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Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A (2010) 368, 4677–4694

doi:10.1098/rsta.2010.0200

I N T RO D U C T I O N

Green tribology: principles, research areas

and challenges
B Y M ICHAEL N OSONOVSKY1 AND B HARAT B HUSHAN2, *
1 College
of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Wisconsin,
Milwaukee, WI 53201, USA
2 Nanoprobe Laboratory for Bio- and Nanotechnology and Biomimetics (NLBB),
Ohio State University, 201 West 19th Avenue, Columbus,
OH 43210-1142, USA

In this introductory paper for the Theme Issue on green tribology, we discuss the
concept of green tribology and its relation to other areas of tribology as well as other
‘green’ disciplines, namely, green engineering and green chemistry. We formulate the
12 principles of green tribology: the minimization of (i) friction and (ii) wear, (iii) the
reduction or complete elimination of lubrication, including self-lubrication, (iv) natural
and (v) biodegradable lubrication, (vi) using sustainable chemistry and engineering
principles, (vii) biomimetic approaches, (viii) surface texturing, (ix) environmental
implications of coatings, (x) real-time monitoring, (xi) design for degradation, and
(xii) sustainable energy applications. We further define three areas of green tribology:
(i) biomimetics for tribological applications, (ii) environment-friendly lubrication, and
(iii) the tribology of renewable-energy application. The integration of these areas remains
a primary challenge for this novel area of research. We also discuss the challenges of green
tribology and future directions of research.
Keywords: tribology; alternative energy; nanotechnology; biomimetics

1. Introduction

Tribology (from the Greek word trı́bu ‘tribo’ meaning ‘to rub’) is defined by
the Oxford dictionary as ‘the branch of science and technology concerned with
interacting surfaces in relative motion and with associated matters (as friction,
wear, lubrication and the design of bearings)’ (Oxford English Dictionary;
http://grove.ufl.edu/∼wgsawyer/). The term was introduced and defined for the
first time in 1966 by Prof. H. Peter Jost, then the chairman of a working group of
lubrication engineers, in his published report for the UK Department of Education
and Science (Jost 1966). It was reported that huge sums of money have been lost

*Author for correspondence (bhushan.2@osu.edu).

One contribution of 11 to a Theme Issue ‘Green tribology’.

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4678 M. Nosonovsky and B. Bhushan

in the UK annually owing to the consequences of friction, wear and corrosion.

As a result, several centres for tribology were created in many countries. Since
then, the term has diffused into the international engineering field, and many
specialists now claim to be tribologists.
Typical tribological studies cover friction, wear, lubrication and adhesion,
and involve the efforts of mechanical engineers, material scientists, chemists
and physicists (Bhushan 1999, 2001, 2002). Since the emergence of the word
tribology almost 50 years ago, many new areas of tribological studies have
developed that are at the interface of various scientific disciplines, and various
aspects of interacting surfaces in relative motion have been the focus of
tribology. These areas include, for example, nanotribology, biotribology, the
tribology of magnetic storage devices and microelectromechanical systems
(MEMS)/nanoelectromechanical systems and adhesive contact (Bhushan &
Gupta 1991; Bhushan 1996, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2008, 2010). The research
in these areas is driven mostly by the advent of new technologies and new
experimental techniques for surface characterization.
Recently, the new concept of ‘green tribology’ has been defined as ‘the
science and technology of the tribological aspects of ecological balance and
of environmental and biological impacts’. H. P. Jost (2009, unpublished data)
elaborated on the need for green tribology and has mentioned that ‘the influence
of economic, market and financial triumphalisms have retarded tribology and
could retard “green tribology” from being accepted as a not-unimportant factor in
its field. . .. Therefore, by highlighting the economic benefits of tribology, tribology
societies, groups and committees are likely to have a far greater impact on the
makers of policies and the providers of funding than by only preaching the
scientific logic. . . Tribology societies should highlight to the utmost the economic
advantage of tribology. It is the language financial oriented policy makers and
markets, as well as governments, understand’.
The specific field of green or environment-friendly tribology emphasizes the
aspects of interacting surfaces in relative motion, which are of importance
for energy or environmental sustainability or which have impact upon today’s
environment. This includes tribological technology that mimics living nature
(biomimetic surfaces) and thus is expected to be environment friendly, the
control of friction and wear, which is of importance for energy conservation
and conversion, environmental aspects of lubrication and surface-modification
techniques and tribological aspects of green applications, such as wind-power
turbines, tidal turbines or solar panels (figure 1). It is clear that a number of
tribological problems could be put under the umbrella of green tribology and are
of mutual benefit to one another.
Green tribology can be viewed in the broader context of two other ‘green’
areas: green engineering and green chemistry. The US Environmental Protection
Agency defines green engineering as ‘the design, commercialization and use
of processes and products that are technically and economically feasible
while minimizing (i) generation of pollution at the source and (ii) risk to
human health and the environment’ (US Environmental Protection Agency
2010). The three tiers of green engineering assessment in design involve:
(i) process research and development, (ii) conceptual/preliminary design, and
(iii) detailed design pollution prevention, process heat/energy integration and
process mass integration (Allen & Shonnard 2001).

