Research methodology

Long ques.
Q – 1 what are different types of research? Explain.
1. Exploratory Research: This type of research is carried out at the very beginning when the problem is not clear
or is vague. In exploratory research, all possible reasons which are very obvious are eliminated, thereby1`
directing the research to proceed further with limited options.
2. Descriptive Research: The main purpose of descriptive research is to describe the state of view as it exists at
present. Simply stated, it is a fact finding investigation. In descriptive research, definite conclusions can be
arrived at, but it does not establish a cause and effect relationship. This type of research tries to describe the
characteristics of the respondent in relation to a particular product.
3. Applied Research : Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem faced by any
business organization. This research deals with real life situations.
4. Pure/Fundamental Research or Basic Research: Gathering knowledge for knowledge's sake is known as
basic research. It is not directly involved with practical problems. It does not have any commercial
potential. There is no intention to apply this research in practice. Tata Institute of Fundamental
Research conducts such studies.
5. Conceptual Research : This is generally used by philosophers. In this type of research, the researcher
should collect the data to prove or disapprove his hypothesis. The various ideologies or 'isms' are examples
of conceptual research.
6. Causal Research : Causal research is conducted to determine the cause and effect relationship
between the two variables.
7. Historical Research : The name itself indicates the meaning of the research. Historical study is a study of
past records and data in order to understand the future trends and development of the organisation or
market. There is no direct observation. The research has to depend on the conclusions or inferences
drawn in the past
8. Ex-post Facto Research : In this type of research, an examination of relationship that exists between
independent and dependent variable is studied. We may call this empirical research. In this method, the
researcher has no control over an independent variable. Ex-post facto literally means "from what is done
afterwards". In this research, a variable "A" is observed. Thereafter, the researcher tries to find a causal
variable "B" which caused "A". It is quite possible that "B" might not have been caused "A". In this type of
analysis, there is no scope for the researcher to manipulate the variable. The researcher can only report
"what has happened" and "what is happening".
9. Action Research : This type of research is undertaken by direct action. Action research is conducted to solve
a problem. For example, test marketing a product is an example of action research. Initially, the geographical
location is identified. A target sample is selected from among the population. Samples are distributed to
selected samples and feedback is obtained from the respondent. This method is most common for industrial
products, where a trial is a must before regular usage of the product.
10. Evaluation Research : This is an example of applied research. This research is conducted to find out how
well a planned programme is implemented. Therefore, evaluation research deals with evaluating the
performance or assessment of a project.
11. Library Research : This is done to gather secondary data. This includes notes from the past data or review of
the reports already conducted. This is a convenient method whereby both manpower and time are saved.
Q – 2 Define research design? What are the steps involved and what is need of research design? Ans:
Research design is simply a plan for a study. This is used as a guide in collecting and analyzing

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 the data. It can be called a blue print to carry out the study. Research design can be thought of as the structure of
research - it is the "glue" that holds all of the elements in a research project together. A successful design stems from
a collaborative process involving good planning and communication. Research design is a detailed outline of how an
investigation will take place. A research design will typically include how data is to be collected, what instruments will
be employed, how the instruments will be used and the intended means for analyzing data collected.
Research Design is mainly of three types namely, exploratory, descriptive and causal research.
Steps involved in research design
1. Determine the key research questions or hypotheses. What do you need to know? What
relationships are you interested in investigating.
2. Determine very clearly what your dependent and independent variables are. It always easier and less
costly to investigate a one-to-one relationship.
3. Identify crucial intervening or confounding variables. These are variables that may intrude
themselves between your purported dependent and independent variables.
4. Define and identify specific and measurable (can be qualitative or quantitative) indicators for the
dependent variables.
5. Determine data sources.
6. Determine the methods that you need in order to gather the information and data required and meet
levels of rigor that will satisfy the intended audiences of the research.
7. Determine the overall research design strategy.
8. Determine the appropriate sampling population. Who or what is the largest population that you wish to
be able to describe and/or account for in relation to your hypothesis.
9. Identify the critical sub-levels of analysis, from largest to smallest.
10. Select a sampling strategy for every level identified in step nine. There are basically two broad kinds of
sample: probability samples and non-probability samples.
11. Select a comparison group.
12. Apply the appropriate methods at the appropriate levels from step ten
Need for Research Design
A research design is needed because of the following benefits it provides:
 It helps in smooth functioning of various research operations.
 It requires less effort, time and money.
 It helps to plan in advance the methods and techniques to be used for collecting and analysing data.
 It helps in obtaining the objectives of the research with the availability of staff, time and money. Q – 3
What is sampling? Explain steps involved in a sampling design? Also techniques of sampling. Ans: Sampling is
the process of selecting units (e.g., people, organizations) from a population of interest so that by studying the
sample we may fairly generalize our results back to the population from
which they were chosen. A sample is a part of a target population, which is carefully selected to represent the
population.
Sampling frame is the list of elements from which the sample is actually drawn. Actually, sampling frame is nothing
but the correct list of population.
Steps of Sampling Design
1. Define the population: Population is defined in terms of :
 Elements
 Sampling units
 Extent

