Divlr Tmllt

JTDB??<;@ Jlflro` [mysbds wbtm Do`du`us ? @og Wlpirt

Xldtirs

Gy >
Aumoaaoe Wbemi ^oazoab

Tldtbif O

@og Lxldutbif Eotl > Nu`y ?7, 7;?2

Tugabssbif Eotl > Nu`y ?2, 7;?2

Hodu`ty ih Lfjbfllrbfj & Uldmfi`ijy

Toapilrfo \fbvlrsbty

Ogstrodt
Umbs stuey obas ti rlvlo` tml ufelrstofebfj ih stuelft difdlpts if tml tipbd ih vldtirs rl`otle ti
oeebtbif ih vldtirs, sugtrodtbif ih vldtirs, ofe ufbt vldtirs. Ui odmblvl tmbs jio`, ifl mialwirc

prig`la hiraottle qulstbif orl jbvlf bf piwlrpibft. tml mialwirc prig`la difsbsts ih sbx qulstbifs
tmot ebsduss twi sugtipbds. [ort ? ebsdussls sugtipbds ih vldtir oeebtbif, port 7 ofe sugtrodtbif vldtir.
Umbss rlslor
Umb rlslordm
dm wos difeud
difeudtle
tle if twi sldife
sldife-yl
-ylor
or stuelf
stuelfts
ts T? Diaput
Diaputlr
lr Tdblfd
Tdblfdll Toapil
Toapilrfo
rfo
\fbvlrsbty. Uml rlsu`ts ih tml ofo`ysbs bfebdotl tmot stuelfts movl o jiie ufelrstofebfj ih tml
difdlpts bf sugtipbds ih vldtir oeebtbif ofe sugstrodtbif,.

Clywires > Hirdls, aojfbtuel, ofe ofj`l.

?
Uog`l ih Diftlfts

Divlr Tmllt ?

Ogstrodt ?

Uog`l ih Diftlfts 7

@bst ih Uog`ls 4
@bst ih Hbjurls 4

Bftrieudtbif 5

Umliry ofe Godcjriufe 5

? O`jlgro ih Xldtirs bf Ifl Ebalfsbif 5
7 O`jlgro ih Xldtirs bf Uwi Ebalfsbifs <
4 Diirebfotl Tystlas ofe Diapiflfts ih o Xldtir 8

Lxplrbalfto` Opporotus ofe Eidualftotbif :

Lxplrbalfto` [ridleurl 2

[rlslftotbif ih Wlsu`ts ?;
Ofo`ysbs ofe Ebsdussbif ih Wlsu`ts ??

Difd`usbif ofe Wldiaalfeotbifs ?7

Wlhlrlfdls ?7
Opplfebx B > Toap`l Do`du`otbifs ?4
@bst ih Uog`ls
[ojl
Uog`l ?.Aojfbtuel, Ofj`l, ]-diapiflft, ofe R-diapiflft ih Hbvl Xldtirs ?;
Uog`l 7.Aojfbtuel, Ofj`l, ]-diapiflft, ofe R-diapiflft ih Wlsu`toft Xldtirs ?;

@bst ih Hbjurls
[ojl
Hbjurl ?. Ebsp`odlalft vldtirs <
Hbjurl 7 Xldtir oeebtbif ofe sugstrodtbif 8
Hbjurl 4. uslr bftlrhodl if vldtir oeebtbif :
Hbjurl 5 Ttuelfts dof slt tml aojfbtuel ofe ofj`l ih tml vldtir =
Hbjurl < Mialwirc prig`la 7 qulstbif E =
Hbjurl 8 Mialwirc prig`la 7 qulstbif L 2
Hbjurl :. alwirc prig`la 7 qulstbif H 2
Bftrieudtbif
Xldtirs orl quoftbty eltlrabfle gy aojfbtuel ofe ebrldtbif. Bf aotmlaotbdo` do`du`otbif,
vldtir mos o vldtir oeebtbif. Gy eltlrabfbfj tml ebrldtbif ih lodm hirdl hbrst,tml difdlpt vldtir
oeebtbif dof gl usle ti oee tml lxbstbfj vldtirs. Bf tmbs difdlpt ih tml vldtir mos o rl`otbif wbtm tml
lqub`bgrbua. Uml lqub`bgrbua wb`` gl odmblvle wmlf tml tito` ih vldtir bs lquo` ti ; Flwtif. Zmlf tml
lxbstbfj vldtirs movl tml tito` vo`uls tmot bs do``le rlsu`toft. Uml aojfbtuel ofe ebrldtbif ih tml
rlsu`toft hirdl dof gl ohhldtle gy au`tbp`l hodtirs, ifl ih tmla glbfj tml ofj`l ih tml hirdls tmot orl
ohhldtbfj ignldts. Uml hirdl tmot lxbsts bf tmbs lxplrbalft wb`` lquo` wlbjmt.

