf & Trucano 2002; Versteeg &
Malalasekera 2007):

Validation:
• Estimation of input uncertainty: by sensitivity analysis and uncertainty analysis
• Estimation of physical modeling uncertainty: by comparison of CFD results with
high-quality experimental results

Oberkampf & Trucano (2002): meaningful validation is only possible after good
quantitative estimates have been obtained of:
(i) All numerical errors
(ii) Input uncertainty
(iii) Uncertainty of experimental data used for validation
MODULE QUESTION
Which statement is correct?
A) Errors are assessed by verification, and uncertainties by validation
B) Errors are assessed by validation, and uncertainties by verification
C) Both errors and uncertainties are assessed by verification
D) Both errors and uncertainties are assessed by validation
In this module, we have learned about:
• Errors and uncertainty in CFD
• Verification and validation
In the next module, we will focus on:
• Best practice guidelines
Image: Blocken et al. (2012)

Prof.dr.ir. Bert Blocken