ENEN 603: Principles of

Environmental Engineering

Sathish Ponnurangam

(Reading: Chapter-8 WATER TREATMENT from Mihelcic & Zimmerman)

Drinking water treatment
• Potable vs. palatable water?
• Healthy and safe vs. aesthetically pleasing (not
necessarily safe)
Seasonable differences in a river water: TOC
and color
https://open.alberta.ca/dataset/f57fec02-7de8-4985-b948-dcf5e2664aee/resource/489ec17a-e8e8-42b3-8a93-b6fd7f92e018/download/part1-standardsmunicipalwaterworks-2012.pdf
NOM treatment
Water Treatment
• Biological, chemical, physical treatment methods
• Treating potable water
• Chemical and physical methods are widely used
• WTP-Water treatment plant
• Several methods are used in series
• Unit operations vs. unit process?
• Unit operations – physical methods
• Unit processes – chemical or biological methods
• Multiple parallel sequence of unit operations and
processes – fail safe purposes
• Process trains
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Water Treatment
• Typical unit operations
• Screening, mixing, aeration, sedimentation, filtration,
ultraviolet-light disinfection
• Typical unit processes
• Coagulation, chemical oxidation, chemical disinfection,
and chemical precipitation, biological (de-)nitrification

9
Selecting water-treatment technologies

• Three primary considerations

• quality of the influent water
• required quality of treated water
• Extent of emerging contaminants and the appropriate
technology matrix

11
Water source and quality
• Surface water: rivers, lakes, or underground
aquifers
• Brackish and sea water, reclaimed wastewater
• Blending of fresh water with reclaimed
wastewater

12
Treatment systems: Surface water Figure 9.1 Flow diagram of
conventional surface water
treatment plant.
• Surface water quality is highly variable (as opposed to ground water)
1. Remove tree limbs, rags, finer debris
• Bar racks, coarse and fine screens

2. Adjust pH, and add disinfectant

3. Coagulant addition (inorganic and polymer flocculants
• mixing

4. Flocculation
5. Sedimentation
• Remove sludge
• Add disinfectant

6. Filtration: granular media

• Polymer (turbidity control) and oxidant (microbe control) can be added to the influent
• Oxidant is added to the effluent from filtration

7. Clear well: to allow sufficient detention time for oxidant to complete its job
8. Add supplemental disinfectant before pumping to ensure 0.1-0.2 mg/L of
residual chlorine at the furthest point
• For high-quality surface waters, use direct filtration Process train for high turbidity (NTU >20), high
• Low turbidity < 15 NTU, moderate color < 20 color units, low TOC < 4 mg/L color (color units > 20), and high total organic
• Eliminate flocculation and sedimentation steps carbon (TOC > 4 mg/L) water 13
Membrane treatment method Figure 9.2 Flow diagram of membrane filtration water
treatment plant.

• Membrane filtration method applied

for highest quality surface waters
• < 10 NTU, < 10 color units, TOC < 4 mg/L

• Cartridge filters or microscreens

needed for removing turbidity
• Otherwise, will interfere with membrane filtration

• Membrane filters remove,

microorganisms, hardness, and colloidal
particles
• pH adjustment and oxidant addition after
membrane filtration

14
Treatment systems: Ground water
• Ground water is typical of highest
quality, hence, very little treatment
needed
• Lime-soda ash or reverse osmosis treatment is
sufficient

• Lime-soda ash
• Air-stripping (off gas has to be collected and
treatment)
• Lime-soda ash process through solids contact unit
• Add Ca(OH)2 and Na2CO3 to precipitate CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2

• Lower the pH by recarbonation with CO2, followed by

granular media filtration

Figure 9.3 Flow diagram for lime-soda ash treatment plant.

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http://www.westech-inc.com/en-usa/products/solids-contact-clarifier
Treatment system: Reverse osmosis

• In addition to removing hardness,

membranes methods can work with
higher turbidity (NOM), color

• Anti-scalants?
• To keep the hardness ions (Ca2+ and Mg2+) in
dissolved in water and prevent them from
forming scales on pipelines

Figure 9.4 Flow diagram of reverse osmosis water treatment plant.