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Introduction. Green tribology 4679

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1. The paradigm of green tribology: (a) renewable energy (represented by a wind turbine),
(b) biomimetic surfaces (represented by a gecko foot) and (c) biodegradable lubrication (represented
by natural vegetable oil).

Another related area is green chemistry, also known as sustainable chemistry,

which is defined as the design of chemical products and processes that reduce
or eliminate the use or generation of hazardous substances (US Environmental
Protection Agency 2010). Green chemistry technologies provide a number of
benefits, including reduced waste, eliminating costly end-of-the-pipe treatments,
safer products, reduced use of energy and resources and improved competitiveness
of chemical manufacturers and their customers. Green chemistry consists of
chemicals and chemical processes designed to reduce or eliminate negative
environmental impacts. The use and production of these chemicals may
involve reduced waste products, non-toxic components and improved efficiency.
Anastas & Warner (1998) formulated the 12 principles of green chemistry that
provided a road map for chemists to implement green chemistry:

(1) Prevention of waste is better than cleaning up.

(2) Maximum incorporation into the final product of all materials used in the
process.
(3) Chemical synthesis should incorporate less hazardous or toxic materials,
when possible.
(4) Chemical products should be designed to reduce toxicity.
(5) Auxiliary substances, such as solvents, should be safe whenever used.
(6) Energy efficiency requirements should be recognized. Synthetic methods
should be conducted at ambient temperature and pressure, whenever
possible.
(7) A raw material or feedstock should be renewable, whenever possible.
(8) Reduce unnecessary derivatives.
(9) Catalytic reagents are superior to stoichiometric reagents.
(10) Chemical products should be degradable at the end of their function.
(11) Real-time analysis, monitoring and control should be implemented to
prevent the formation of hazardous substances.
(12) Substances and their use in the chemical process should be chosen to
minimize the risk of accidents and prevent fires, explosions, spills, etc.

A number of green chemistry metrics have been suggested to quantify

the environmental efficiency of a chemical process. These metrics include the
environmental factor (‘E-factor’), which is equal to the total mass of waste divided

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4680 M. Nosonovsky and B. Bhushan

by the mass of product (Sheldon 1992), the atom economy (Trost 1991), the
effective mass yield (Hudlicky et al. 1999), the carbon efficiency and reaction
mass efficiency (Constable et al. 2001), etc.
Since tribology is an interdisciplinary area that involves, among other fields,
chemical engineering and materials science, the principles of green chemistry are
applicable to green tribology as well. However, since tribology involves, besides
the chemistry of surfaces, other aspects related to the mechanics and physics
of surfaces, there is a need to modify these principles. The principles of green
tribology will be formulated in the following section.

