BIOLOGY
WBC, platelets) and 55% of blood is
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
- It distributes blood to the body and brings
oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to cells.
- It also removes waste and regulates body
temperature by dilating the blood vessels.
HEART
- It is made of cardiac muscle.
- On average, the heart beats 65 – 85 bpm.
- It pumps blood to distribute and circulate
blood throughout the body.
- A pregnant woman’s heart beats faster
than average because they produce more
blood.
BLOOD VESSELS
- These are tunnels where blood passes
through to cells.
- It is lined with smooth muscle tissue.
ARTERIES
- It carries oxygenated blood away from
the heart towards the rest of the body.
- The aorta is the largest artery.
- Arteries branch into smaller vessels
called arterioles.
- As we age, our arteries weaken and
increase stiffness.
CAPILLARIES
- The network and branches of arteries.
- It is the smallest of all blood vessels.
- It takes blood to cells and takes away
waste materials.
- They are attached to the digestive system.
VEINS
- Takes the deoxygenated blood from the
capillaries back to the heart.
- It has a one-way valve that prevents
backflow because of not receiving
pressure from the heart.
- Skeletal muscles help pump blood back
to the heart through the veins.
- Our veins can lead to Varicose Veins
through aging.
- The Inferior Vena Cava is the largest
vein.
BLOOD
- The human body has 4 – 6 liters of blood.
- 45% of blood are cells (44% RBC, 1%
plasma.
- Plasma is the main transport of blood
cells.
PLASMA
- It is 90% water and 10% other materials
(dissolved gases, salts, nutrients,
enzymes, hormones, and waste
products).
THREE KINDS OF BLOOD CELLS
RED BLOOD CELLS (ERYTHOCYTES)
- It transports oxygen and contains
hemoglobin (it gives color and is an iron-
rich protein molecule).
- Hemoglobin releases oxygen when
RBCs enter the capillaries and come into
close contact with body cells.
WHITE BLOOD CELLS
(LEUKOCYTES/LYMPHOCYTES)
- It attacks foreign substances or
organisms.
- It only lasts a few days and is constantly
replaced.
PLATELETS (THROMBOCYTES)
- It sticks to broken blood vessels to stop
bleeding if wounded.
- It produces protein that helps strengthen
the plug.
THE HEART
The human heart has 4 chambers: left and right
ventricle, left and right atrium.
- The left side of the heart pumps
oxygenated blood to the body.
- The right side of the heart pumps
deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
BLOOD FLOW IN THE HEART
1. The right atrium receives deoxygenated
blood from the body through the superior
and inferior vena cava.
2. The right atrium pumps blood through
the tricuspid (AV) valve and into the right
ventricle.
3. The right ventricle contracts and pushes
blood through the pulmonary valve
towards the lungs.
4. Blood is pushed through the pulmonary
arteries to the lungs to receive oxygen.
 5. Oxygenated blood returns to the left
atrium from the lungs through the
pulmonary veins.
6. Blood passes through the bicuspid
(mitral) valve into the left ventricle.
7. Contraction of left ventricle pumps blood
through the aortic valves to the aorta.
8. Blood travels through the aorta and then
to all regions of the body where it feeds
cells with oxygen picked up from the
lungs and nutrients from the digestive
tract.
HEART ATTACK – MYOCARDINAL
INFARCTION (MI)
= Death of cardiac muscle cells.
- Cause: Plaque dislodges, blocking an
artery to the heart muscle. Cardiac
muscle cells are starved for oxygen and
dies. Severity of a heart attack depends
on size and are supplied by the artery.
- Risk Factors: smoking, high blood
pressure, high LDL cholesterol, diabetes.

