GROUNDWATER FLOW IN SHALLOW AQUIFER AT

THE MADINA AREA, GREATER ACCRA.

BY

SUNU, CECIL EDEM

10242126
Email: sunukocedem@yahoo.com

A Thesis Submitted to the Department of Earth Sciences

In partial fulfillment of requirements for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of
Science In Geology

©May, 2012
 CERTIFICATION

I hereby declare that this submission is my own work towards the BSc and that, to the best of my
knowledge, it contains no material previously published by another person nor material which
has been accepted for the award of any other degree of the University, except where due
acknowledgement has been made in the text.

Certified by:

SUNU, CECIL EDEM ……………………. ……………….

(Student) (Signature) (Date)

DR. MARK SANDOW YIDANA ..………………. ..……………..

(Supervisor) (Signature) (Date)

DR. P.M. NUDE …………………… ……………….

(Head of Department) (Signature) (Date)

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 DEDICATION

To my parents and siblings for their continuous support.

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TABLE OF CONTENT
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 ABSTRACT

Industrialization, urbanization and many other economic responses to development in major

cities throughout the world have placed much stress on the groundwater system in these areas.

Madina; one of the major business centers in the Accra metropolis is no exception.

There is a rapid increase in population in this area such that the conventional water treatment

facility thus, cannot meet the potable water demands of residents.

Individuals have resorted therefore to managing their own water supplies and one of such resorts

is to develop and harness groundwater resources through drilling of individual boreholes.

A conceptual model of a high level of accuracy has been developed to monitor the flow

dynamics of the area and to estimate the essential aquifer parameters of the catchment area. The

objective of the model constructed were to examine and analyze the general groundwater flow

pattern in the shallow aquifer systems in the area, estimate groundwater recharge in the local area

of study and to determine the spatial distribution of the hydraulic conductivity parameter through

model calibration.

The flow pattern was determined to be generally from Northeast to South-southwest. The

groundwater recharge from precipitation to the area was determined to vary from 0.0001m/d to

0.0003m/d resulting in a mean recharge of 9.1% of the total annual precipitation.

The hydraulic conductivity was determined to range from 1.13m/d for the least permeable

segments to 16.88m/d for the most permeable segments with an average of 7.5m/d.

With the current rate of extraction, speculations can be made of the sustainability of the shallow

aquifers of the Madina area to a fair degree of certainty.

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The model suggests an upper limit of extraction of 0.01m3/d beyond which the model would

collapse and render some wells unprolific.

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Showing the necessary data collected and processed………………………………..27
Table 2: Location data and abstraction rates of the pumping wells imposed…………………35

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: District map of Accra…………………………………………………………….12
Figure 1.2: Map showing the distribution of wells sampled at the study area……………….13
Figure 1.3: Geologic map of Accra…………………………………………………………..15
Figure 4.1: Calibrated model………………………………………………………………....27
Figure 4.2: A match between the model calibrated and the observed heads…………………28
Figure 4.3: Hydraulic conductivity range of the calibrated model…………………………...29
Figure 4.4: Estimated groundwater recharge in the study area………………………………30
Figure 4.5: Effect of 5, 10, 15 and 20% increase and decrease in hydraulic conductivity…...32
Figure 4.6: A match between the computed head and the observed head after the percentage
decrease in hydraulic conductivity…………………………………………………………....32
Figure 4.7: Model remained fairly stable with variations in recharge………………………..33
Figure 4.8: Match between the computed head and the observed head after changes in the
recharge by 15, 20, 30 and 45%................................................................................................34
Figure 4.9: Model calibrated for fourteen (14) abstraction wells………………………….....35

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am sincerely grateful to my supervisor, Dr. Mark Sandow Yidana for his patience and fatherly

support throughout the writing of this thesis.

Am also grateful to my Teaching Assistants, Felix Oteng-Mensah and Millicent Obeng for

making information available to me and their assistance in working on my model.

To my group mates, I say thank you for your teamwork, tolerance and understanding.

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Water is among the most precious of natural resources. In many regions of the world, the

pressures of economic development are producing a surface-water scarcity. Yet in most places,

groundwater can be found within a relatively short distance below the ground surface.

The sustainability of groundwater utilization must be assessed from an interdisciplinary

perspective, where hydrology, ecology, geomorphology, and climatology play an important role.

In most climates of the world, precipitation, either rain or snow, and consequently peak runoff

corresponding to a significant part of the total discharge of the rivers, occur during a particular

season of the year which usually coincides with the smallest water demand. The water

development problem therefore consists of transferring water from the high supply season to the

high demand season.