2. Twelve principles of green tribology

Below, we formulate the principles of green tribology, which belong to the three
areas, suggested in the preceding section. Some principles are related to the design
and manufacturing of tribological applications (iii–x), while others belong to their
operation (i, ii, xi and xii). We followed tradition and limited the number of
principles to twelve.
(i) Minimization of heat and energy dissipation. Friction is the primary source
of energy dissipation. According to some estimates, about one-third of the
energy consumption in the USA is spent to overcome friction. Most energy
dissipated by friction is converted into heat and leads to the heat pollution
of atmosphere and the environment. The control of friction and friction
minimization, which leads to both energy conservation and prevention of
damage to the environment owing to heat pollution, is a primary task of
tribology. It is recognized that for certain tribological applications (e.g. car
brakes and clutches), high friction is required; however, ways of effective
use of energy for these applications should be sought as well.
(ii) Minimization of wear is the second most important task of tribology
that has relevance to green tribology. In most industrial applications,
wear is undesirable. It limits the lifetime of components and therefore
creates the problem of their recycling. Wear can lead also to catastrophic
failure. In addition, wear creates debris and particles that contaminate the
environment and can be hazardous for humans in certain situations. For
example, wear debris generated after human joint-replacement surgery is
the primary source of long-term complications in patients.
(iii) Reduction or complete elimination of lubrication and self-lubrication.
Lubrication is a focus of tribology since it leads to the reduction of friction
and wear. However, lubrication can also lead to environmental hazards. It
is desirable to reduce lubrication or achieve the self-lubricating regime,
when no external supply of lubrication is required. Tribological systems
in living nature often operate in the self-lubricating regime. For example,
joints form essentially a closed self-sustainable system.
(iv) Natural lubrication (e.g. vegetable-oil-based) should be used in cases when
possible, since it is usually environmentally friendly.
(v) Biodegradable lubrication should also be used when possible to avoid
environmental contamination.
(vi) Sustainable chemistry and green engineering principles should be used
for the manufacturing of new components for tribological applications,
coatings and lubricants.
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Introduction. Green tribology 4681

(vii) Biomimetic approaches should be used whenever possible. These include

biomimetic surfaces, materials and other biomimetic and bioinspired
approaches, since they tend to be more ecologically friendly.
(viii) Surface texturing should be applied to control surface properties.
Conventional engineered surfaces have random roughness, and the
randomness is the factor that makes it extremely difficult to overcome
friction and wear. On the other hand, many biological functional surfaces
have complex structures with hierarchical roughness, which defines their
properties. Surface texturing provides a way to control many surface
properties relevant to making tribo-systems more ecologically friendly.
(ix) Environmental implications of coatings and other methods of surface
modification (texturing, depositions, etc.) should be investigated and taken
into consideration.
(x) Design for degradation of surfaces, coatings and tribological components.
Similar to green chemistry applications, the ultimate degradation/
utilization should be taken into consideration during design.
(xi) Real-time monitoring, analysis and control of tribological systems during
their operation should be implemented to prevent the formation of
hazardous substances.
(xii) Sustainable energy applications should become the priority of the
tribological design as well as engineering design in general.

3. Areas of green tribology

The following three focus areas of tribology have the greatest impact on
environmental issues, and, therefore, they are of importance for green tribology:
(i) biomimetic and self-lubricating materials/surfaces, (ii) biodegradable and
environment-friendly lubricants, and (iii) tribology of renewable and/or
sustainable sources of energy. Below, we briefly discuss the current state of these
areas and their relevance for the novel field of green tribology.

(a) Biomimetic surfaces

Biomimetics (also referred to as bionics or biomimicry) is the application
of biological methods and systems found in nature to the study and design of
engineering systems and modern technology. It is estimated that the 100 largest
biomimetic products generated approximately US $1.5 billion over the years
2005–2008. The annual sales are expected to continue to increase dramatically
(Bhushan 2009). Many biological materials have remarkable properties that
can hardly be achieved by conventional engineering methods. For example, a
spider can produce huge amounts (comparing with the linear size of his body)
of silk fibre, which is stronger than steel, without any access to the high
temperatures and pressures that would be required to produce such materials
as steel using conventional human technology. These properties of biomimetic
materials are achieved owing to their composite structure and hierarchical multi-
scale organization (Fratzl & Weinkamer 2007). The hierarchical organization
provides biological systems with the flexibility needed to adapt to the changing
environment. As opposed to the traditional engineering approach, biological
materials are grown without the final design specifications, but by using the
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4682 M. Nosonovsky and B. Bhushan