Umliry ofe Godcjriufe

Xldtirs orl jlialtrbd rlprlslftotbifs ih aojfbtuel ofe ebrldtbif wmbdm orl ihtlf rlprlslftle
gy strobjmt orriws, stortbfj ot ifl pibft if o diirebfotl oxbs ofe lfebfj ot o ebhhlrlft pibft. Ifl
lxoap`l ih vldtirs bs hirdl. Hirdl bs o quoftbtotbvl elsdrbptbif ih of bftlrodtbif tmot dousls o dmofjl
bf of ignldt's aitbif.
aitbif.
Umbs lxplrbalft wlrl usbfj bfstrualfts (sihtworl) ofe lquotbifs tmot orl rl`otle ti gitm
vldtirs ofe hirdls tmot abjmt gl ufhoab`bor ti sial, sudm os ttml
ml hirdl tog`l ofe poro``l`ijroa altmie.
?. O`jlgr
O`jlgroo ih
ih Xldt
Xldtirs
irs bf Ifl Ebalfs
Ebalfsbif
bif
Xldtirs dof gl au`tbp`ble gy sdo`ors, oeele ti itmlr vldtirs, ir sugtrodtle hria itmlr vldtirs.
Tuppisl yiur hrblfe elports hria pibft O (tml doapsbtl) ofe wo`cs bf tml ebrldtbif ti pibft G (tml
hbsmbfj pife), gut, o`ifj tml woy, stips ti rlst ot sial pibft D `idotle tmrll-quortlrs ih tml ebstofdl
gltwllf O ofe G, gljbffbfj hria pibft O (Hbjurl ?.(o)). Zmot bs mbs ebsp`odlalft vldtir E ↗ OD
wmlf ml rlodmls pibft D9 Zl cfiw tmot bh ml wo`cs o`` tml woy ti G, mbs ebsp`odlalft vldtir rl`otbvl
ti O bs E ↗ OG, wmbdm mos aojfbtuel EOG 18ca ofe o ebrldtbif ih firtmlost. Bh ml wo`cs if`y o
;.:< hrodtbif ih tml tito` ebstofdl, aobftobfbfj tml firtmlostlr`y ebrldtbif, ot pibft D ml aust gl
;.:<EOG 15.<ca owoy hria tml doapsbtl ot O. Ti, mbs ebsp`odlalft vldtir ot tml rlst pibft D mos
aojfbtuel EOD 15.<ca1;.:<EOG ofe bs poro``l` ti tml ebsp`odlalft vldtir E ↗ OG. O`` ih tmbs
dof gl stotle suddbfdt`y bf tml hira ih tml hi``iwbfj vldtir lquotbif.
Hbjurl ?. Ebsp`odlalft vldtirs hir o hbsmbfj trbp. (o) Ttippbfj ti rlst ot pibft D wmb`l
wmb`l wo`cbfj hria
doap (pibft O) ti tml pife (pibft G). (g) Jibfj godc hir tml eripple todc`l gix (pibft E). (d) Hbfbs
Hbfbsmbfj
mbfj
up ot tml hbsmbfj pife.
Bf jlflro`, wmlf o vldtir O ↗ bs au`tbp`ble gy o pisbtbvl sdo`or ο, tml rlsu`t bs o flw vldtir