On a global scale, groundwater represents the world’s largest and most important source of fresh

potable water (Harvey, 2004). However, in most of these countries both the quantity and quality

of this resource have been compromised by human activities. Of these, urban and industrial

development rank as the most serious. Urban and industrial development imposes a major stress

on the resource through increasing demand. Development can also release contaminants to the

subsurface where they have the potential to degrade groundwater quality and further limit its

utility. Taken together, these stresses can significantly increase water-supply costs and, without

timely intervention, can negatively affect human health.

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The sustainability of groundwater utilization must be assessed from an interdisciplinary

perspective, where hydrology, ecology, geomorphology, and climatology play an important role.

Generally, groundwater does not recharge as fast as surface water, with rates of groundwater

turnover varying from years to millennia depending on aquifer location, depth, properties and

connectivity (UNEP/WHO, 1996).

Excessive pumping can lead to groundwater depletion, where groundwater is extracted at a rate

faster that it can be replenished. The effects of excessive groundwater development tend to

become apparent gradually, with time often measured in decades. To be assured of sustainability,

studies must show that the hydrological, ecological, and other impacts of groundwater utilization

are minimal. In addition to water quantity, sustainability must imply the preservation of water

quality.

In order to use the underground reservoir to store a significant volume of water - possibly of the

same order of magnitude as the annual runoff - with the intent to use it at a later stage, it is

necessary to ascertain the potential storage capacity of the groundwater reservoir as well as its

suitability for being recharged by the surface water and for easily returning the stored water

when needed.

This condition requires accurate hydrogeological investigations including geological mapping,

geophysics and reconnaissance drilling, in order to determine the configuration and the storage

capacity of the underground reservoir.

The increasing acuteness of water scarcity problems, worldwide, requires the adoption of a

double approach of water supply management and water demand management.

Governments tend to consider river basins as water resources management units and as a spatial

basis for the formulation of water management strategies integrating all cross-sectorial issues

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such as water resources conservation, environment, water resources allocation, water demand

management, etc.

The conjunctive use of surface and groundwater is one of the strategies of water supply

management that has to be considered to optimize the water resources development,

management and conservation within a basin, and artificial recharge of aquifers is certainly one

of the tools to be used for that purpose (Edmunds, 2003).

The adoption of an integrated river basin management approach for elaborating policies and

strategies of water resources development, management and conservation would help consider

the water resources as one system and would avoid a water resources development approach

focused only on surface water. This approach also facilitates the management of the resource

itself, allowing a better understanding, by water users, of the hydrological issues involved.

Research is still needed, however, to understand better, and to quantify the role of watershed

management and particularly of soil and water conservation practices in the water cycle. The

development of GIS techniques could certainly help assess the overall water resources within a

river basin and the effect of various human interventions such as water conservation practices

over large areas, large dams or small dams. To meet the present and future challenges of

population expansion vis-à-vis the observed declining rainfall in most parts of Africa including

Ghana, it is necessary to assess, efficiently manage, and utilize the groundwater resources.

In Ghana, groundwater resources constitute the most viable solution to increasing rural water

supply problems and strenuous efforts are being made to assess national fortunes in terms of

these resources. There are indications that the future of the rural economy in these communities

depends on the ability of the government and communities to fully develop groundwater

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resources for irrigation. The increasing popularity of groundwater resources as the solution to the

water delivery system stems from the fact that the resources has certain features that make it

attractive as a source of potable water supply (Quist et al. 1988).

Aquifers underlie geographically large areas in the country and these can commonly be tapped at

shallow depths near water demand centers, even though rural settlements are widely dispersed.

Some of these aquifers have been fairly assessed and their characteristics are fairly known.

Water stored in aquifers is for the most part, protected naturally from evaporation and well yields

in many cases are adequate, offering water security to regions that are prone to protracted

droughts such as the Volta Basin region in Ghana. With adequate aquifer protection,

groundwater has an excellent microbiological and chemical quality and it therefore requires

minimal or no treatment. Also the capital cost of groundwater development as opposed to the

conventional methods of treating surface water is modest and the resource lends itself to flexible

development capable of being phased to meet rising demands. In view of the very important role

of groundwater resources in the socioeconomic development of the rural populations, there is the

need to investigate the hydrogeological properties of the main terrains that underlie the rural

communities in Ghana. The development and efficient management of groundwater resources

requires a good understanding of the hydrogeological properties of the rocks that form the major

aquifers in the rural areas.