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Surface water treatment processes
• Colloidal particles
• 1nm-1um
• Can’t be removed by sedimentation
alone – need coagulants and flocculants
• Source of colloidal particles
• NOM, clay, silt, plankton, microbes
• Electrical double layer (EDL)

17
1. Coagulation and flocculation
• Coagulation and flocculation?
• Coagulation: neutralize the surface charge with coagulants (Al3+, Fe3+ species or
other charged molecules) to minimize electrostatic repulsion so that van der Waals
attraction takes over leading to aggregation
• Aggregation and settling is a slow process
• Coagulation is achieved not only by neutralization but also by compressing electrical double
layer
• Flocculation: big polymer chains form as a bridge to several particles and make a floc
to settle
• Floc formation and settling is relatively faster than coagulation

• Coagulation process is typically followed by flocculation

18
Coagulants
• Al and Fe salts are added as coagulants
• Al3+, Fe3+ and their hydrated species

20
http://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/html/10.11648.j.ajeps.s.2015040501.11.html
Coagulant aids
• Coagulant aids added to
• Maintain pH: CaO, Na2CO3, NaOH
• When Al3+ and Fe3+ are added alkalinity is consumed
• Removing color and organic compounds:
• powdered activated carbon, clays
• Flocculants: Anionic, cationic, and non-ionic polymers
• Charge neutralization, adsorption, and bridging
• Low MW polymer: charge neutralization
• High MW polymer: bridging
• Polymer dosages < 1 mg/L

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Example 8.1 Determine the optimal coagulant
dosage
• Untreated water: 10 NTU and a HCO3-
concentration of 50 mg/L as CaCO3
• Estimate optimal alum dosage from the following
jar test

Alum dose, mg/L 5 10 15 20 25 30

Turbidity, NTU 8 6 4.5 3.5 5 7
• 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1𝑔𝑔 1 𝐿𝐿 𝐴𝐴𝑙𝑙2 𝑆𝑆𝑂𝑂4 3 .14𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂
• = 20 𝐴𝐴𝑙𝑙2 𝑆𝑆𝑂𝑂4 3 . 14𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 × × 𝑔𝑔 ×
𝐿𝐿 1000 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 594𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴𝑙𝑙2 𝑆𝑆𝑂𝑂4 3 .14𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂

6 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝑂𝑂3− 1 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 100 𝑔𝑔 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂3

× ×
1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐴𝐴𝑙𝑙2 𝑆𝑆𝑂𝑂4 3 .14𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝑂𝑂3− 2 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

𝑔𝑔
• = 0.01 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂3
𝐿𝐿
2. Mixing process
• Mixing of coagulants through rapid-mixing systems
• Pump-mixing methods Pumped flash mixing
• Hydraulic methods
• Mechanical methods

In-line static mixing

Conventional stirred
tank mixing

26
2. Mixing process
• Mixing of coagulants through mechanical mixing (or flash mixing)
• Detention times < 2 minutes
• ~ 20-30 seconds
• Chemical reaction time < 1 second

• 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜃𝜃 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝐺𝐺
𝑉𝑉
• 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡, 𝜃𝜃 =
𝑄𝑄
• 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔, 𝐺𝐺,̅
• 𝐺𝐺,̅ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 a global measure of relative velocity between two particles or two 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 divided by the distance between them
• 𝐺𝐺̅ value has to be sufficient for particle-particle attachment but not too large for shear forces pulling particles away
• Typical 𝐺𝐺̅ values for rapid mixing system is 700-1000 s-1 (with a detention times of 20-50 s)
• For a rapid-mixing system and flocculation basins, following empirical form is used for 𝐺𝐺̅
0.5 0.5
𝑊𝑊 𝑃𝑃
• 𝐺𝐺̅ = =
𝜇𝜇 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
• Where, 𝑊𝑊 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣, 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚3
• 𝑃𝑃 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖, 𝑊𝑊
• 𝑉𝑉 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑚𝑚3
𝑁𝑁.𝑠𝑠
• 𝜇𝜇 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣, 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃. 𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑚2