recipes and recursive algorithms contained in their genetic code. The difference
of natural versus engineering design is the difference of growth versus fabrication
(Fratzl 2007; Nosonovsky & Bhushan 2008, 2009a). Hierarchical organization
and the ability of biological systems to grow and adapt also provide a natural
mechanism for the repair or healing of minor damage in the material.
The remarkable properties of the biological materials serve as a source
of inspiration for materials scientists and engineers, indicating that such
performance can be achieved if the paradigm of materials design is changed.
While, in most cases, it is not possible to directly borrow solutions from living
nature and to apply them in engineering, it is often possible to take biological
systems as a starting point and a source of inspiration for engineering design.
Molecular-scale devices, superhydrophobicity, self-cleaning, drag reduction in
fluid flow, energy conversion and conservation, high adhesion, reversible adhesion,
aerodynamic lift, materials and fibres with high mechanical strength, biological
self-assembly, antireflection, structural coloration, thermal insulation, self-healing
and sensory-aid mechanisms are some of the examples found in nature that are
of commercial interest.
Biomimetic materials are also usually environmentally friendly in a natural
way, since they are a natural part of the ecosystem. For this reason, the
biomimetic approach in tribology is particularly promising. In the area of
biomimetic surfaces, a number of ideas have been suggested (Scherge & Gorb
2001; Bar-Cohen 2006; Gorb 2006; Nosonovsky & Bhushan 2008; Favret &
Fuentes 2009).
(i) The Lotus-effect-based non-adhesive surfaces. The term ‘Lotus effect’
stands for surface-roughness-induced superhydrophobicity and self-cleaning.
Superhydrophobicity is defined as the ability to have a large (more than 150◦ )
water contact angle and, at the same time, low contact angle hysteresis. The
lotus flower is famous for its ability to emerge clean from dirty water and to repel
water from its leaves. This is due to a special structure of the leaf surface (multi-
scale roughness) combined with hydrophobic coatings (figure 2) (Nosonovsky &
Bhushan 2007a,b). These surfaces have been fabricated in the laboratory with
comparable performance (Bhushan et al. 2009).
Adhesion is a general term for several types of attractive forces that
act between solid surfaces, including the van der Waals force, electrostatic
force, chemical bonding and the capillary force, owing to the condensation
of water at the surface. Adhesion is a relatively short-range force, and its
effect (which is often undesirable) is significant for microsystems that have
contacting surfaces. The adhesion force strongly affects friction, mechanical
contact and tribological performance of such system surfaces, leading, for
example, to ‘stiction’ (combination of adhesion and static friction; Bhushan
1996, 2008), which precludes microelectromechanical switches and actuators from
proper functioning. It is therefore desirable to produce non-adhesive surfaces,
and applying surface microstructure mimicking the Lotus effect (as well as its
modifications, e.g. the so-called ‘petal effect’; figure 3) has been successfully used
for the design of non-adhesive surfaces, which are important for many tribological
applications.
(ii) The Gecko effect, which stands for the ability of specially structured
hierarchical surfaces to exhibit controlled adhesion. Geckos are known for their
ability to climb vertical walls owing to a strong adhesion between their toes and

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Introduction. Green tribology 4683

(a) (i) (ii) (iii)

(b)

Figure 2. (a) Scanning electron microscope (SEM) micrographs (shown at three magnifications)
of lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) leaf surface, which consists of microstructure formed by papillose
epidermal cells covered with epicuticular wax tubules on the surface, which create nanostructure
and (b) image of a water droplet sitting on the lotus leaf (Bhushan et al. 2009). Scale bars, (a)(i)
10 mm, (ii) 2 mm and (iii) 0.4 mm.

(a) (b)

Figure 3. Optical micrographs of water droplets on Rosa cv. Bairage at (a) 0◦ and (b) 180◦ tilt
angles. A droplet is still suspended when the petal is turned upside down (Bhushan & Her 2010).
Scale bars, (a,b) 500 mm.

a number of various surfaces. They can also detach easily from a surface when
needed (figure 4). This is due to a complex hierarchical structure of gecko foot
surface. The Gecko effect is used for applications when strong adhesion is needed
(e.g. adhesive tapes). The Gecko effect can be combined with the self-cleaning
abilities (Bhushan 2007; Nosonovsky & Bhushan 2008).
(iii) Microstructured surfaces for underwater applications, including easy flow
owing to boundary slip, the suppression of turbulence (the shark-skin effect;
figure 5) and antibiofouling (the fish-scale effect). Biofouling and biofilming are
the undesirable accumulation of micro-organisms, plants and algae on structures
that are immersed in water. Conventional antifouling coatings for ship hulls are

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4684 M. Nosonovsky and B. Bhushan

Figure 4. The Tokay gecko has the ability to climb walls and detach from surfaces easily at will.