In the Madina area, groundwater is being abstracted from shallow wells penetrating largely the

Togo rocks for various uses. Borehole drilling has been so rampant that drastic measures are

required to provide a decision support system for the effective management of this important

resource to ensure sustainability. A steady state groundwater flow model is being developed in

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this study as a first step towards devising an effective decision support system for the

management of groundwater resources in the area.

1.2 Objectives

The objective of this paper is to:

! Examine and analyze the general groundwater flow pattern in the shallow aquifer systems

in the area;

! Estimate groundwater recharge in the local area of study;

! Determine the spatial distribution of the hydraulic conductivity parameter through model

calibration.

1.3 Study Area

Madina is one of the densely populated urban cities in the Ga East Municipality and is an

economically vibrant area with high demand for domestic water supply.

The population of Madina, Ghana is 101,207 according to the GeoNames geographical

database. It is located at 5.6733 [latitude in decimal degrees], -0.1867 [longitude in decimal

degrees] at an elevation/altitude of 76 meters as can be seen in the Figure 1.2 below.

Due to the lack of an existing network of non-production monitoring boreholes in Ghana,

boreholes drilled for water production were used for observations. The selected site contains a

sufficient number of boreholes accessible for groundwater measurements. These boreholes

however do not have a pump installed.

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 Scale (1:10)

Study Area

Figure 1.1 District map of the study area.

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Figure 1.2 Map showing the distribution of wells sampled at the study area.

1.3.1 Climate

The district falls in the coastal-savannah agro-ecological zone and experiences two wet seasons.

The first rainy season begins in May and peaks in July while the second rainy season is from

September to October. The annual rainfall ranges between 740-890 mm and the mean annual

temperature is about 27"C. (Ghana District Assemblies, 2006). The highest rainfall of 166mm

for Accra in 2007 was in June whilst the lowest for the season was 66.1mm in October (Ghana

Metrological Agency, GMA, 2007). The highest temperature of 33"C was attained April 2007

whilst the lowest temperature of 28.5"C was recorded in July (GMA, 2007). The average relative

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humidity for Accra is 77%. The highest relative humidity of 83% for Accra was obtained in July

2007 with a value of 83% whilst the lowest was in January with a value of 57% (GMA, 2007).

1.3.2 Vegetation

The predominant vegetation type found in the district is of the short grass savannah interspersed

with shrubs and short trees, a characteristic of the Sub- Sahel in type. A large portion of

vegetation remains dry for most parts of the year particularly towards the south except for the

short rainy season.

Along some stream courses, however, higher vegetation type ranging from thickets to light forest

is common. Some light forest with tall trees is also found along the foothills of the Akwapim

Range especially around Dodowa, Ayikuma and Agomeda areas. There is a Forest and Game

and Wildlife Reserve around the Shai hills.

Large strands of Borassus Palm are found around the eastern portions of Dodowa and Ayikuma.

Isolated stands of baobab trees are common all over the plain. The study area in particular is a

residential area with the natural vegetation destroyed due to human settlement (Ministry of

Tourism, Government of Ghana, 2003).

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1.3.3 Geology and Hydrogeology

The Madina area form part of the basement complex and lies on the southern extension of the

Togo-Akwapim range that also extends far into northwestern Togo. The extension occupies an

irregular 5-50 km wide strip bordered on the west by thrust contacts against the Buem

Formation, on the east by thrust contacts with the Dahomeyan basement. The underlying rocks

are the Togo units. This unit of the Dahomeyides structural formation comprises Quartzitic

sandstones and quartzites that contain conglomeratic layers, and some quartzites are ferruginous.

(Kesse, 1985).

The Togo Series originally consisted of alternating arenaceous and argillaceous sediments, which

have been converted into phyllites, schists and quartzites except in few places, where unaltered

shales and sandstones occur. Quartzite, quartz-schist, sericite quartz schist, sericite schist and

phyllite are the predominant rocks, but hornstones, jaspers and hematite quartz-schists some of

which were formed after the deposition of the sediments also occur in the Togo Series (Junner

and Service, 1936).

N
Amartekope
(< 2 µg/l)

6°00'
Lawerkope
(5 µg/l)
Osuwem Gbese
(< 2 µg/l)
Tugakope
(< 2 µg/l)
Fantivikope

ICODEH Sch.