G ↗ tmot bs poro``l` ti O > G 1ο O

Bf jlflro`, bf ifl ebalfsbif―os wl`` os bf mbjmlr ebalfsbifs, sudm os bf o p`ofl ir bf spodl

―wl dof oee ofy fuaglr ih vldtirs ofe wl dof ei si bf ofy irelr gldousl tml oeebtbif ih vldtirs bs
diaautotbvl, O + G1 G + O
Ofe ossidbotbvl, ( O + G ) + D 1 O +( G + D )
⃚ ⃚ ⃚ ⃚ ⃚ ⃚

Airlivlr, au`tbp`bdotbif gy o sdo`or bs ebstrbgutbvl>

ο ? O + ο 7 O 1( ο ? + ο 7 ) O
⃚ ⃚ ⃚

7. O`jlgr
O`jlgroo ih Xldtir
Xldtirss bf Uwi Ebalfs
Ebalfsbif
bifss

Zmlf vldtirs `bl bf o p`ofl―tmot bs, wmlf tmly orl bf twi ebalfsbifs―tmly dof gl au`tbp`ble
gy sdo`ors, oeele ti itmlr vldtirs,
vldtirs, ir sugtrodtle hria i
itmlr
tmlr vldtirs bf oddireofdl wbtm tm
tmll jlflro` `ows.

Hir o jlialtrbd difstrudtbif ih tml sua ih twi vldtirs bf o p`ofl, wl hi``iw tml poro``l`ijroa
ru`l. Tuppisl twi vldtirs O ofe G ↗ orl ot tml orgbtrory pisbtbifs smiwf bf Hbjurl 7. Urofs`otl lbtmlr
ifl ih tmla bf poro``l` ti tml gljbffbfj ih tml itmlr vldtir, si tmot ohtlr tml trofs`otbif, gitm vldtirs
movl tmlbr irbjbfs ot tml soal pibft. Fiw, ot tml lfe ih vldtir O ↗ wl erow o `bfl poro``l` ti vldtir G
↗ ofe ot tml lfe ih vldtir G ↗ wl erow o `bfl poro``l` ti vldtir O ↗ (tml eosmle `bfls bf Hbjurl 7). Bf
tmbs woy, wl igtobf o poro``l`ijroa. Hria tml irbjbf ih tml twi vldtirs wl erow o ebojifo` tmot bs tml
rlsu`toft W ↗ ih tml twi vldtirs> W 1 O + G (Hbjurl 7(o)). Uml itmlr ebojifo` ih tmbs poro``l`ijroa bs
rlsu`toft ⃚

E O ⃚

tml vldtir ebhhlrlfdl ih tml twi vldtirs 1 ∗ G, os smiwf bf Hbjurl 7(g). Fitbdl tmot tml lfe ih tml
ebhhlrlfdl vldtir bs p`odle ot tml lfe ih vldtir O .
 Hbjurl 7. Xldtir oeebtbif ofe sugstrodtbif

4. Diirebfo
Diirebfotl
tl Tystla
Tystlass ofe
ofe Diapi
Diapiflft
flftss ih
ih o Xldtir
Xldtir

Bf o rldtofju`or (Dortlsbof) xy-diirebfotl systla bf o p`ofl, o pibft bf o p`ofl bs elsdrbgle gy o