27
Example
𝑚𝑚3
• A WTP has to treat 30,000 of water
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• A square rapid mixing with vertical baffles and
flat impeller blades will be used (prevents
formation of vortexes – foams and froths)
• Detention time and G are 30 s and 900 s-1
respectively
• Find
• Tank dimensions
• Power input (if water temperature is 20 C)
28
• First determine volume of the reactor for tank
dimensions
• 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑉𝑉 = 𝜃𝜃 × 𝑄𝑄
𝑚𝑚3 1𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• 𝑉𝑉 = 30 𝑠𝑠 × 30000 × = 10.4 𝑚𝑚3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (60×60×24) 𝑠𝑠
• Assuming a depth of 6 m for the rapid mixing tank
10.4
• ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = =
6
1.74 𝑚𝑚2
1
• 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 1.74 2 = 1.32 𝑚𝑚
• 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 1.32 𝑚𝑚 × 1.32 𝑚𝑚 × 6 𝑚𝑚
29
• For rapid tank mixing
0.5 0.5
𝑊𝑊 𝑃𝑃
• 𝐺𝐺 = =
𝜇𝜇 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
• 𝑃𝑃 = 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 2
0 3 𝑁𝑁.𝑠𝑠
• 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 20 𝐶𝐶 = 1.002 × 10
𝑚𝑚2
3 𝑁𝑁.𝑠𝑠 3 1
• 𝑃𝑃 = 1.002 × 10 × 10.4 (𝑚𝑚 ) × 900 = 8481 𝑊𝑊
𝑚𝑚2 𝑠𝑠

30
3. Flocculation tanks
• 3 compartments at different velocity gradient
• to produce dense floc
• G values: 50, 20, 10 s-1
• Typical detention times ~ 30 minutes High
speed
Medium
speed
Low
speed
G= 50 s 20 s-1
-1 10 s-1
• 𝐺𝐺 × 𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• Gt ~ 104 -105
• Power dissipated in water
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟3
• 𝑃𝑃 =
2
• 𝑃𝑃 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑊𝑊
• 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 1.8 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)
• 𝜌𝜌 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
• Velocity of paddle, 𝑣𝑣𝑝𝑝 ,
• 𝑣𝑣𝑝𝑝 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
• N is rotational speed, revolutions per second
• R is distance from the center of shaft to the center of blade 31
Example
• A four arm paddlewheel used in a flocculation basin,
each arm has two paddles (3m X 0.1m)
• Distance from the center of shaft to inner paddle = 1 m
• Distance from the center of shaft to outer paddle = 1.5 m
• T=20 0C, μwater= 1.002 X 103 Pa-s, ρwater= 998.2 kg/m3
• Rotational speed = 4 rpm
• Water to be treated: 6 X 106 lpd; 𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟 = 0.75 𝑣𝑣𝑝𝑝 ; 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 = 1.8
• Find power dissipated & Gt for a tank (4x4x4)m3
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟3
• 𝑃𝑃 =
2
0.5
𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑉
• 𝐺𝐺 = ; 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜃𝜃 =
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 𝑄𝑄 33
• Relative velocity of paddle
• 𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟 = 0.75𝑣𝑣𝑝𝑝 = 0.75 × 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
• Area of a paddle blade
• = 0.1 × 3𝑚𝑚 = 0.3 𝑚𝑚2
• Power needed for inner blades
4 𝑚𝑚
• 𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟 𝑖𝑖 = 0.75 × 2𝜋𝜋 × 1𝑚𝑚 × 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 0.314
60 𝑠𝑠
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑚𝑚3
1.8× 4×0.3 𝑚𝑚2 ×998.2 3 ×0.3143 3
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟3 𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠
• 𝑃𝑃 = = = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟒𝟒 𝑾𝑾
2 2
0.5
• Power needed for outer blades • 𝐺𝐺 =
𝑃𝑃
= 146 0.5
=
4 𝑚𝑚
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 1.002×10−3 ×64
• 𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟 𝑖𝑖 = 0.75 × 2𝜋𝜋 × 1.5𝑚𝑚 × 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 0.471
60 𝑠𝑠 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟕𝟕 𝒔𝒔−𝟏𝟏
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑚𝑚3
1.8× 4×0.3 𝑚𝑚2 ×998.2 3 ×0.4713 3
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟3 𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉 64 𝑚𝑚3 1000𝐿𝐿 3600×24 𝑠𝑠
• 𝑃𝑃 = = = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟔 𝑾𝑾 • 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜃𝜃 = = 𝑙𝑙 × × = 922 𝑠𝑠
2 2 𝑄𝑄 6×106 𝑑𝑑 1𝑚𝑚3 1𝑑𝑑

• P=146 W • 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = 4.4 × 104 (𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜) 34