Mpewuhuasem
Nsuobri
Opa Alafia (< 2 µg/l)
5°45' Akunakope Dome Faase
(3 µg/l)
Sesemi (< 2 µg/l)
(3 µg/l)
Odontia Mayera Agbodzikope
Okortorbu (3 µg/l) (< 2 µg/l)
(< 2 µg/l) Gonten
Kwame Anum (< 2 µg/l)
(< 2 µg/l)
Gbolokope
(< 2 µg/l)
Olebu (< 2 µg/l) GEOLOGY
LEGEND
Recent
Domeabra Old Town
(< 2 µg/l) < 2 µg/l Tertiary
2 - 5 µg/l Accraian
Togo Series
5 - 10 µg/l
5°30' Acidic Dahomeyan
Trunk Road Basic Dahomeyan
0 20 40 Km.
Basic Intrusives
Regional Boundary
Granite

0°30' 0°15' 0°00' 0°15' 0°30'

Fig. 2. Geological map of Greater Accra Region showing arsenic levels in selected communities
Figure 1.3 Geologic map of Accra

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Overview

Groundwater is increasingly becoming the source of drinking water for inhabitants of both rural

and urban settlements due to intermittent water shortage, which has been hitting most parts of

cities. The United Nations declared 1981-1990 a water-and-sanitation decade (WHO, 1987). It

has been estimated that lack of clean drinking water and sanitation services leads to water-related

diseases globally and between five to ten million deaths occur annually, primarily of small

children (Snyder and Merson, 1982).

In Accra, the Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL), which is mandated to provide potable

water for the inhabitants of city and urban areas, is unable to supply adequate quantities due to

the ever-increasing population accentuated by inability to expand the infrastructure to cater for

the requirement of potable water.

Most places do not have pipelines and those who have do not have water flowing through their

taps for years. This has led to the people resorting to alternative means of getting water, such as

drilling boreholes.

2.2 Groundwater quality

Groundwater is actually a complex, generally dilute, chemical solution. The chemical

composition is derived mainly from the dissolution of minerals in the soil and rocks with which

it is or has been in contact. The type and extent of chemical contamination of the groundwater is

largely dependent on the geochemistry of the soil through which the water flows prior to

reaching the Aquifers (Zuane, 1990). The chemical alteration of the groundwater depends on

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several factors, such as interaction with solid phases, residence time of groundwater, seepage of

polluted runoff water, mixing of groundwater with pockets of saline water and anthropogenic

impacts (Stallord and Edmond, 1983; Dethier, 1988; Faure, 1998; Umar and Absar 2003; Umar

et al., 2006).

Groundwater in its natural state is generally of good quality. This is because rocks and their

derivatives such as soils act as filters. However, not all soils are equally effective in this respect

and therefore pathogens contained in human excreta such as bacteria and viruses are likely to be

small enough to be transmitted through the soil and aquifer matrix to groundwater bodies (Lewis

et al., 1982).

Rainfall is a dilute chemical solution and contributes significant proportions to some constituents

in groundwater, especially in regions with little soil cover where hard compact rocks occur at or

near the surface. As water flows through the ground the dissolution of minerals continues and the

concentration of dissolved constituents tends to increase with the length of the flow path. At

great depths, where the rate of flow is extremely slow, groundwater is saline, with concentrations

ranging up to ten times the salinity of the sea.

Groundwater may not be potable if it becomes polluted and is no longer safe to drink. In areas

where the material above the aquifer is permeable, pollutants can seep into groundwater. This is

particularly so in a fractured aquifer.

Quantity and quality demands of different users will not always be compatible, and the activities

of one user may restrict the activities of another, either by demanding water of a quality outside

the range required by the other user or by lowering quality during use of the water. Efforts to

improve or maintain a certain water quality often compromise between the quality and quantity

demands of different users.

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A wide range of natural and human influences affects water quality. The most important of the

natural influences are geological, hydrological and climatic, since these affect the quantity and

the quality of water available. Their influence is generally greatest when available water

quantities are low and maximum use must be made of the limited resource; for example, high

salinity is a frequent problem in arid and coastal areas.

2.3 Groundwater flow

Groundwater occurs in many different geological formations. Nearly all rocks in the earth’s crust

possess openings called pores or voids. In unconsolidated, granular materials the voids are the

spaces between the grains, which may become reduced by compaction, and cementation. In

consolidated rocks, the only voids may be the fractures or fissures, which are generally restricted

but may be enlarged by solution. The volume of water contained in the rock depends on the

percentage of these openings or pores in a given volume of the rock. This is termed the porosity

of the rock. More pore spaces result in higher porosity and more stored water

(UNESCO/WHO/UNEP, 1996).

A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a significant

quantity of water. In Ghana, a rock unit or unconsolidated medium, which can yield up to 13

liters per minute, constitutes an aquifer (Harvey, 2004). The limit to which soil pore spaces or

fractures and voids in rock become fully saturated with water is called the water table.