Figure 5. Scale structure on a Galapagos shark (Carcharhinus galapagensis; Reif 1985).

Scale bar, 0.5 mm.

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Introduction. Green tribology 4685

often toxic and environmentally hazardous. On the other hand, in living nature,
there are ecological coatings (e.g. fish scale), so a biomimetic approach is sought
(Chambers et al. 2006; Genzer & Efimenko 2006; Nosonovsky & Bhushan 2009b;
Dean & Bhushan 2010; Jung & Bhushan 2010).
(iv) Oleophobic surfaces capable of repelling organic liquids. The principle
can be similar to superhydrophobicity, but it is much more difficult to produce
an oleophobic surface because surface energies of organic liquids are low, and
they tend to wet most surfaces (Nosonovsky 2007; Tuteja et al. 2007, 2008;
Nosonovsky & Bhushan 2009b). Underwater oleophobicity can also be used to
design self-cleaning and antifouling surfaces (figure 6; Jung & Bhushan 2009).
(v) Microstructured surfaces for various optical applications, including non-
reflective (the Moth-eye effect), highly reflective, coloured (in some cases,
including the ability to dynamically control coloration) and transparent surfaces.
Optical surfaces are sensitive to contamination, so the self-cleaning ability
should often be combined with optical properties (Nosonovsky & Bhushan 2008;
Gombert & Blasi 2009).
(vi) Microtextured surfaces for de-icing and anti-icing (figure 7). De-icing
(the removal of frozen contaminant from a surface) and anti-icing (protecting
against the formation of frozen contaminant) are significant problems for many
applications that have to operate below the water-freezing temperature: aircrafts,
machinery, road and runway pavements, traffic signs and traffic lights, etc.
The traditional approaches to de-icing include mechanical methods, heating
and the deposition of dry or liquid chemicals that lower the freezing point of
water. Anti-icing is accomplished by applying a protective layer of a viscous
anti-ice fluid. All anti-ice fluids offer only limited protection, dependent upon
frozen-contaminant type and precipitation rate, and they fail when they no
longer can absorb the contaminant. In addition to limited efficiency, these
de-icing fluids, such as propylene glycol or ethylene glycol, can be toxic
and raise environmental concerns. Anti-icing on roadways is used to prevent
ice and snow from adhering to the pavement, allowing easier removal by
mechanical methods.
Ice formation occurs owing to condensation of vapour-phase water and further
freezing of liquid water. For example, droplets of supercooled water that exist in
stratiform and cumulus clouds crystallize into ice when they are struck by the
wings of passing airplanes. Ice formation on other surfaces, such as pavements
or traffic signs, also occurs via the liquid phase. It is therefore suggested that a
water-repellent surface can also have de-icing properties (Cao et al. 2009). When
a superhydrophobic surface is wetted by water, an air layer or air pockets are
usually kept between the solid and the water droplets. After freezing, ice will not
adhere to the solid owing to the presence of air pockets and will be easily washed
or blown away.
(vii) MEMS-based dynamically tunable surfaces for the control of
liquid/matter flow and/or coloration (for example, mimicking the coloration
control in cephalopods), used for displays and other applications, the so-called
‘origami’ (Sidorenko et al. 2007; Bucaro et al. 2009).
(viii) Various biomimetic microtextured surfaces to control friction, wear and
lubrication (Varenberg & Gorb 2009; Bhushan 2010).
(ix) Self-lubricating surfaces, using various principles, including the ability for
friction-induced self-organization (Nosonovsky & Bhushan 2009c).

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4686 M. Nosonovsky and B. Bhushan

(a)

specimen

oil droplet water

microsyringe

(b) (i)

water droplet (89°) oil droplet (approx. 0°) oil droplet in water (109°)
(ii)

water droplet (142°) oil droplet (115°) oil droplet in water

(approx. 0°)

Figure 6. (a) Schematics of a solid–water–oil interface system. A specimen is first immersed in

water, and then an oil droplet is gently deposited using a microsyringe, and the static contact
angle is measured. (b) Optical micrographs of droplets at three different phase interfaces on a
micropatterned surface (shark-skin replica): (i) without and (ii) with C20 F42 (Jung & Bhushan
2009). Scale bar, (b) 0.5 mm.