STROKE
TYPES OF CIRCULATION
= Death of cells in the brain.
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
- Cause: A blood vessel in the brain is
- Supplies blood to the body. blocked by dislodged plaque, or bursts,
starving the cells of oxygen. A stroke can
CORONARY CIRCULATION
have many different symptoms,
- Supplies blood to the heart. including numbness, visions changes,
speech changes, or confusion. Most
PULMONARY CIRCULATION
stroke patients are partially or majorly
- Carries blood to and from the lungs. paralyzed.
- Risk Factors: smoking, high blood
pressure, high LDL cholesterol, diabetes.
BLOOD PRESSURE
- A measure of the force exerted by the ARRYTHMIA
blood on the wall of the arteries.
- 120/80 (systolic pressure/diastolic = Irregular/skipped heartbeat
pressure)
- Cause: The heart uses electrical signals
- Systolic Pressure is the result of the
created in the SA node in the right atria,
contraction of the ventricles (normal 110
to begin a heartbeat. The conduction of
– 140)
these signals, or irregular firing of the SA
- Diastolic Pressure is during the ventricle
nod, can cause arrythmias. Atrial
relaxation (normal 70 – 90)
arrythmias are less dangerous than
ventricular arrythmias.
- Risk Factors: Generally random, but
DISORDERS OF THE CIRCULATOR factors are stimulants (such as caffeine),
SYSTEM fevers, stress, or genetic disorders.
ATHEROSCLEROSIS – CORNARY
ARTERUES DISEASE
HYPERTENSION – HIGH BLOOD
- Plaque build-up blocks arteries, PRESSURE
reducing, or even stopping blood flow.
- Plaques can break off, causing heart = Diastolic pressure over 90
attacks or stroke.
- Excessive pressure can cause the arteries
- Cause: Damaged arteries are “invaded”
to thicken, and blood vessels to weaken
by bad LDL (low density lipids)
and rupture. This can lead to heart failure,
cholesterol. White blood cells try to
stroke, kidney failure, loss of sight when
digest the LDL. The higher the saturated
vessels in the eyes burst.
fat, the higher the LDL. Though, we need
- Risk Factors: genetics, overweight,
fat because fat produces the energy we
limited physical activity, smoking,
need (but of course limit the
alcohol consumption, and certain
consumption).
medications.
- Risk Factors: smoking, high blood
pressure, high LDL cholesterol, diabetes.
- Atherosclerosis also contributes to most
disorders in the Circulatory System.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
- It brings oxygen into the body and
removes carbon dioxide and water vapor.
NOSE
- Cilia (small hairs in the nose) filter out
dirt and moisten and warms the air we
breathe.
PHARYNX
- It is part of both the respiratory and
digestive systems.
- It aids in swallowing and houses the
tonsils.
LARYNX
- It contains vocal cord that generates
sound.
TRACHEA
- It is also known as the windpipe.
- It carries air in and out of the lungs.
- A reliable pathway for oxygen to enter
the body.
BRONCHI
- An airway that leads from the trachea
into the lungs.
- It conducts, warms, and cleanses the air
in the respiratory passageway.
BRONCHIOLES
- Carries air in small sacs called alveoli
(where gas change occurs).
INHALATION
- Rib muscles and diaphragm contract.
- Rib cage expands.
- Lung volume increases.
- Air pressure in lungs decreases.
- Air flows into the lungs.
EXHALATION
- Rib muscles and diaphragm relax.
- The rib cage becomes smaller.
- Air pressure in lungs increases.
- Air flows out of the lungs.
DIAPHRAGM
- It is a dome-shaped muscle located at the
base of the rib cage.
OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE
- Exchanged in the lungs through
diffusion (the process by which materials
move from an area of high
concentration to an area of low
concentration).
DISORDERS OF THE RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
• Asthma
• Lung Cancer
HEREDITY AND HOW TRAITS CHANGE
HEREDITY
- The passing of traits from parents and
offspring.
GENETICS
- The study of how traits pass from parents
to offspring.
For most organisms, genes are sections of DNA
that contain information about a specific trait of
that organism. A gene with different information
for a trait is called an allele.
Each chromosome pair had genes for the same
traits. A gene’s allele is in the same location on
each chromosome of a pair.
HOW ARE TRAITS INHERITED?
An organism passes its traits to its offspring in
one of two ways – through asexual reproduction
or through sexual reproduction.
In asexual reproduction, one organism makes a
copy of its genes and itself. It doesn’t need the
involvement of sex cells. Ex. Plants, worms, etc.
In sexual reproduction, offspring receive half of
their genes from an egg cell and the other half
from a sperm cell. This union of the sex cells
determines the traits that will be passed onto the
offspring. The offspring displays the traits that
were inherited from the parents. Sexual
reproduction is very common to animals.
WHY DO SCIENTISTS STUDY GENETICS?
Scientists began studying genetics to understand
how traits are inherited. By studying genetics,
scientists have learned that genes control how
organisms develop. It can also determine how
organisms are related. Scientists were able to
detect diseases, trace pedigree, and trace the
origins of organisms and species.
Scientists study genetics to trace their ancestors,
study the diseases, and to improve our daily lives.
Because of this, we were able to discover
different kinds of species that could withstand