pobr ih diirebfotls (x, y). Bf o sbab`or hosmbif, o vldtir O bf o p`ofl bs elsdrbgle gy o pobr ih bts vldtir
diirebfotls. Uml x-diirebfotl ih vldtir O b s do``le bts x-diapiflft ofe tml y-diirebfotl ih vldtir O bs
do``le bts y-diapiflft. Uml vldtir x-diapiflft bs o vldtir elfitle gy O x. Uml vldtir y diapiflft bs o
vldtir
vld elfitle gy O y. Bf tml Dortlsbof systla, tml x ofe y vldtir diapiflfts ih o vldtir orl tml
tir elfitle
irtmijifo` prinldtbifs ih tmbs vldtir if ti tml x-ofe y-oxls, rlspldtbvl`y. Bf tmbs woy, hi``iwbfj tml
poro``l`ijroa ru`l hir vldtir oeebtbif, lodm vldtir if o Dortlsbof p`ofl dof gl lxprlssle os tml vldtir
sua ih bts vldtir diapiflfts> O 1 O x + O y
Lxplrbalfto` Opporotus ofe Eidualftotbif
Uml bfstrualfts tmot wlrl usle bf tmbs lxplrbalft wlrl vldtir oeebtbif (sihtworl). Umbs
opp`bdotbif
opp`bdotbif mos 5 do`du`otbif
do`du`otbif aiels, ifl ebalfsbif,
ebalfsbif, twi ebalfsbifs,
ebalfsbifs, `og, ofe lquotbif
lquotbif.. Bf tmbs
prodtbdua, usbfj twi aiels orl `og ofe lquotbif. Bf `og aiel, uslrs dof drlotl twi ir airl vldtirs
ofe movl o `babt vo`ul ih <;, gut dof if`y ei tml suas. Bf lquotbif aiel, tml uslr dof aocl ofe
do`du`otl
do`du`otl (oeebtbif ofe sugtrodtbif)
sugtrodtbif) 7 vldtirs
vldtirs wbtm o aoxbaua
aoxbaua aojfbtuel
aojfbtuel ih <;. Bf tml opp`bdotbif
opp`bdotbif,,
doffit aocl tml bfbtbo`s vldtir, tmlrlhirl lodm vldtir bf tml pbdturl oenusts ti tml tlras ih tml prig`la
wbtm tml soal fuaglr.

Hbjurl 4. uslr bftlrhodl if vldtir oeebtbif

oeebtbif
Lxplrbalfto` [ridleurl
Bf tmbs lxplrbalft,
lxplrbalft, stuelfts
stuelfts iplf tml vldtir
vldtir oeebtbif opp if tml dofvos.
dofvos. Ohtlr tmot, stuelfts
wirc if mialwirc prig`la 7 bfelplfelft`y. Gy oenustbfj tml aojfbtuel ofe ofj`l ih tml vldtir,
stuelfts aoy prlss tml "sua" guttif if tml opp ti jlt tml rlsu`toft. Ohtlr igtobfbfj tml rlsu`toft
vldtir, stuelfts dopturl tml sdrllf baojl os prodtbdua eidualftotbif. Ohtlr tmot, stuelfts privl tml
rlsu`toft vldtir gy eibfj do`du`otbifs. Umbs stlp bs rlplotle ti diap`ltl o`` tml prig`la iptbifs.

Hbjurl 5. Ttuelfts dof slt tml aojfbtuel

aojfbtuel ofe ofj`l ih tml vl
vldtir
dtir

Hbjurl <. Mialwirc prig`la 7 qulstbif

qulstbif E
Hbjurl 8. Mialwirc prig`la 7 qulstbif L

Hbjurl :. Mialwirc prig`la 7 qulstbif H

[rlslftotbif ih Wlsu`ts

Uog`l ?. Aojfbtuel, Ofj`l, ]-diapiflft, ofe R-diapiflft ih Hbvl Xldtirs

Xldtir Aojfbtuel Ofj`l ]-diapiflft R-diapiflft

O ?; i =.88b ˒
<n
˒

4;
i
˒ ˒

G < <4 4b 5n
D ?7 4;;
i
8b˒ -?;.42 n˒
i
E 7; ?54 -?<.:27b ˒ ?7.;48 n ˒

H 7; 7?;
i
-?:.47˒b -?; n ˒

Uog`l 7. Aojfbtuel, Ofj`l, ]-diapiflft, ofe R-diapiflft ih Wlsu`toft vldtirs

Hirdl Aojfbtuel Ofj`l

Wo ?5.:7 i
4=.4
i
Wg ?? -4<.5
i
Wd 44.4<5 ?::.<
i
We <.= =.2
i
Wl 4; 7?;

Wh :4.85 -85.2;