(x) Self-repairing surfaces and materials, which are able to heal minor damage
(cracks, voids; Nosonovsky & Bhushan 2009c, 2010).
(xi) Various surfaces with alternate (and dynamically controlled) wetting
properties for micro-/nanofluidic applications, including the Darkling beetle
effect, e.g. the ability of a desert beetle to collect water on its back using the

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Introduction. Green tribology 4687

smooth surface
ice
water

smooth surface smooth surface

freezing

water ice blown away

superhydrophobic surface superhydrophobic surface

Figure 7. The principle of applying of surface microstructure for de-icing.

(a) (b)

Figure 8. The water-capturing surface of the fused overwings (elytra) of the desert beetle Stenocara
sp. (a) Adult female, dorsal view; peaks and valleys are evident on the surface of the elytra and
(b) SEM image of the textured surface of the depressed areas (Parker & Lawrence 2001). Scale
bars, (a) 10 mm and (b) 10 mm.

hydrophilic spots on an otherwise hydrophobic surface of its back (Parker &

Lawrence 2001; Rechenberg & El Khyeri 2007; Nosonovsky & Bhushan 2008)
(figure 8).
(xii) Water-strider effect mimicking the ability of insects to walk on water
using the capillary forces. The hierarchical organization of the water-strider leg
surface plays a role in its ability to remain dry on the water surface (figure 9;
Gao & Jiang 2004).
(xiii) The ‘sand fish’ lizard effect, able to dive and ‘swim’ in loose sand owing
to special electromechanical properties of its scale (Rechenberg & El Khyeri 2007;
Nosonovsky & Bhushan 2008).
Environmental engineers have only just started paying attention to biomimetic
surfaces. Raibeck et al. (2009) investigated the potential environmental benefits
and burdens associated with using the Lotus-effect-based self-cleaning surfaces.
They found that while the use-phase benefits are apparent, production
burdens can outweigh them when compared with other cleaning methods,

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4688 M. Nosonovsky and B. Bhushan

(a)

(b) (ii)
(i)

Figure 9. (a) Water strider (pond skater, Gerris remigis) walking on water and (b) SEM images
of a pond-skater leg showing (i) numerous oriented microscale setae and (ii) nanoscale grooved
structures on a seta (Gao & Jiang 2004). Scale bars, (b) (i) 20 mm and (ii) 200 nm.

so a more thoughtful and deliberate use of bioinspiration in sustainable

engineering is needed. Clearly, more studies are likely to emerge in the
near future.

(b) Biodegradable lubrication

In the area of environment-friendly and biodegradable lubrication, several ideas
have been suggested:

— The use of natural (e.g. vegetable-oil-based or animal-fat-based)

biodegradable lubricants. This involves oils that are used for engines,
hydraulic applications and metal-cutting applications. In particular,
corn, soybean and coconut oils have been used so far (the latter
is of particular interest in tropical countries such as India). These
lubricants are potentially biodegradable, although in some cases, chemical
modification or additives for best performance are required. Vegetable
oils can have excellent lubricity, far superior than that of mineral oil.
In addition, they have a very high viscosity index and high flash/fire
points. However, natural oils often lack sufficient oxidative stability, which
means that the oil will oxidize rather quickly during use, becoming thick
and polymerizing to a plastic-like consistency. Chemical modification of
vegetable oils and/or the use of antioxidants can address this problem
(table 1; Mannekote & Kailas 2009).

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Introduction. Green tribology 4689

Table 1. The content of CO and CO2 in exhaust gas lubricated with regular and vegetable oil
(Mannekote & Kailas 2009).

sample CO2 (%) CO (%)

engine oil 4.5 0.92

coconut oil 2.9 0.67
palm oil 3.4 0.73

— Powder lubricants and, in particular, boric acid lubricants. In general,

these tend to be much more ecologically friendly than the traditional liquid
lubricants (Kabir et al. 2008). Boric acid and MoS2 powder can also be used
as an additive to the natural oil. Friction and wear experiments show that
the nanoscale (20 nm) particle boric acid additive lubricants significantly
outperformed all of the other lubricants with respect to frictional and wear
performance. In fact, the nanoscale boric acid powder-based lubricants
exhibited a wear rate more than an order of magnitude lower than the
MoS2 and larger sized boric acid additive-based lubricants (M. R. Lovell,
M. A. Kabir, P. L. Menezes & C. F. Higgs 2010, personal communication).
— Self-replenishing lubrication that uses oil-free environmentally benign
powders for lubrication of critical components such as bearings used in
fuel cell compressors and expanders (Wornyoh et al. 2007).