different conditions in the environment. Different
types of plants and crops that were resistant to
pests and insects were discovered.
HEREDITY – THE HISTORY AND THE
BASICS
SELECTIVE BREEDING
- It is the selection and breeding of
organisms for desired traits. It is
practiced on farms.
- 1856, Gregor Mendel began
experimenting with pea plants to answer
the question of how traits began. Mendel
chase plants that produce only green
pods, called true-breeding (parent
plants), and crossed them with true-
breeding plants that produced only
yellow pods.
- All the offspring, called hybrids,
produced only green pods. The yellow
pod trait seemed to disappear, not blend
with the green pod trait. Mendel
proposed that some traits of organisms
are dominant, while others are recessive.
When Mendel crossed two hybrid plants
with green pods, the cross resulted in
offspring with green pads and offspring
with yellow pads. These offspring were
in a ratio of about 3:1, green to yellow.
DOMINANT TRAIT
- Genetic factor that blocks another genetic
factor.
RECESSIVE TRAIT
- Genetic factor that is blocked by the
presence of a dominant factor.
When an individual has one dominant allele and
one recessive allele for a trait, the dominant is
expressed (most of the time).
The alleles of all the genes on an organism’s
chromosome make up the organism’s genotype.
While how the traits appear or are expressed is the
organism’s phenotype.
HETEROZYGOUS
- It is when an organism's genotype has
two different alleles for a trait.
- A diploid organism is heterozygous at a
gene locus when its cells contain two
different alleles (one wild type and one
mutant allele) of a gene.
HOMOZYGOUS
- It is when an organism's genotype has
two identical alleles for a trait.
- A cell is said to be homozygous for a
particular gene when identical alleles of
a gene are present on both homologous
chromosomes.
OTHER PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
- Combination of both its parents’
phenotypes.
CODOMINANCE
- Both alleles can be independently
observed in a phenotype.
MULTIPLE ALLELES
- A gene that has more than two alleles.
SEX-LINKED TRAITS
- An X or Y chromosome.
POLYGENIC INHERITANCE
- Occurs when multiple genes determine
the phenotypes of a trait.
PEDIGREE
- Genetic traits that were inherited by
members of a family.
MUTATION
- Any permanent change in the sequence
of DNA in a gene or a chromosome of a
cell.
GENETIC ENGINEERING
- The genetic material of an organism is
modified by inserting DNA from another
organism.
- Scientists use genetic engineering to help
treat diseases and learn more about how
organisms develop.
REDISCOVERING MENDEL’S WORK
- In 1900, scientists realized that genes
were on chromosomes in the nucleus
(central part of a cell).
- They confirmed that genes were
Mendel’s dominant and recessive factors.
PREDICTING GENERIC OUTCOMES
- Probabilities are predictions; they do
not guarantee outcomes.
- Mendel predicted the outcome of a
monohybrid cross, a cross between two
individuals that are hybrids for one trait.
- Punnet Square shows the probability of
all possible genotypes and phenotypes of
offspring.
Example:
Phenotypes:
3 green, 1 yellow
Genotypes:
1 GG, 2 yG, 1 yy
VARIATION AND EVOLUTION
VARIATION
- Slight differences in inherited traits
among individuals in a population.
- We need variantion in order to survive.
NATURAL SELECTION
- Nature’s choice of eliminating the weak.
- it’s main purpose is for us to live longer,
compete better, and reproduce more.
EXAMPLE:
1. Variation – Individuals in a population
differ. Some sunflowers are taller than
others.
2. Inheritance – Traits are inherited from
parents. Tall produce tall, short produce
short.
3. Competition – Due to limited resources,
not all offspring will survive. Individuals
with a trait that is better suits the
environment are more likely to survive
and produce. In this case, tall sunflowers
will need more resources to survive. But
because there are limited resources, tall
sunflowers are not successful. There are
always changes in the environment.
4. Natural Selection – Overtime, the
average height of the sunflower
population is short if short sunflowers
continue to reproduce successfully.
ADAPTATIOIN
- An inherited trait that increases an
organism’s chance of surving and
producing in a particular environment.
STRUCTURAL ADAPTATION
- Physical characteristics
FUNCTIONAL ADAPTATION
- Internal systems that affect an organism’s
physiclogy or biochemistry.
- Example: during winter, leaves fall from
trees because there are liited resources.
BEHAVIORAL ADAPTATIONS
- The way an organism behaves or reacts.
- Example: migration.
EVOLUTION
- It changes over time.
- Once an inherited trait has become more
frequently in a population, the population
has adapted and evolved.
- When populations evolve, species can
look and behave differently than their
ancestors.
- As the environment changes, different
inherited traits might enable survival, and
the population can evolve again.
EXTINCTION
- Last individual of a species has died.
- When a population lack variation and the
environment changes, the population
might lose it ability to reproduce
successfully and fail to survive.
- A mass extinction occurs when many
species become extinct within a few
million years or less.
ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
- Populations of organisms depend on
resource in their environment for food
and shelter.