The phenomenon by which water seeps down from the land surface adding to the ground water is

called recharge. Ground water is recharged from rainwater and snowmelt or from water that

leaks through the bottom of lakes and rivers. Groundwater may be obtained by drilling or

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digging wells and may also appear on the surface as spring. A well is usually an opening created

to be able to gain access to groundwater. This may be in the form of a tube or bore lined with

protective material or a shaft created by digging into the earth until the water table is reached.

Groundwater can run out if more water is discharged than recharged. For example, during

periods of dry weather, recharge to the aquifers decreases. If too much groundwater is abstracted

during these times, the water table can fall and wells may go dry.

An analysis of about 200 boreholes drilled in the Accra Plains and elsewhere in this

hydrogeological province indicates that the success rate for developing wells is about 36%, based

on the use of geophysical surveys as an aid to site selection. Borehole yields average 9.2 m3/h.

With improved site-selection methods, including the detailed study of aerial photographs and the

use of geophysical surveys, the average borehole yield probably could be increased to as much as

11 m3/h. (Dapaah-Siakwan, Gyau-Boakye; 2000).

Due to the highly consolidated nature of the rocks of the Togo Series that comprises rocks of the

study area, groundwater occurrence is limited to areas where fractures and/or deep-seated

weathering have occurred to provide increases for sufficient recharge and groundwater storage.

Groundwater occurrence is therefore dependent on the occurrence and pervasiveness of these

secondary sources of permeability. The success rate of drilling prolific boreholes through Togo

aquifers is generally high. This is especially so in areas where the weathered zone is sufficiently

thick to hold substantial quantities of groundwater. Borehole yields are generally high. In the

Togo rocks, the average borehole yield in the quartzitic sandstone and quartzite are respectively

5.5 m3/d and 3.75m3/d. Average aquifer transmissivity in the quartzitic sandstone and the

quartzitic aquifers are respectively 15.8 m3/d and 16.5 m3/d. (Yidana e tal, 2010).

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2.1.3 Groundwater Flow Models

A model is a tool to represent a simplified version of the real hydrologic system, but is based as

much as possible on real-world geologic and hydrologic information.

Previous researches on groundwater flow using the MODFLOW model (Harbaugh and

McDonald 1996, Zheng 1996, Chiang and Kinzelbach, 1998, Khan et al, 2008) in analyzing

changes in groundwater quality due to changes in flow dynamics caused by changed in recharge

and discharge rates were assessed. According to the field surveys and investigations carried out

in the study area, sodium sulphate, sodium chloride, calcium bicarbonate, magnesium

bicarbonate, calcium sulphate, magnesium sulphate and potassium sulphate salts are present in

the groundwater underlying the major part of the study area. Their result was that chemical

composition of groundwater varies with depth.

The groundwater numerical flow model using FEFLOW (finite element subsurface flow system)

was developed by Barazzuoli et al, (2008) under both steady state and transient conditions. The

finite element method was adopted for its flexibility and capacity to simulate complex geometric

forms and to refine the nodal grid around points and/or single lines (observation points, coastline,

etc.). Their conclusion was that, saline water intrusion into the groundwater system is not only

dependent on the proximity of wells to the coast or seawater but also dependent on the

hydrodynamics of the aquifer formation.

In another study by Addo (2008), the MODFLOW model was used to simulate regional effect of

groundwater development in the voltaian basin. His results indicated that, groundwater in the

basin has greater potential for both industrial and domestic purposes.

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Yidana et al (2010) used the MODFLOW to estimate hydraulic conductivity in the

hydrostratigraphic unit of the southern voltaian. The calibrated model suggested a hydraulic

conductivity range of 1.19 to 6.3m/d.

Additionally, Yidana et al (2010) again used the MODFLOW in investigating the levels of

recharge and hydraulic conductivity in crystalline aquifers of southeastern Ghana. Their model

suggested aquifer hydraulic conductivity ranges between 0.99 m/d in much of the granites to

over 14 m/d within some of the weathered granites and some aquifers of the Togo Series rocks.

Strategies for groundwater protection in Africa are needed such that account can be taken of

factors such as the range of scales of groundwater occurrence must be appreciated, the role of

long-term recharge from rainfall, or conversely to aquifer productivity and the Scale and extent

of groundwater distribution and recharge.

In this study, the field observations as well as well and borehole information have been used to

build a steady state groundwater flow model to simulate groundwater flow conditions in the

shallow aquifers of the Madina area, Accra. MODFLOW-2000 (Harbaugh et al., 2000)

incorporated in the Groundwater Modeling System, GMS, version 7.1, is being used to simulate

these flow phenomena. This model will help conceptualize the groundwater flow system in the

area and help in the sustainable management of the groundwater resource in.