(c) Renewable energy

The tribology of renewable sources of energy is a relatively new field of
tribology. Today, there are meetings and sections devoted to the tribology of
wind turbines at almost every tribology conference, and they cover certain issues
specific for these applications. Unlike in the case of the biomimetic approach
and environment-friendly lubrication, it is not the manufacturing or operation,
but the very application of the tribological system that involves green issues,
namely, environmentally friendly energy production. The following issues can
be mentioned.
(i) Wind-power turbines have a number of specific problems related to
their tribology, and constitute a well-established area of tribological research.
These issues include water contamination, electric arcing on generator bearings,
issues related to the wear of the mainshaft and gearbox bearings and gears,
the erosion of blades (solid particles, cavitation, rain, hail stones), etc.
(Kotzalas & Lucas 2007).
(ii) Tidal-power turbines are another important way of producing renewable
energy, which involves certain tribiological problems. Tidal-power turbines are
especially popular in Europe (particularly, in the UK), which remains the
leader in this area, although several potential sites in North America have been
suggested. There are several specific tribological issues related to the tidal-
power turbines, such as their lubrication (seawater, oils and greases), erosion,
corrosion and biofouling, as well as the interaction between these modes of damage
(Batten et al. 2008).

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Figure 10. Double-helix Gorlov turbine for underwater installation (Gorban’ et al. 2001).

Besides tidal, the ocean-water flow energy and river flow energy (without dams)
can be used with the application of special turbines, such as the Gorlov helical
turbine (figure 10; Gorban et al. 2001), which provides the same direction of
rotation independent of the direction of the current flow. These applications also
involve specific tribological issues.
(iii) Geothermal energy plants are used in the USA (in particular, at the Pacific
coast and Alaska); however, their use is limited to the geographical areas at the
edges of tectonic plates (Rybach 2007). In 2007, they produced 2.7 GW of energy
in the USA, with Philippines (2.0 GW) and Indonesia (1.0 GW) in second and
third places (Bertani 2007). There are several issues related to the tribology of
geothermal energy sources that are discussed in the literature.

4. Challenges

In the preceding sections, we have outlined the need for green tribology, its
principles and primary areas of research. As a new field, green tribology has
a number of challenges. One apparent challenge is the development of the above-
mentioned fields in such a manner that they could benefit from each other.
Only in the case where such a synthesis is performed is it possible to see
green tribology as a coherent and self-sustained field of science and technology,

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Introduction. Green tribology 4691

rather than a collection of several topics of research in tribology and surface

engineering. There is apparently potential synergy in the use of the biomimetic
approach, microstructuring, biodegradable lubrication, self-lubrication and other
novel approaches, as well as in developing methods of their applications to
sustainable engineering and energy production. Clearly, more research should be
done for the integration of these fields. Some ideas could be borrowed from the
related field of green chemistry, for example, developing quantitative metrics to
assess the environmental impact of tribological technologies.
Green tribology should be integrated into world science and make its impact
on the solutions for worldwide problems, such as the change of climate and
the shortage of food and drinking water. H. P. Jost (2009, unpublished data)
mentioned the economical potential of the new discipline: ‘The application of
tribological principles alone will, of course, not solve these world-wide problems.
Only major scientific achievements are likely to be the key to their solution,
of which I rate energy as one of the most important ones. For such tasks to
be achieved, the application of tribology, and especially of green tribology can
provide a breathing space which would enable scientists and technologists to
find solutions to these, mankind’s crucial problems and allow time for them to
be implemented by governments, organizations and indeed everyone operating
in this important field. Consequently, this important—albeit limited—breathing
space may be extremely valuable to all working for the survival of life as we know
it. However, the ultimate key is science and its application. Tribology—especially
green tribology can and—I am confident—will play its part to assist and give time
for science to achieve the required solutions and for policy makers to implement
them’.

5. Conclusions

Green tribology is a novel area of science and technology. It is related to other

areas of tribology as well as other ‘green’ disciplines, namely, green engineering
and green chemistry. We have formulated the 12 principles of green tribology and
defined three areas of tribological studies most relevant to green tribology. The
integration of these areas remains the primary challenge of green tribology and
defines future directions of research.

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