- Extinction happens when the
environments change quickly.
- Depending on the location, not all
environmental change is sudden.
Sometimes the change in gradual.
- A species might become extinct if it
cannot find the resources it needs.
FLOW OF ENERGY AND MATTER
FOOD ENERGY
- Organisms need a constant supply of
energy, in the form of food to stay alive.
PRODUCERS
- Organisms that use an outside source,
such as the Sun, produce their own food.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
- A chemical process that uses carbon
dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce
glucose (sugar) and oxygen.
CHEMOSYNTHESIS
- Producers make energy-rich compound.
- Uses a chemical such as hydrogen sulfide
or methane to produce glucose.
CONSUMERS
- Organisms that cannot produce their own
food.
- They obtain energy and nutrients by
consuming other organisms or
compounds produced by other
organisms.
Herbivores eat producers.
Omnivores eat producers and consumers.
Carnivores eat herbivores, omnivores, and other
carnivores.
Detrivores consume the bodies of dead organism
and wastes produced by living organisms.
FLOW OF ENERGY
- Once energy from the environment is
converted into food energy, it can be
transferred from one organism to another
throuh feeding relationships.
FOOD CHAIN
- A simple model that shows how energy
moves from producers to one or more
consumers through feeing relationsips.
- Producers are the source of all food
energy in the ecosystem.
FOOD WEB
-model of energy transfer that can show how the
food chains in a community are interconnected.
ENERGY PYRAMID
- A model that shows the amount of energy
available in each link of a food chain.
- Each step in the food chain contains
lesser energy than the previous. There is
loss of energy because in every
movement, there is a consumption or
need of energy.
CYCLING MATERIALS
- The law of conservation of matter states
hat matter cannot be created noe
destroyed, but it can change form.
- Matter is recycled through ecosystems,
changing form along the way.
NITROGEN CYCLE
WATER CYCLE
- Life on Earth could not exist without
water.
- Water is required for every process that
takes place in cells and tissues, including
cellular respiration, photosynthesis, and
digestion.
- Water evaporates from Earth's surface
and rises into the atmosphere as water
vapor. Water vapor is also released from
the leaves of plants in the process called
transpiration from animals when they
exhale. When water vapor contacts with
cooler air, it condenses and forms clouds.
- Precipitation.
OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE CYCLE
- The cells of most organisms (both plants
and animals), require oxygen for cellular
respiration. Cells use the energy released
during cellular respiration for life
processes.
 - Cellular respiration releases carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere, where it can
be taken in by plant leaves and used for
photosynthesis. Photosynthesis releases
oxygen into the atmosphere, where it can
be taken in by animals, plants, and other
organisms.
- Both are important processes in the
cycling of carbon dioxide and oxygen
through the living and nonliving parts of
ecosystems.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
- It takes place in the chloroplasts.
OUTER/INNER MEMBRANE
- Chloroplasts are surrounded by two
membranes.
STROMA
- The fluid outside the thylakoid.
- Uses chemical energy to convert carbon
dioxide to sugar (Calvin Cycle).
GRANA/GRANUM
- Stacks of thylakoids in the chloroplast.
THYLAKOID
- Chlorophyll is found in the thylakoid.
- Converts light energy to chemical energy.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
- A series of chemical reactions that
convert light energy, water, and carbon
dioxide into the food-energy molecule
glucose and give off oxygen.
- Leaves are the major sites of
photosynthesis.
- Food-making process in plants.
CHEMICAL EQUATION
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy = C6 H12 O6 + 6 O2
(carbon dioxide + water + sun = glucose and
oxygen)
TWO STAGES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
LIGHT - DEPENDENT STAGE (oxygen)
- Also known as dark reaction.
- Occur in the grana/thylakoid.
- Converts light energy to chemical energy
of ATP and NADPH.
- Releases oxygen.
LIGTH – INDEPENDENT STAGE (glucose)
- Occurs in the stroma.
- Uses ATP and NADPH to form glucose
from carbon dioxide.
ATP
- Adenosine triphosphate
- Stores and transfers energy to cells.
NADPH
- Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
phosphate
CALVIN CYCLE
CALVIN
- Named after American, Melvin Calvin.
- Most used pathways by most plants.
- Used by C3 plants because of the 3-
Carbon molecules made.
CALVIN CYCLE
- Uses products from the light reactions +
Co2 to make sugar and other compounds.
- Co2 is changed to sugar in a series of
chemical reactions: Co2 + RuBP (5 –
Carbon sugar) = 6 – Carbon molecule.
- Enzymes that catalyze this reaction is
rubisco (the most abundant protein in
nature by 25%).
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
- The set of metabolic reactions and
processes that take place in the cells of
organisms to convert biochemical energy
from nutrients into adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), and then release
waste products.
MITOCHONDRIA
- The powerhouse of the cell and the
conversion of the potential energy of
food molecules into the ATP.