 Time.

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 2. Identify the sampling frame: Sampling frame could be
a) Telephone Directory
b) Localities of a city using the municipal corporation listing
c) Any other list consisting of all sampling units.
3. Specify the sampling unit: Individuals who are to be contacted are the sampling units. If
retailers are to be contacted in a locality, they are the sampling units. The selection of sampling unit is very
important.
4. Selection of sampling method: This refers to whether
a. probability or
b. non-probability methods are used.
5. Determine the sample size: This means we need to decide "how many elements of the target
population are to be chosen?" The sample size depends upon the type of study that is being
conducted. The sample size also depends upon the resources available with the company.
6. Specify the sampling plan: A sampling plan should clearly specify the target population. Improper defining
would lead to wrong data collection.
7. Select the sample: This is the final step in the sampling process.
Techniques of sampling:
1. Probability sampling techniques:
i. Random Sampling : Simple random sample is a process in which every item of the population has an
equal probability of being choosen. Two methods used in random sampling are : lottery method and
random number table.
ii. Systematic Random Sampling : There are three steps:
a. Sampling interval K is determined by the following formula: K =
No. of units in the population
No. of units desired in the sample
b. One unit between the first and Kth unit in the population list is randomly chosen.
c. Add Kth unit to the randomly chosen number.
iii. Stratified Random Sampling : A probability sampling procedure in which simple random sub-
samples are drawn from within different strata that are, more or less equal on some characteristics.
Stratified sampling is of two types – proportionate stratified sampling and disproportionate stratified
sampling.
iv. Cluster Sampling : The following steps are followed:
a. The population is divided into clusters.
b. A simple random sample of few clusters is selected.
c. All the units in the selected cluster are studied.
v. Multistage Sampling : The name implies that sampling is done in several stages. This is used with
stratified/cluster designs.
2. Non – probability sampling techniques
i. Deliberate or Purposive Sampling : This is also known as the judgment sampling. The investigator uses
his discretion in selecting sample observations from the universe. As a result, there is an element of bias
in the selection. From the point of view of the investigator, the sample thus chosen may be a true
representative of the universe. However, the units in the universe do not enjoy an equal chance of
getting included in the sample. Therefore, it cannot be considered a probability sampling.
ii. Shopping Mall Intercept Sampling : This is a non-probability sampling method. In this method the
respondents are recruited for individual interviews at fixed locations in shopping malls.