?;
Ofo`ysbs ofe Ebsdussbif ih Wlsu`ts
O`tmiujm
O`tmiujm tml vldti
vldtirr bf tml opp`bdotbif
opp`bdotbif eils fit aotdm tml mial
mialwirc
wirc prig`la,
prig`la, bt bs aoel os
d`isl os pissbg`l ti tml irbjbfo` vo`ul. Gosle if tml rlsu`ts ih tml eoto ogivl, tml rlsu`ts ih tmlirltbdo`
vo`uls ofe odtuo` vo`uls smiu`e fit movl o sbjfbhbdoft ebhhlrlfdl, ir tmly aust movl o`aist tml soal
vo`ul. Umbs bs smiwf bf tmbs lxplrbalft bf vldtir G ofe E. Bt mos privle wbtm tmlbr ofj`l. Uml ofj`l
i i i i
ebhhlrlfdl gltwllf tmla bs <4 ofe ?54 wmbdm bs d`isl ti << ofe ?5< Odtuo``y, tml hufdtbif ih tml
tmlirltbdo` vo`ul ofe hufdtbif ih tml odtuo` vo`ul bs bftlfele ti gl diaporle bf irelr ti hbfe iut miw
aofy
aofy lrr
lrrir
irss orl hiu
hiufe
fe bf tmb
tmbss lxp
lxplrb
lrbalf
alft.
t. Uml
Umlrlh
rlhirl
irl,, tml sao
sao``l
``lrr lrr
lrrirs
irs bf tmb
tmbss lxp
lxplrb
lrbalf
alft,
t, tml
lxplrbalfto` rlsu`ts wb`` rlodm tml tmlirltbdo` vo`ul ofe tml odtuo` vo`ul.
Bf tmbs lxplrbalft, sial hodtirs dof aocl tml vo`ul ih tmbs lxplrbalft movl lrrirs. Uml mbjm
pissbgb`bty ih tml lrrir bs o muaof lrrir wmlf usbfj tml opporotus ih tmbs lxplrbalft. Uml muaof lrrir
iddurs
iddurs wmlf
wmlf tml pridls
pridlsss slttbf
slttbfj
j ih tml ofj`l
ofj`l vorbot
vorbotbif
bif.. Tialtb
Tialtbals
als wml
wmlf
f slttbf
slttbfj
j tml ofj`l,
ofj`l, tml
oppb`dotbif eils fit movl spldbhbd ofj`l. Umus, tml tlfsbif ih tmbs lxplrbalft diu`e gl fit sbjfbhbdoft.
Difd`usbif ofe Wldiaalfeotbifs
Wldiaalfeotbifs
Hria
Hria tmb
tmbss lxplrb
lxplrbalf
alft,
t, bt diu`e
diu`e gl difd`u
difd`uele
ele tmot hirdls
hirdls movl tml ebrldtbif
ebrldtbif os wl`
wl``` os
aojfbtuel, lspldbo``y bf eltlrabfbfj tml pisbtbif ih ifl pibft bf spodl rl`otbvl ti ofitmlr. Ui
abfbabzl tml abstocl, bf eibfj tml ofo`ysbs ofe do`du`otbfj tml tmlirltbdo` vo`ul, tmly aust gl eifl
rlplotle`y.

Wlhlrlfdls
S?Q @bgrltlxts
ts,, ‐4.7> Xldtirs,‑
s,‑ Xldtirs
Xldtirs,, ;4-Nuf-7;?2. SIf`bflQ. Ovob`og`l>
mttps>//pmys.`bgrltlxts.irj
mttps>//pmys.`bgrltlxts.irj/Giicsml`v
/Giicsml`vls/\fbvlrsbtyY
ls/\fbvlrsbtyY[mysbds/Giic
[mysbds/Giic>Y[mysbdsY(Gi
>Y[mysbdsY(Giufe`lss)/4>Y
ufe`lss)/4>YU
U
wi-Ebalfsbifo`YCbflaotbds/4.7>YXldtirs. SOddlssle> ?8-Nu`-7;?2Q.
S7
S7QQ O. ^. Nifl
Nifls,
s, ‐Elh
‐Elhbf
bfbt
btbi
bif
f ih
ih Hir
Hirdl
dl bf [m
[mys
ysbd
bds,
s,‑‑ UmiujmtDi
UmiujmtDi,, ;4-Nu`-7;?2. SIf`bflQ. Ovob`og`l>
mttps>//www.tmiujmtdi.dia/hirdl-782=2:=.
mttps>// www.tmiujmtdi.dia/hirdl-782=2:=. SOddlssle> ?8-Nu`-7;?2Q.
Opplfebx B > Toap`l Do`du`otbifs
o) O + G,
W 1 S ()˒b +  sbf() n Q + SG ()b + G sbf() n˒ Q ˒ ˒