AEROBIC RESPIRATION
- With oxygen.
- In mitochondria.

ANAEROBIC REACTION
- Also called fermentation.
- Without oxygen
- In cytosol.

THREE STAGES OF CELLULAR

RESPIRATION
GLYCOLYSIS (anaerobic)
- “glyco – lysis” is the splitting of a 6 0
Carbon glucose into two pyruvates, each
having 3 – Carbon.
- Can occur without oxygen.
- In cytoplasm.
- Prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
- Net yield of 2 ATP per glucose molecule.
CITRIC ACID or KREB’S CYCLE (aerobic)
- Can ONLY occur if oxygen is present and
the cell had mitochondria.
- Oxidation of glucose to Co2 is complete
(why we exhale Co2).
ELECTRON TRANSPORT SYSTEM
(aerobic)
- Oxidative Phosphorylation is the process
in which ATP is formed as a result of the
transfer of electrons from NADPH or
FADH2 to O2 by a series of electron
carriers.

FERMENTATON
- Use of pyruvate to make minimal ATP
when there is no O2 = anaerobic.
- This happens when the Krebs Cycle
cannot occur due to lack of oxygen.
- Products of fermentation include lactic
acid and alcohol.
- Lactic Acid in muscle cells causes
muscle cramps.
CHEMISTRY PROPERTIES OF NONMETAL
PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS - Poor conductors of heart and electricity.
- Not ductile nor malleable.
PERIODIC LAW
- Dull, brittle, and breaks easily.
- States that when elements are arranged in - Many nonmetals are gases.
order of increasing atomic number,
PROPERTIES OF METALLOIDS
elements with similar chemical
properties occur at periodic intervals. - Have properties of both metal and
nonmetals.
- Conducts better heat and electricity than
PERIOD TABLE nonmetals but not as well as metals.
- Ductile and malleable.
- A tabular arrangement of the elements in
order of increasing atomic number such
that elements with similar chemical
Elements in the periodic table are also grouped
properties are positions in vertical
into families, which are the columns. Elements in
columns.
families have similar properties.
Elements are also categorized into periods, or
Oxygen is the most abundant element in the horizontal rows. Elements in periods do not have
Earth’s crust. similar properties.

Elements are organized on the table according to

their atomic number, usually found near the top
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
of the square.

ATOMIC NUMBER
- Refers to how many protons an atom of
that element has.
- It is unique because no two elements
have the same number of protons.
- Example: hydrogen has 1 proton, so its
atomic number is 1.

ATOMIC MASS
The number of protons is also equal to the number
- Refers to the weight of the atom. of electrons.
- Derived at by adding the number of
protons with the number of neutrons.
FORMULA:

SYMBOLS Z (atomic number) = number of protons and

- All elements have their own unique
symbol. It can consist of a single capital
letter, or a capital letter and one or two
lower case letters.
CATEGORIES OF THE PERIODIC TABLE
PROPERTIES OF METAL
- Good conductors of heat and electricity.
- Shiny, ductile (can be stretched into thin
wires), and malleable (can be pounded
into thin sheets).
- A chemical property of metal is its
reaction with water which results in
corrosion.
electrons.
A (mass number) = protons + neutrons.
Number of Neutrons = mass number – atomic
number.
Protons and Electrons = mass number – neutrons.
CHEMICAL BONDING
- The attractive force that holds two atoms
together in a more complex unit
(compound).
VALENCE ELECTRONS
- The number of valence electrons an atom
has may also appear in a square.
- It is the electrons in the outer energy level
of an atom.
- These are the electrons that are
transferred or shared when atoms bond
together.
- The outermost electron of an atom that
participates in chemical bonding.
FORMATION OF IONS FROM METALS
- Ionic Compounds result when metals
react with nonmetals.
- Metals lose electrons to match the
number of valence electrons of their
nearest noble gas.
- Positive ions form when the number of
electrons are less than the number of
protons.

FORMATION OF SODIUM ION

OCTET
- 8 is a stable number of valence electrons.