4. Water softening process
• Unit process for removing hardness ions by
chemicals (Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, Mn2+, Sr2+)
• Primarily used in ground water treatment
• Hardness expressed as ?
• mg/L of CaCO3
• Soft water: 0-17 mg/L as CaCO3
• Moderately hard water: 75-150 mg/L as CaCO3
• Hard water: 150-300 mg/L as CaCO3
• Very hard water > 300 mg/L as CaCO3
35
Chemical precipitation
• Adding CaO (quicklime) and Na2CO3 (soda ash) to precipitate Ca2+ and
Mg2+ as CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2
• ppt. is pH dependent,
• Optimum pH: 9−9.5 (CaCO3), > 11(Mg(OH)2)
2+ + 2𝑂𝑂𝐻𝐻 −
• 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂(𝑠𝑠) + 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 ⇌ 𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
2+ + 𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂 2−
• 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂3(𝑠𝑠) ⇌ 𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 3 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
• 𝐾𝐾 = 𝐾𝐾𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎2+ 𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂32− = 5 × 10−9

• 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀(𝑂𝑂𝐻𝐻)2 2+ + 2𝑂𝑂𝐻𝐻 −
⇌ 𝑀𝑀𝑔𝑔𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
• 𝐾𝐾 = 𝐾𝐾𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀2+ 𝑂𝑂𝐻𝐻− 2
= 9 × 10−12
• As lime is added, Ca2+ increases and hence CO32- decreases and CaCO3
increases
• With adding lime, pH also increases, hence Mg2+ decreases and Mg(OH)2 increases
• Adding soda ash pH increases, hence Mg2+ decreases and Mg(OH)2 increases
36
Lime-soda ash softening equations
• Formation of slaked lime
• 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 ⇌ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2

• Dissolved CO2 in ground water

• 𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂2 + 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 ⇌ 𝐻𝐻2 𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂3
• First reaction after adding lime, carbonic acid removal
• 𝐻𝐻2 𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂3 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 ⇌ CaCO3 ↓ +2H2 O
• Hardness removal reactions
• Bicarbonates
• 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝑂𝑂3 2 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 ⇌ 2𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂3 ↓ + 2𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂
• 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝑂𝑂3 2 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 ⇌ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂3 ↓ + 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑂𝑂3 + 2𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂
• 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑂𝑂3 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 ⇌ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂3 ↓ + 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 ↓ 37
Lime-soda ash softening equations
• Noncarbonate hardness (MgSO4, MgCl2)
• Can be removed only with both lime and soda ash
• 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑂𝑂4 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 ⇌ 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 ↓ + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂4
• No hardness is removed (Mg2+ is removed but Ca2+ is added)
• 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙2 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 ⇌ 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 ↓ + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙2
• 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂4 + 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎2 𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂3 ⇌ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂3 ↓ +𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎2 𝑆𝑆𝑂𝑂4
• 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙2 + 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎2 𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂3 ⇌ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂3 ↓ +2𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

• Recarbonation
• To lower pH introduce CO2
• 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 + 𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂2 ⇌ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂3 ↓ +H2 O 38
Example
• Calculate amount of lime and soda-ash needed to achieve hardness removal
at a practical limit
• CO2 = 8.8 mg/L; alkalinity (HCO3-) = 135 mg/L as CaCO3
• Mg2+ = 14.7 mg/L; Na+ = 13.7 mg/L; Ca2+ = 40 mg/L;
• SO42-= 29 mg/L; Cl-=17.8 mg/L

• Concentrations in meq/L
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• 𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂2 = 8.8 ≡ 8.8 × 44 = 0.4
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
2
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• 𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎2+ = 40 ≡ 40 × 40 = 2
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
2
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• 𝑀𝑀𝑔𝑔2+ = 14.7 ≡ 14.7 × 24.3 = 1.2
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
2