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 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY
3.1 Desk Study

The general hydrogeologic provinces of Ghana was extensively studied using geological map of

Ghana and several other works that was carried out by different authors most of which was a

sponsored project by DANIDA and or Ghana Water Resources Commission. The information

gathered from these included the various lithologies of Ghana and their water yielding capacities.

The change in the trend of groundwater flow (i.e. streams and rivers) in these lithologies were

also studied as these changes may have ripple effect on the efficiency or yielding capacities of

the aquifer system and consequently on any future boreholes and wells to be drilled.

Available information online on the hydrogeology of the southern part of Ghana and the Accra

area was also utilized.

3.2 Fieldwork

A day trip was taken to the study area where data was collected. Well data was collected on

fifteen different wells all of which are serving as sources of water for domestic usage in people’s

homes.

The data collection process involved the use of GPS to take both location and elevation data.

Water level detector was used to determine the depth to water level and well heads were

measured by means of measuring tape.

The physical data collected was then processed into the Groundwater Modeling System, GMS

7.1usable format. The location data was converted to decimal coordinates and the elevation and

depth to water level converted to hydraulic head data as shown in table 1.

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3.3. Conceptualization and Simulation

3.3.1 Conceptualization

The study area was generally divided into zones for hydraulic conductivities and recharge with

no special attention being paid to the groundwater flow pattern and general geology of the area.

General Head boundaries were imposed on all vertical boundaries of the study area.

This was based on the fact that the geology of the area and for that matter the rocks surrounding

the area are largely quartzitic, fractured and extensively weathered. The groundwater flow

across these boundaries was generally presumed to be significant. Permeability in the rocks has

been assumed to be uniform within the study area due to the fact that the observation wells

sampled were not extremely afar and the GPS location data collected did not indicate much

variation.

The conceptual model was constructed within the Groundwater Modeling System; GMS 7.1

using the map GIS tools. The well data were imported and assigned under the observations

coverage. The water levels (above mean sea level) were imported as a text file into previously

created observations coverage. The static water levels (measured from the ground surface) were

used together with the topographic data to compute the hydraulic heads in meters above mean

sea level.

When all the coverages for the aquifer properties were assigned, a grid frame was constructed to

cover the active part of the domain to be modeled.

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3.3.2 Numerical Model Simulation

MODFLOW-2000 was initialized and a grid system was developed using a pre-defined grid

dimension in the conceptualization process. Initial values were assigned to the major parameters

like recharge and hydraulic conductivity. The grid dimension used covered a total of 1600

rectangular cell units. The initial heads were automatically generated from the data imported

during the conceptualization. MODFLOW was then simulated for steady state conditions.

Apart from the boundaries that were assigned general heads, all other areas in the model were

assigned starting head value of 50 m, top elevation of 40 m and bottom elevation was set at mean

sea level under the Global options package. The Run option was set at Forward Run and the

model type was Steady state. The steady state model type was used because of unavailability of

data on long-term study and monitoring on seasonal changes in groundwater recharge.

In the layer property flow (LPF) package, layer elevations, horizontal hydraulic conductivities

and vertical anisotropies were defined and MODFLOW computed the cell-by-cell conductance

using the hydraulic conductivity values and the layer geometry. The layer type used for this

study was confined. Hence confined boundary conditions were imposed by MODFLOW based

on the computed water level.

3.3.3 Model calibration

Calibration is the process whereby the model’s input parameters are adjusted until the computed

flow and hydraulic head data match the observed data. The internal graphical interface of GMS

7.1 facilitates this process of comparison. In addition, the mean residual head and root mean

square head were used to determine the most optimal balance between the observed and

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calculated heads. A calibration target of ±1 m of the observed heads was used in the calibration.

Therefore, a root mean square error of at most 1 m was regarded as an acceptable value for a

calibrated model.

The model was calibrated by adjusting values of recharge and hydraulic conductivities until the

measured water levels closely matched the model calculated heads. Fifteen wells were used and

a calibration target of 1m was set for all the wells used. Whilst the calibration target was used as

the upper ceiling for observed–calculated head differences, efforts were made to ensure that the

root mean square error (RMSE) was as low as possible at the end of the calibration.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 General hydrogeology

The Togo Structural Unit underlies the area and the rock type includes quartzites and phyllites.