A neutral sodium atom loses one electron from

FORMULA: 2n2 <- orbit number the outermost shell to form a sodium ion with a
2n2 charge of 1+.

2 (1) 2 = 2e
2 (2) 2 = 8e FORMATION OF MAGNESIUM ION

2 (3) 2 = 18e

ELECTRON DOT DIAGRAM

- Model that represents the valence
electrons.
Magnesium atom loses two electrons from the
outermost shell. On losing two electrons, a
positively charged magnesium ion having two
positive charges is formed.

FLUORIDE ION

CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS
IONNIC COMPOUND
- High melting point. A neutral fluorine atom gains one electron to
- Good conductors. attain a stable octet. It becomes a fluoride ion with
- Bond is formed between two ions by the an electric charge of -1.
transfer of electrons.
MOLECULAR COMPOUND
IONIC BOND
- Low melting point.
- Between atoms of metals and nonmetals
- Poor conductors.
with very different electronegativity.
- Also called a Covalent Compound.
- Bond forms by transfer of electrons.
- Non-metal
- Ex. NaCl, CaCl2, K2O
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
- Ability to attract electrons.
- The highest electronegative element is
fluorine.

IONIC BOND EXAMPLE:

HYDROCARBONS AND FUNCTIONAL

Electron from Na is transferred to Cl. This causes
a change imbalance in each atom. The Na
becomes (Na+) and the Cl becomes (Cl-), charged
particles or ions.
IONS
- Charged particles, can either be negative
or positive.
- Cation (+), anion (-).
GROUPS
HYDROCARBONS
- Compunds that contain only carbon and
hydrogen.
- Carbon atoms have 4 valence electrons,
allowing them to bond in many different
ways.
- A carbon atom can bond to two, three, or
four other atoms, which means that
hydrocarbons can form a wide variety of
structures.

CHEMICAL FOMULA WHEN THEY Aliphatic Hydrocarbons form straight chains.

REACT Alicyclic Hydrocarbons form rings of carbon
atoms.
Aromatic Hydrocarbons contains a special
structure called a benzene ring (C6H6).

CRISS-CROSS METHOD
First element – metal is “cation”.
Second element – non-metal is “anion”.
When changing the element name, the last three
letters of the second element’s name must contain
ide. (Magnesium Chlorine = Magnesium
Chloride).
COVALENT BONDS
ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBONS
- Can be divided into three types, based on
the number of bonds between
neighbouring atoms.
- These different types have different
properties due to their bonding.
Alkanes have only single bonds between carbon
atoms.
Alkenes contain atleast one double bond between
a pair of carbon atoms.
Alkynes have atleast one triple bond between
carbon atoms.
There are so many different hydrocarbon
molecules possible that a special naming system
called IUPAC – International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry, used to identify them.
This naming system has specific rules so that each
molecules has a unique name.

1. The first part of the name is based on the

length of the longest carbon chain in the
molecule.
 2. The end of the name is given by the ORGANIC COMPOUND
number of bonds between carbon atoms.
- It is a chemical compound that contains
If there are only single bonds the name
carbon atoms usually bonded to at least
ends with “-ane”, if there are atleast one
one hydrogen atom. It can also contain
double bond the name ends in “-ene”,
other elements such as oxygen,
and if there are atleast one triple bond
phosphorus, or sulfur. However,
the name ends in “-yne”.
compounds such as carbon dioxide
3. Functional groups (branches coming off
(CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO) are
the longest carbon chain) are named
not organic because they do not have a
acording to their length and how many
carbon-hydrogen bond.
there are.
4. Functional groups are numbered to show
where they are attached to the main
chain. Carbon atoms in the main chain FORMS OF PURE CARBON
are numbered from the end closest to the Graphite has carbon atoms that form thin sheets
functional groups (or the end closest to a that can slide over one another or bend. It is used
multiple bond if there is one). as a lubricant and in making golf clubs, tennis
NUMBER OF PREFIX FOR FUNCTIONAL rackets, pencil lead, and other items.
CARBON MAIN CHAIN GROUPS
ATOMS Diamonds has carbon atoms that bond to one
1 Meth- Methyl another in a rigid and orderly structure, making
2 Eth- Ethyl diamonds extremely strong. Hence, the reason
3 Prop- Propyl why it is the hardest metals known.
4 But- Butyl
5 Pent- Pentyl Fullerene forms various cage-like structures.
6 Hex- Hexyl Uses for fullerene are still being explored but,
7 Hept- Heptyl future fullerene uses might include the
8 Oct- Octyl development of faster, smaller electronic
9 Non- Nonyl components.
10 Dec- Decyl
Amorphous carbon lacks orderly arrangement or
lacks distinct structure. It is found in soot, coal,
HYDROCARBON HIGHEST SUFFIX/PREFIX
CLASS ORDER BOND
and charcoal.
Alkane C–C -ane
Alkene C=C -ene
Alkyne C≡C -yne ISOMERS
- Compounds that have the same
UNITS PREFIX molecular formula but different
1 structural arrangements.
2 Di-
3 Tri-
4 Tetra-
CARBON-TO-CARBON BONDING