• 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎+ = 13.7
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
≡ 13.7
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1
× 23 = 0.6
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 CO2 on the left side
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
1
𝐿𝐿
Cations on the top (Ca, Mg, Na)
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝑂𝑂3− = 135
𝐿𝐿
≡ 135
𝐿𝐿
× 100 = 2.7
𝐿𝐿
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂3 Anions on the bottom (HCO3-, SO42-, Cl-)
2
• or use the equivalent weight of bicarbonate = 61
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• 𝑆𝑆𝑂𝑂42− = 29 ≡ 29 × 96 = 0.6
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
2
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• 𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙− = 17.8 ≡ 17.8 × 35.5 = 0.5
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 39
1
• Amount of lime and soda-ash consumed
• CO2: 𝐻𝐻2 𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂3 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 ⇌ CaCO3 ↓ +2H2 O
• Ca(HCO3)2: 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝑂𝑂3 2 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 ⇌ 2𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂3 ↓ + 2𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂
• Mg(HCO3)2: 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝑂𝑂3 2 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 ⇌ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂3 ↓ + 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑂𝑂3 + 2𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑂𝑂3 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 ⇌ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂3 ↓ + 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 ↓
• MgSO4: 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑂𝑂4 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 ⇌ 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 ↓ + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂4
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂4 + 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎2 𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂3 ⇌ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂3 ↓ +𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎2 𝑆𝑆𝑂𝑂4
• Excess lime CaO: Excess lime treatment – typically 1.25
milliequivalents per liter (meq/L) of lime added more than the
stoichiometric requirement
• 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 + 𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂2 → 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂3 ↓ +𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂

40
• Total lime dosage (assuming 100% purity)
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 8.34 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
(𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴)
• 5.55 × 28 × 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 1296
𝐿𝐿 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝐿𝐿

• Soda-ash
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎2 𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂3 8.34 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
• 0.5 × 53 × 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 221
𝐿𝐿 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝐿𝐿

• If purities are at 90%:

1296 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
• 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = = 1440
0.9 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
221 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
• 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = = 246
0.9 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
41
Other softening methods

• Ion exchange (replace hardness ions by Na+)

• Clays – kaolinite or montmorillonite

42
5. Sedimentation operation
• Unit operation
• Gravity settling

• Two types
• Free or discrete settling
• Flocculent settling

43
Free/discrete settling
• Non-flocculent discrete particles settling
• Size and shape does not change with time
• Particles settle as individual entities
• Settling velocity can be described by either Stokes (Re≤1) or
Newton’s velocity (Re>1)
𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
• 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = = ≈
𝜇𝜇 𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

44
Free/discrete settling
• Settling velocity of a spherical particle (Newton’s
law)
0.5
4𝑔𝑔 𝜌𝜌𝑃𝑃 −𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤
• 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 =
3𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤
𝑚𝑚
• 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑚
• 𝑔𝑔 − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
𝑠𝑠 2
• 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 − 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)
• 𝑚𝑚 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
• 𝜌𝜌𝑃𝑃 − density of particle
• 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 − density of liquid
• 𝑑𝑑 − diameter of particle 45
• Drag coefficient determined using flow regimes
𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑
• Reynold’s number, 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = =
𝜇𝜇 𝑣𝑣
• For laminar flow, Re < 1
• 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 = 24/𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅
• For transition zone flow, Re = 1-104
24 3
• 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 = + + 0.34
𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅 𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅 0.5
• For turbulent flow, Re > 104
• 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 = 0.4

• For laminar flow, Newton’s law becomes Stokes law

𝑔𝑔 𝜌𝜌𝑃𝑃 −𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑 2
• 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 =
18𝜇𝜇

46
Example 8.4 Application of Stokes Law
• Calculate the terminal settling velocity for particles of
size diameter 100 um and density 2650 kg/m3. T=10
0C (𝜌𝜌 = 999.7 , 𝜇𝜇 = 1.307 × 10
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 −3 𝑁𝑁−𝑠𝑠
, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣 = 1.306 × )
10−6 𝑚𝑚2
𝑤𝑤 𝑚𝑚3 𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠

• First apply Stokes law to determine 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 and then verify if it is

applicable
−2
𝑔𝑔 𝜌𝜌𝑃𝑃 −𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑 2 9.81× 2650−999.7 ×(10×10−4 ×3600) m
• 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 = = = 24.8
18𝜇𝜇 18×1.307×10−3 h

24.8
𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 10×10−4 ×3600
• 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = = = 0.53
𝑣𝑣 1.306×10−6
• Since Re < 1 Stokes law is applicable
Example 8.5 Newton’s Law
• Particle dia= 200 um, density=2650, T=15 0C
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 −3 𝑁𝑁−𝑠𝑠 10−6 𝑚𝑚2
• (𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 = 999.1 3 , 𝜇𝜇 = 1.139 × 10 , 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣 = 1.139 × )
𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠