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 iii. Sequential Sampling : This is a method in which the sample is formed on the basis of a series of
successive decisions. They aim at answering the research question on the basis of accumulated
evidence.
iv. Quota Sampling : Quota sampling is quite frequently used in marketing research. It involves the fixation
of certain quotas, which are to be fulfilled by the interviewers.
v. Snowball Sampling : This is a non-probability sampling. In this method, the initial group of
respondents are selected randomly. Subsequent respondents are being selected based on the opinion
or referrals provided by the initial respondents. Further referrals will lead to more referrals, thus
leading to a snowball sampling. The referrals will have demographic and psychographic characteristics
that are relatively similar to the person referring them.
Q – 4 What do you mean by questionnaire? Explain the process of designing it.
Ans: A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose
of gathering information from respondents. The questionnaire was invented by
Sir Francis Galton.
Process of Questionnaire Designing
1. Determine What Information is Required : The first question to be asked by the market researcher is "what
type of information does he need from the survey?" At this stage, information required, and the scope of
research should be clear. Therefore, the steps to be followed at the planning stage are:
a. Decide on the topic for research.
b. Get additional information on the research issue, from secondary data and exploratory research. The
exploratory research will suggest "what are the relevant variables?"
c. Gather what has been the experience with similar study.
d. The type of information required. There are several types of information such as (a) awareness,
(b) facts, (c) opinions, (d) attitudes, (e) future plans, (f) reasons.
2. Different Types of Questionnaire :
a. Structured and Non-disguised Questionnaire: Here, questions are structured so as to obtain the facts.
The interviewer will ask the questions strictly in accordance with the prearranged order.
b. Structured and disguised Questionnaire: This type of questionnaire is least used in marketing
research. This type of questionnaire is used to know the peoples' attitude, when a direct undisguised
question produces a bias. In this type of questionnaire, what comes out is "what does the respondent
know" rather than what he feels.
c. Non-Structured and Disguised Questionnaire: The main objective is to conceal the topic of enquiry by
using a disguised stimulus. Though the stimulus is standardized by the researcher, the respondent is
allowed to answer in an unstructured manner.
d. Non structured and Non disguised Questionnaire: Here the purpose of the study is clear, but the
responses to the question are open-ended. The initial part of the question is consistent. After presenting
the initial question, the interview becomes very unstructured as the interviewer probes more deeply.
3. Type of Questions :
a. Open-ended Questions :. These are questions where respondents are free to answer in their own words.
open-ended questions are useful in exploratory research, where all possible alternatives are explored.
b. Dichotomous Question : These questions have only two answers, 'Yes' or 'no', 'true' or 'false' 'use' or 'don't
use'.
c. Close-Ended Questions : There are two basic formats in this type:
 Make one or more choices among the alternatives.

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  Rate the alternatives.
4. Wordings of Questions : Wordings of particular questions could have a large impact on how the
respondent interprets them. Even a small shift in the wording could alter the respondent's answer.
a. Guidelines towards the use of correct wording: Is the vocabulary simple and familiar to the
respondents?
b. Avoid Double-Barreled Questions : These are questions, in which the respondent can agree with one
part of the question, but not agree with the other or cannot answer without making a particular
assumption.
c. Avoid Leading and Loading Questions
Leading Questions: A leading question is one that suggests the answer to the respondent.. The
question itself will influence the answer, when respondents get an idea that the data is being collected
by a company.
Loaded Questions: A leading question is also known as a loaded question. In a loaded question, special
emphasis is given to a word or a phrase, which acts as a lead to respondent
d. Avoid Implicit Assumptions : An implicit alternative is one that is not expressed in the options.
5. Sequence and Layout : Some guidelines for sequencing the questionnaire are as follows: Divide
the questionnaire into three parts:
1. Basic information
2. Classification
3. Identification information.
Items such as age, sex, income, education, etc., are questioned in the classification section. The identification
part involves body of the questionnaire. Always move from general to specific questions on the topic. This is
known as funnel sequence.
6. Pretesting of Questionnaire : Pretesting of a questionnaire is done to detect any flaws that might be present.
For example, the word used by researcher must convey the same meaning to the respondents. One of the
prime conditions for pretesting is that the sample chosen for pretesting should be similar to the respondents
who are ultimately going to participate.
7. Revise and Preparation of Final Questionnaire : Final questionnaire may be prepared after
pretesting the questionnaire with the small group of respondents.
Questionnaire should be revised for the following:
a. To correct the spellings.
b. To place the questions in proper order to avoid the contextual bias.
c. To remove the words which are not familiar to respondents.
d. To add or remove questions arise in the process of pretest, if any.
e. To purge the words with double meaning, etc.
Q – 5 What do you mean by secondary data? How it is different from primary data collection?
Ans: Secondary data are statistics that already exist. They have been gathered not for immediate use. This may be
described as "those data that have been compiled by some agency other than the user". Secondary data can be
classified as:
1. Internal secondary data
2. External secondary data
Internal Secondary Data
Internal secondary data is a part of the company's record, for which research is already conducted. Internal data
are those that are found within the organisation.
External Secondary Data
The data collected by the researcher from outside the company. This can be divided into four parts:
1. Census data