The rocks have no inherent primary porosity. The mode of groundwater occurrence is therefore

through the development of secondary permeabilities as a result of fracturing, jointing, shearing

and deep weathering. The flow pattern is generally from northeast to south (Figure 4.1). The

field-measured data is also presented in Table 1. Areas of higher hydraulic heads mark the

topographic highs and the vice versa. Recharge areas are indicated by the topographic highs and

topographic lows indicate discharge areas. The hydraulic heads are highest in the northeastern

side of the area and decrease towards the southwestern segment. This is also an indication of the

aquifer geometry.

A plot of the computed head against the observed head is as indicated in Figure 4.2. A good

match between the computed and the observed hydraulic heads is obvious from the plot. The

calibration has a Root Mean Square Error, RMSE, value of about 0.66 m, which confirms a

reasonable agreement between the observed head and the computed head within a calibration

target of ±1.

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Figure 4.1 Calibrated model

Table 1 showing the necessary observation data collected and processed.

WELL ELEV. DEPTH HYD. LAT. LONG.
ID (m) TO H2O HEAD (°) (°)
LEVEL (m)
(m)
1 69 6.43 62.57 5.67817 0.18833

2 63 8.82 54.18 5.67455 0.19233

3 50 0.58 49.42 5.67375 0.19600

4 54 4.40 49.60 5.67410 0.19517

5 69 1.18 67.82 5.67653 0.18800

6 55 0.07 54.93 5.67453 0.18578

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7 59 1.52 57.48 5.67443 0.18533

8 54 3.88 50.12 5.67570 0.18610

9 45 0.08 44.92 5.67522 0.18633

10 56 2.03 53.97 5.67582 0.18653

11 56 3.28 52.72 5.67748 0.18630

12 56 1.93 54.07 5.67745 0.18737

13 58 0.86 57.14 5.67837 0.18770

14 57 0.34 56.66 5.67885 0.18713

15 56 0.30 55.70 5.67865 0.18667

Figure 4.2 A match between the model calibrated heads and the observed heads

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4.2 Hydraulic Conductivity

The calibrated hydraulic conductivity ranges between 1.13 m/d to 16.88 m/d with an average of

9.01 m/d (Figure 4.3), which is in conformity with the trend observed by Yidana et al. (2010)

amongst similar rock types in southeastern Ghana.

The areas of very close and tighter contours indicate areas of higher hydraulic conductivities and

the areas of spaced and loose contours indicate low hydraulic conductivity regions. The fractured

and highly weathered nature of the rocks in these parts of the study area may be possible causes

of the high hydraulic conductivity in these areas.

Figure 4.3 Hydraulic Conductivity range of the calibrated model

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4.4 Recharge

Recharge to the catchment area is mainly by precipitation with an annual precipitation of 800

mm/year. The estimated spatial distribution of groundwater recharge from the calibrated model

is presented in Figure 4.4. The minimum recharge values from the calibrated model is 0.0001

m/d, which represents 4.6% of annual precipitation in the area, and a maximum recharge of

0.0003 m/d, representing 13.6% of the annual rainfall.

Other factors that affect the amount of water that can be recharged at a site include depth to

groundwater and the ability of the aquifer to transmit water from the recharge site. The existence

of impeding layers in the vadose zone can also affect infiltration rates. However, with

precipitation being the major source of recharge into the system makes it vulnerable to climatic

changes.

Figure 4.4. Estimated groundwater recharge in the study area

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4.5 Sensitivity Analysis

In groundwater flow simulation, sensitivity analysis is conducted to measure the stability of the

model with respect to small changes in the aquifer hydraulic parameters. Sensitivity analysis

measures the sensitivity of the model to unforeseen changes in some of the aquifer parameters. In

this study, sensitivity analysis was conducted for aquifer hydraulic conductivity and recharge.

For each of these parameters, the data were progressively increased and then decreased by 5, 10,

15 and 20% and the model was simulated to measure the deviations in the heads relative to the

calibrated heads. The root mean square residual error was observed after each run of the

sensitivity analysis, to determine how far the model deviates from the calibrated value. When

sensitivity of the model to a particular parameter was being examined, the other parameters were

kept constant at the calibrated levels. This is in line with normal convention used in groundwater

flow modeling.