𝑔𝑔 𝜌𝜌𝑃𝑃 −𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑚𝑚
• Stokes: 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 = = 113.8
18𝜇𝜇 ℎ
𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠
• 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = = 5.55
𝑣𝑣
0.5
4𝑔𝑔 𝜌𝜌𝑃𝑃 −𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤
• Newton:𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 =
3𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤
• For transition zone flow, Re = 1-104
24 3
• 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 = + + 0.34 = 5.94
𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅 𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅 0.5
𝑚𝑚
• 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 = 97.1
ℎ
𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠
• 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = = 4.74
𝑣𝑣
• Use iterative procedure to find settling velocity
Particle removal during sedimentation
• Critical particle settling velocity
• The lowest settling velocity that a particle
need to have to settle if it enters at the top of
the basin
• If the inlet is lower (as in particle 3 here), it can still
settle
• It is also called overflow rate, OR
ℎ𝑜𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑜 𝑄𝑄 ℎ𝑜𝑜 𝑄𝑄 𝑄𝑄 𝑚𝑚3
• 𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐 = = = = = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
𝜃𝜃 𝑉𝑉 ℎ𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴 𝑚𝑚2 −ℎ
Example 8.6 Tutorial
Flocculent settling
• As particles settle, size, shape, density and
settling velocity change over time
• Can’t be modeled with Newton’s or Stokes
formula
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 −𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
• 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 % = × 100
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

52
• Weir: A design feature that helps in settling and
to minimize short-circuiting of the particles
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=34iSkhE2eZE
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kZY2q2xwOHw

• Weir loading rate

𝑄𝑄
• 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 =
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

http://greenwoodtimes.com/content/CPW

53
Settling basin design criteria
• Typical basin shape – long rectangular basin
• Reduces short-circuiting

• Current designs incorporate all mixing,

coagulation, flocculation, and settling
operations in one tank
http://viridisperunding.com/solutions/water-treatment/coagulation-flocculation-tanks/

• Inlet zone – evenly distribute incoming

suspensions
• Outlet zone - baffles and weirs to prevent
circuiting with influent stream and maintain
quiescent conditions
• Settling zone Figure 9.13 Schematic of settling basin with
inlet, settling, outlet, and sludge zones.

• Sludge zone 54
• Three main parameters for design a basin
• Overflow rate (OR, Vo), detention time, and weir loading rate
• First select Vo
• Depends on chemicals used (density of flocs 𝜌𝜌𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙−𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 > 𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 )
• From Q and Vo, horizontal surface area can be determined
• Choose a detention time from which total volume V is calculated (to constrain the depth)
• Finally, weir loading rate is calculated

• Rectangular basins - L:W=2 to 4 and L:H=10 to 20, bottom slopes (1/100)

• Depth (H) for discrete particles ranges from 2.5-3 m and for flocculent particles 3-4 m

• Circular basins – diameters 4.5-91 m, depth (H) = 2-5m

• Depth H ≡ Side water depth (SWD)
• Additional 0.3-0.8 m is added to SWD due to variability in water content, especially in wastewater treatment plant
55
Example: rectangular basin
• Two rectangular settling basins with LXWXH=90 ft X16 ft X12 ft
depth are designed to handle 1.5 MGD of water in total.
Effluent weir length = 3XW ft
• Determine
• Detention time, Vh, Vo, Weir length, Weir loading rate
90× 16×12 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 3
• 𝜃𝜃 = 𝐺𝐺 1𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡3 1𝐷𝐷
= 4.14 ℎ
0.75×106 × ×
𝐷𝐷 7.48𝐺𝐺 24ℎ
𝐺𝐺 1𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡3 1𝐷𝐷
0.75×106 × ×
𝐷𝐷 7.48𝐺𝐺 24×60 𝑚𝑚
• 𝑉𝑉ℎ = = 0.36 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
16×12 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 2
𝐺𝐺
0.75×106 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
• 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 = 𝐷𝐷
= 521 2
90×16 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 2 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡
• 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 3 × 16 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 48 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 http://www.thewatertreatments.com/wastewater-sewage-treatment/zones-
sedimentation-basin/
0.75×106 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
• 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = = 15625
48𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 56
6. Filtration process
• Unit operation
• Water must be coagulated-flocculated-settled before filtration
• Removal of small floccs and precipitated particles, pathogens (Giardia
and Cryptosporidium)
• Can also be used to remove SS (turbidity) of raw water
• Filtration types: Granular and membrane filters
• Granular filter types
• Single mono-media filters (sand or crushed anthracite)
• Dual-media (sand and coal)
• Triple-media (garnet-sand-coal)