EXAMPLE: - When carbon atoms bonds to another

This molecule has only single bonds, so it is an
alkane, and its name ends in -ane. The longest
chain has three carbons, so the prefix is prop-.
The molecule has two (di-) single carbon
(methyl-) branches, so, it is a dimethylpropane.
Both branches come off the second carbon atom
in the chain, 2,2-dimethyl-. The full name is 2,2-
dimethylpropane.
carbon atom, the two atoms can share
two, four, or six electrons.
- When two carbon atoms share two
electrons, it is a single bond aka alkanes.
- When two carbon atoms share four
electrons, it is a double bond aba alkenes.
- If two carbon atoms share six electrons,
it is a triple bond aka alkynes.
Saturated Hydrocarbon is a hydrocarbon that
contains only single bonds (alkane).
Unsaturated Hydrocarbon is a hydrocarbon
that has one or more double or triple bonds
(alkenes & alkynes).
EARTH SCIENCE
EARTH
Temperature and pressure increase with
depth. Temperature between the Earth increases
with increasing depth. Pressure also increases
due to the weight of overlying rocks. High
pressure squeezes the rocks and makes them
much denser than surface rocks.
Using earthquake waves, scientists use indirect
methods and get most of their evidence from
analyzing earthquake waves. Earthquakes release
energy in the form of three types of waves. It is
affected by the different materials they travel
through. Some cannot travel through certain
materials and others change direction. Scientists
can infer the density and composition of materials
within Earth.
EARTH AS A SYSTEM
- Refer to the physical, chemical, and
biological processes.
- The Earth is considered as a Closed
System.
EARTH’S LAYERS
- It is determined by density. Each layer
has a different composition, with the
densest material in the center of Earth.
Crust is the brittle, rocky outer layer of the Earth.
It is much thinner than the other layers and the
least dense layer of the atmosphere. It is mostly
made of elements of low mass, such as silicon and
oxygen.
Oceanic Crust are crusts under oceans. It is made
of iron and magnesium. It is thinner and denser
than the continental crust.
Continental Crust are crusts on land. It is four
times thicker than oceanic crust. It is on its
thickest when under mountains.
Mantle is the thick middle layer in the solid part
of Earth. It contains more Fe and Mg than the
oceanic crust. It is denser than either crust and is
made of rock.
Uppermost Mantle is brittle and rigid like the
rocks in the crust. Because of this, scientists
group the crust and the uppermost mantle into a
rigid layer called lithosphere.
Asthenosphere are hot rocks wherein tint bits
melts and are no longer brittle that begins to flow.
It is a plastic layer within the mantle that flows
very slowly.
Plastic is a term that scientists use to describe
rocks that flows slowly. It refers to materials that
are soft enough to flow.
Upper Mantle & Lower Mantle has rocks that
are solid but hotter than the rock in the
asthenosphere. No melting occurs because high
pressure tends to prevent melting. High pressure
squeezes the rock into a solid, forming the largest
layer of Earth.
Core is a dense metallic center of Earth. Metal
was soft enough for gravity to pull down to the
center. It is mostly Fe with small amounts of Ni
and other elements. The core has a liquid outer
core and solid inner core.
Outer Core is liquid. The mantle and core are
made of different materials and have different
melting temperatures. The effect of temperature
outweighs the effects of pressure in the outer
core.
Inner Core is a dense ball of solid iron crystals.
The pressure in the center of Earth is so high that
even at 6000 oC, the iron is in a solid state. It is
not rigidly attached to the outer core and spins a
little faster than the rest of the Earth.
EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD
- The Earth’s spinning core creates the
magnetic field. It produces streams of
flowing, molten Fe in the outer core.
- It is a region of magnetism produced in
part by the flow of molten materials in the
outer core. It acts like a giant bar magnet
and has opposite poles. It is not
completely stable, and its strength and
direction vary.
MAGNETOSPHERE
- The outer part of the magnetic field that
interacts with charged particles.
- It protects the Earth from cosmic rays and
charged particles from the Sun. It also
pushes away and traps other charged
particles.
EARTH’S SPHERES
MAJOR SPHERES MINOR SPHERES
Atmosphere Cryosphere
Hydrosphere Anthrosphere
Geosphere
(Lithosphere)
Biosphere
ATMOSPHERE
- It is a gaseous sphere and it envelopes the
Earth. It consists of a mixture of gases (H,
O, CO2, H2O(g)).
HOW DO VALCANOES FORM?
The movement and shift of Earth’s tectonic plates
causes the formation of volcanoes and the
eruptions that results. As the plates join or
separate some of the molten rock is exposed.

LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES -> <-
Troposphere is the densest atmospheric level
that is compressed by the weight of all the - It is when two plates collide, the denser
atmosphere above it. Most of the Earth’s weather plate sinks or subducts into the mantle.
and aviation takes place here. The thermal energy below the surface
and fluid driven off the subducting plate
Stratosphere is best known as home to Earth’s
melt the mantle and form magma.
ozone layer that protects us from the Sun’s
Magma is less dense than the
harmful ultraviolet radiation.
surrounding mantle and rises through
Mesosphere is the coldest place found within the cracks in the crust.
Earth’s system. Most meteors burn up here and
sounding rockets and rocket-powered aircraft can
reach this atmospheric level. DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES <- ->
Thermosphere has increased temperatures with - It is when two plates spread apart, and
altitude due to the very low density of molecules magma rises through the vent or opening
found here. The aurora borealis and aurora in Earth’s crust that forms between them.
australis are sometimes see here. It is also cloud It commonly occurs at a mid-ocean ridge.
and water vapor-free. More than 60% of all volcanic activity on
Earth occurs along mid-ocean ridges.
Exosphere is the highest layer of the Earth’s
atmosphere. It merges with the solar wind and
molecules here are of extremely low density.
HOT SPOTS
There’s no weather, and the aurora borealis and
aurors australis are seen in its lowest port. Most - These are volcanoes that are not
Earth’s Satellites orbit in the exosphere. associated with plate boundaries. It
originates above a rising conviction
Geosphere includes the rocks and minerals on
current from deep within Earth’s mantle.
Earth. It also includes the abiotic (non-living)
- Plume is the rising currents of hot mantle
soils and fossilized skeletons of animals.
material.
Hydrosphere is all the water on Earth. 71% is
covered by water and 29% terra firma.
RING OF FIRE
Biosphere is all life on Earth (man and all
organisms). Life zone in our planet distinguishes - It is an area of earthquake and volcanic
our planet from others. activity that surrounds the Pacific Ocean.
Volcanoes are mostly along convergent
plate boundaries wherein they collide.
Lithosphere is the crust of the Earth. Includes the - It is also located along divergent plate
continental and oceanic crust, and the layers of boundaries where plates separate.
the Earth’s interior.
Cryosphere is water in solid form (snow, ice,
TYPES OF VOLCANOES
etc.).
Anthrosphere are the human population,
buildings, dorms, etc.

VOLCANOES
- It is a vent in Earth’s crust through which
melted or molten rock flows.
- Magma is a molten liquid-like rock
below the Earth’s surface.
- Lava is magma that reaches the Earth’s
surface.
WHEN AND HOW DO ERUPTIIONS
OCCUR?
Steam gases from magma in the Earth create
bubbles that expand and burst when the pressure
above them is lessened. It usually bursts with a
tremendous force that along with escaping gas
comes magma too. Sometimes, it takes years for
magma to break through the surface.
Volcanic Gas is contained within magma and
releases it into the surface. It is toxic and can
suffocate people.
Volcanic Ash is an exploded volcanic rock. These
are tiny particles of pulverized volcanic rock and
small sharp glass.
ERUPTION STYLES

WHY DO ERUPTIONS OCCUR? • Quiet Eruption

• Violent Eruption
It occurs when underground pressure is released
when blocks of the Earth’s crust shift
(earthquake). SIGNS OF VOLCANIC ERUPTION

• Ground deformation
VOLCANIC PRODUCTS • Change in the shape of volcano.
• Earthquake swarm
Pyroclastic Flow are mixtures of hot gas, ash, • Volcanic gas emission increases
and other volcanic rocks that flows down quickly. • Ground and surface water near volcanoes
One of the most dangerous hazards posed by
becomes acidic
volcanoes.
Lahars are mudflows formed by the mixing of
volcanic particles and water.
Pahoehoe Lava are formed by small volumes of
hot fluid basalt and flows smoothly.
PHYSICS
PROJECTILE MOTIOIN

Notes Owner: Julienne Amular