W 1 S?; (4;)˒b + ?; sbf(4;) n˒ Q + S< (<4)˒b +

< sbf(<4) n˒ Q
W 1 S=.88b˒ + < n Q + S4b˒ + 5 n Q ˒ ˒

W 1 ??.88 + 2 1 ∞ ?4<.2<<8 + =?
7 7
∞
1 ∞ 7?8.2<<8 1 ?5.:7

g) D + G,
W 1 SD ()˒b + D sbf() n˒ Q + SG ()˒b + G sbf() n Q ˒

W 1 S?7 (4;;)b + ?7 sbf(4;;) n˒ Q + S< (<4)˒b + < sbf(<4) n˒ Q

˒

W 1 S8˒b + (-?;.42) n˒ Q + S4b + 5 n˒ Q ˒

W 1 ∞ 2 +(∗ 8.42) 1 ∞ =? + 5;.=8?

7 7

1 ∞ ?7?.=8 1 ??

d) E + H,
W 1 SE ()˒b + E sbf() n Q + SH ()˒b + H sbf() n˒ Q ˒

W 1 S7; (?54)b + 7; sbf(?54) n˒ Q + S7; (7?;)˒b + 7; sbf(7?;) n Q

˒ ˒

W 1 S-?<.:27b + ?7.;48 n˒ Q + S-?:.47˒b — ?; n Q

˒ ˒

W 1 ∞ ∗44.727 + 7.;48 1 ∞ ??;=.4<: + 5.?5<

7 7

1 ∞ ???7.<;7728 1 44.4<5

e) O ∗ ¹ G,
W 1 S ()˒b +  sbf() n Q ∗¹ SG ()b ∗¹ G sbf() n˒ Q ˒ ˒

W 1 S?; (4;)˒b + ?; sbf(4;) n˒ Q ∗¹ S< (<4)˒b + < sbf(<4) n˒ Q

W 1 S=.88b˒ + < n Q ∗¹ S4b˒ + 5 n Q ˒ ˒

W 1 ∞ <.88 + ? 1 ∞ 47.;4<8 + ?
7 7

1 ∞ 44.;4<8 1 <.:5: ≍ <.=

l) O + ¹ 7 H,
W 1 S ()˒b +  sbf() n Q + 7SH ()b + H sbf() n Q ˒ ˒ ˒

W 1 S?; (4;)˒b + ?; sbf(4;) n˒ Q + 7S7; (7?;)˒b + 7; sbf(7?;) n Q ˒

W 1 S=.88˒b + < n Q + 7S-?:.47b — ?; n˒ Q

˒ ˒

W 1 ∞ ∗7<.2= +(∗ ?<) 1 ∞ 8:5.28 + 77<

7 7

1 ∞ =22.28 1 72.22 ≍ 4;

h) O ∗¹ 5 E + ¹ 7 H ,
W 1 S ()˒b +  sbf() n Q∗¹ 5SE ()b + E sbf() n˒ Q + 7SH ()˒b +
˒ ˒

H sbf() ˒n Q
W 1 S?; (4;)˒b + ?; sbf(4;) n˒ Q∗¹ 5S7; (?54)˒b + 7; sbf(?54) n Q +
˒

7S7; (7?;)b + 7; sbf(7?;) n˒ Q

˒

W 1 S=.88b˒ + < n Q∗¹ 5S-?<.:27b + ?7.;48 n˒ Q + 7S-?:.47˒b — ?; n Q

˒ ˒ ˒

W 1 ∞ 4:.2;= +(∗84.?55 ) 1 ∞ ?54:.;?8 + 42=:.?85

7 7

1 ∞ <575.?= 1 :4.85