57
Gravity filters
• Dual or multi-layers of coarse
granular media
• Typical dimensions: 61-76 cm sand
and 38-61 cm coarse gravel
• Coarse particles are used to ensure
filtration of colloidal particles occur
throughout the bed
• When head-loss of 2.4-3 m occurs
(due to clogging), the filter is
backwashed
• Add chlorine to the filtrate and store it
clear well
58
Head loss through a clean filter
• Carman-Kozeny equation for head loss through porous bed
𝐿𝐿 1−𝜀𝜀 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎2 ′ 𝑋𝑋𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
• ℎ𝐿𝐿 = Σ𝑓𝑓
𝜑𝜑 𝜀𝜀 3 𝑔𝑔 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
150 1−𝜀𝜀
• 𝑓𝑓 ′ = + 1.75
𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅
• ℎ𝐿𝐿 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙; 𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
• 𝐿𝐿 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏; 𝑔𝑔 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
𝑉𝑉
• 𝜀𝜀 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑉𝑉 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 , 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

• 𝜑𝜑 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 , 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑄𝑄
• 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 =
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐−𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

• 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ≈ 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

• 𝑋𝑋𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
• 𝑓𝑓 ′ = Carman − Kozeny dimensionless friction factor

59
Backwashing of filter
• Backwash is performed when
• head loss reaches 2.4 – 3 m, or
• NTU >= some specified value
• High-pressure backwash pumps
• 1-5% of filtered water is needed for backwashing
• Washwater recovery pond (settling tank)

60
Filter media specifications
• Two main parameters
• Effective size and uniformity coefficient
• Effective size (de) is sieve size (in mm) that will pass
10% by weight of the filter media (a.k.a 10% percentile
diameter)
• Universal coefficient is ratio of 60 and 10 percentile
diameters (gives a measure of size distribution)

61
Filtration rates
• Medium sand filters: 5 to 7.5 m/h
• Coarse sand filters: 10 to 30 m/h
• Dual and multimedia filters: 10 to 25 m/h
• Granular activated-carbon filters: 7.5 to 15 m/h

62
Example
• A WTP has four rapid-sand filters each handling 1
MGD
• Backwashing takes 9 min. everyday at a rate of 15
gpm/ft2
• Backwashing is performed when the head-loss
reaches 4-10 ft (on an average)
• Find
• Filter media dimension if 3.5 gpm/ft2 filtration rate is used
• Quantity of water needed for backwashing and its
percentage as total filtered water
63
• 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 × 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑔𝑔
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 1×106 𝑑𝑑
• 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = = 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 198 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 2
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 3.5 2 ×1440 𝑑𝑑
𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡

0.5
• 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓, 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 198 = 14.1 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 , 𝑄𝑄𝑏𝑏 = 15 = 15 × 9 × 198 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 2 = 2.65 × 104 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
ft2 ft2 𝑑𝑑

2.65×104
• %𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = × 100 = 2.65 %
1×106

64
Membrane Processes
• Fast growing water
treatment method
1
• 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∝
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
• 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 =
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡.𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
• Four types of membrane
systems:
• Membrane: suspended particles
• RO: dissolved species
• 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓tion
𝑄𝑄×ΔP
• 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 =
1714
Membrane materials
• Membranes: tubular, flat sheets or hollow fibers
• Modified cellulose: Cellulose acetate, diacetate, triacetate
• Synthetic: polyamides, polysulfones, polyacrylonitriles, Teflon,
nylon and PPE etc..,