Figure 4.5 (a) and (b) below indicates the sensitivity of the model to various changes in aquifer

hydraulic conductivity. Changes in the hydraulic conductivities by 5, 10, 15 and 20% in the

positive direction do not appear to have any measurably high effect on the stability of the model

as most of the calculated hydraulic heads are still within 1m as displayed by Figure 4.5(a). After

reducing the hydraulic conductivities by 10, 15 and 20%, there was no obvious effect on the

relationship between calculated and observed heads as shown in Figure 4.5(b). However, after

30% variation in the horizontal hydraulic conductivities by reduction, the calculated heads fell

within the red region, which implies significant deviations from the observed data. The changes

in RMSE were in the range of 0.001 to 0.01 and that associated with 30% changes in hydraulic

conductivities were extremely high. The model is therefore not stable to 30% changes in the

hydraulic conductivities of the aquifer units.

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 (a) (b)

Figure 4.5 Effect of (a) 5, 10, 15 and 20% increase in hydraulic conductivity and (b) after 10, 15

and 20% decrease in hydraulic conductivity.

Figure 4.6 a match between the computed head and the observed head after the percentage

decrease in hydraulic conductivity.

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The model is stable to changes in hydraulic conductivities up to about 20%. This means that the

stability of the model will be maintained for as long as a structural event does not occur to alter

the permeabilities of the rock units by more than 20%. Such a structural event is less likely as the

region has not been noted as a hotbed of such structural events.

The model is less sensitive to changes in recharge from precipitation by up to about 45%; a

deviation from the general expectation that the rates of groundwater recharge would vary widely

even within aquifers of the same geological formation based largely on the permeabilities of the

overburden and the climatic conditions prevailing in the area.

Fig. 4.7 Model remained fairly stable with variations in recharge

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Figure 4.8 Match between the computed head and the observed head after changes in the

recharge by 15, 20, 30 and 45%

4.6 Scenario Analysis

The model calibrated pumping rates of 14 abstraction wells that were imposed on the system to

determine the effect of drawdown in the area was noted. Figure 4.9 and Table 4.2 below are

representing the model calibrated and the abstraction well data respectively.

In the first scenario, there was 15% decrease in annual recharge and water was drawn from the

pumping wells at the rate of 0.01 m3/d. A general reduction in the hydraulic head resulted in

negative values being recorded in some pumping wells. These negative values indicate the

groundwater table is below the mean sea level and as such is prone to saline water intrusion.

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Figure 4.9 Model calibrated for the 14 abstraction wells

Table 4.2. Location data and the abstraction rates of the pumping wells imposed

WELLS LONGITUDE LATITUDE FLOWRATE

(°) (°) (m3/d)

1 0.18672 5.678191 0.01

2 0.187815 5.678281 0.02

3 0.186020 5.676415 0.03

4 0.187635 5.676702 0.04

5 0.188838 5.676809 0.05

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 6 0.185105 5.674548 0.06

7 0.186200 5.675159 0.07

8 0.188712 5.675535 0.08

9 0.190130 5.675266 0.09

10 0.190973 5.675141 0.10

11 0.195496 5.673723 0.11

12 0.192947 5.674566 0.12

13 0.191889 5.674620 0.13

14 0.186666 5.677007 0.14

In the second scenario, annual recharge was kept at the normal rate of precipitation and water

was drawn from the pumping wells at the rate of 0.01 m3/d. A similar result to that of the first

scenario was observed. The current pumping rate is therefore believed to be below 0.01 m3/d.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

A conceptual model of a high level of accuracy has been developed to monitor the flow

dynamics of the area and to estimate the essential aquifer parameters of the catchment area. The

flow pattern was determined to be generally from Northeast to South. The groundwater recharge

from precipitation to the area was determined to vary from 0.0001 m/d to 0.0003 m/d resulting in

a mean recharge of 9.1% of the total annual precipitation.

The hydraulic conductivity was determined to range from 1.13m/d for the least permeable

segments to 16.88m/d for the most permeable segments with an average of 7.5m/d.

With the current rate of extraction, speculations can be made of the sustainability of the shallow

aquifers of the Madina area to a fair degree of certainty.

The model suggests an upper limit of extraction of 0.01 m3/d beyond which the model would

collapse and render some wells unprolific.

In an event of industrialization or increase in population, effective groundwater resource

management must be employed to ensure sustainability.

This research forms the basis on which further research can be conducted in other areas like the

effective groundwater resource management of the Madina area, Accra.

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5.2 Recommendations

In view of the findings from this study, it is recommended that the Ghana Water Company in

conjunction with Real Estate Developers should critically consider and practice proper aquifer

assessment to be able to drill high yielding and good quality groundwater boreholes for their

clients and avoid indiscriminate siting of wells in order to prevent over stressing of the aquifer

system.

Government must also invest more in the exploitation of the water resources of the nation so that

urban centers like Madina will also benefit from the conventional supply of domestic water from

the Ghana Water Company.

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