• Membrane thickness: 0.1-0.3 um

• Celluose-based sensitive to T (15-30C) and pH
(small range near neutral)
• Synthetic polymer and T and pH (3-11) tolerant
Microfiltration and reverse osmosis plants
Membrane fouling
Example 8.9
• Municipality upgrading its microfiltration unit of 0.2 um
pore size with membrane that have 0.1 um pore size.
Plant consists of 8 arrays with 90 modules with a
capacity 29214 m3/day
• Module: 119 mm inside diameter, length=1194, surface
area of 23.4 m2
• New hollow fibers in the module have 1 mm outside diameter and
length 1194 mm.
• Total surface are for filtration?
• Membrane flux rate?
• Total number of membrane fibers for the plant and each
module?
 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚2
• 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 8 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 × 90 × 23.4 = 16,848 𝑚𝑚2
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
• 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 =
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝑚𝑚3 𝐿𝐿
29214𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1000 3 𝐿𝐿
• = 16848 𝑚𝑚2 × 𝑚𝑚
ℎ = 72.25
24 𝑚𝑚2 −ℎ
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

• 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 =
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

16848 𝑚𝑚2
• 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = = 2246000
2 𝜋𝜋×0.001 𝑚𝑚×1.194 𝑚𝑚
2246000
• 𝑁𝑁𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = = 3120
8×90
Adsorption
• Granular activated carbon
• Powdered activated carbon
7. Disinfection
• Unit process
• Oxidize residual organics and pathogens
• Disinfection vs. sterilization
• Disinfection – kills most pathogens (except a few, e.g., bacterial spores)
• Sterilization – kills all pathogens (no life is left in sterilized product)
• 90 % of pathogens – removed by coagulation, flocculation,
filtration etc..,
• High & low pH kills microbes (lime-soda ash is good)
• Choice of chemicals is important so as to kill all the potential
pathogens
• Non-carcinogenic disinfectants are preferred
• Four main categories of pathogens
• Bacteria, Protozoan, Helminth parasites, virsus 74
Surface water treatment rule
• 3-log reduction rule (or 99.9 % removal rule) for
Giardia lamblia and 4-log for viruses (99.99%)
• Disinfectants and disinfection by-product rule
• Limits on disinfectants by-products such as haloacetic
acids and trihalomethanes from chlorine-based
disinfection
• Carcinogens 

75
Chick’s law
• Effective disinfectant should have fast kill rate
• Rate of kill is modeled as first-order removal
• 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡, 𝑁𝑁𝑡𝑡 = 𝑁𝑁0 𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
• Main parameter used in designing tanks for
disinfection (e.g., clear well) – Ct parameter
• 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶 × 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡
Figure 9.19 Chlorine concentration versus contact
time for 99% kill of E. coli by various forms of chlorine.

• Contact time various depending on

dosage and nature of chlorine source
• Hence, tank volume should designed such
that it affords flexibility of the operation
76
Mechanism of disinfection
• Efficacy of disinfection depends on?
• disinfectant concentration, contact time, pH, T, type of
disinfectants and microbes, turbidity
• Mechanisms?
• Destroying cell wall
• Altering cell permeability
• Enter cell and react with cellular components and
organelles
• Damaging DNA, RNA

77
Chemistry of chlorination
• Injecting chlorine gas under pressure for hypochlorous acid
(dissociates to hypochlorite ion)
• 𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙2 + 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 ⇌ 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 + 𝐻𝐻 + + 𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙 −
• 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 ⇌ 𝐻𝐻 + + 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑙𝑙 −
• pH drops
• Sodium and Calcium hypochlorites (bleach liquid
and powder, respectively)
• 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 → 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎+ + 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑙𝑙 −
• 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 2 → 𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎2+ + 2𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑙𝑙 −

78
Chloramines
• Cl2 gas and bleaches don’t leave long-lived
residuals
• To have long lasting effect NH3 is added
additionally – to form long-lasting chloramines
• 𝑁𝑁𝐻𝐻3 + 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 → 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 + 𝑁𝑁𝐻𝐻2 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
• 𝑁𝑁𝐻𝐻2 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 → 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 + 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑙𝑙2
• 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑙𝑙2 + 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 → 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 + 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑙𝑙3
• Chlroamines can form N-nitrosodimethylo amine
(possible human carcinogen )
79
Breakpoint Chlorination
• Add high dosage of Cl2 gas to achieve high
residual free chlorine (HOCl+OCl-+Cl2 gas) rather
than combined chlorine in form of chloramine

Figure 9.20 Breakpoint chlorination curve. 80

Alternative disinfectants
• Ozone
• ClO2 (does not form chloroform or chloramines)
• If reduced to chlorate (ClO4-) – carcinogen
• UV
• High-pH

81