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 2. Individual project report being published
3. Data collected for sale on a commercial basis called syndicated data
4. Miscellaneous data
Difference between Primary and Secondary Data
1. Primary data are always original as it is collected by the investigator.
Secondary data lacks originality. The investigator makes use of the data collected by other agencies.
2. Suitability of the primary data will be positive because it has been systematically collected.
Secondary data may or may not suit the objects of enquiry.
3. Primary data are expensive and time consuming.
Secondary data are relatively cheaper.

4. Extra precautions are not required in primary data.

Secondary data is used with great care and caution.
5. Primary data are in the shape of raw material.
Secondary data are usually in the shape of readymade products.
6. In primary data there is possibility of personal prejudice.
Possibility of lesser degree of personal prejudice in secondary data.
Q – 6 Define correlation. Explain different types and degrees of correlation with example.
Ans: Correlation is a statistical measure that indicates the extent to which two or more variables fluctuate together.
A positive correlation indicates the extent to which those variables increase or decrease in parallel; a negative
correlation indicates the extent to which one variable increases as the other decreases. Correlation is the degree of
association between two or more variables.
“Correlation analysis attempts to determine the ‘degree of relationship’ between variables”.
Types of correlation:
1. Positive and negative correlation :
Positive correlation: when two variables move in the same direction, that is when one increases the other also
increases and when one decreases the other also decreases, such a correlation is called positive correlation.
E.g. relationship between price and supply.
Negative correlation: when two variables change in different directions, it is called negative
correlation. Example, relationship between price and demand.
2. Linear and non-linear correlation:
Linear correlation: when two variables change in a constant proportion, it is called linear correlation. If the two
sets of data bearing fixed proportion to each other are shown on a graph paper, their relationship will be
indicated by a straight line. Thus, linear correlation implies a straight line relationship.
Non-linear correlation: when two variables do not change in any constant proportion, the relationship is
said to be non-linear. Such a relationship does not form a straight line relationship.
3. Simple and multiple correlation:
Simple correlation: Simple correlation implies the study of relationship between two variables only. For
example, the relationship between price and demand or the relationship between money supply and price
level.
Multiple correlation: when the relationship between three or more than three variables is studied
simultaneously, it is called multiple correlation. For example, effects of rainfall, manure, water, etc. on per
hectare productivity of wheat are simultaneously studied.
Degree of correlation:
1. Perfect correlation: When two variables change in the same proportion it is called perfect
correlation. It may be of two kinds:

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 a. Perfect positive: Correlation is perfectly positive when proportional change in two variables is in the
same direction. In this case, coefficient of correlation is positive (+1).
b. Perfect negative: Correlation is perfectly negative when proportional change in two variables is in the
opposite direction. In this case, coefficient of correlation is negative (-1).
2. Absence of correlation: if there is no relation between two series or variables, that is, change in one has no
effect on the change in other, then those series or variables lack any correlation between them.
3. Limited degree of correlation: between perfect correlation and absence of correlation there is a situation of
limited degree of correlation. In real life one mostly finds limited degree of correlation.
a. High: when correlation of two series is close to one, it is called high degree of correlation. Its
coefficient is between 0.75 and 1.
b. Moderate: when correlation of two series is neither large nor small, it is called moderate degree of
correlation. Its coefficient is between 0.25 and 0.75.
c. Low: when the degree of correlation of two series is very small, it is called low degree
correlation. Its coefficient is between 0 and 0.25.
Q – 7 What do you mean by consumer price index and what are the steps involved in construction of CPI?
Ans: The consumer price or the retail price is the price at which the ultimate consumer purchases his goods
and services from the retailer. This index was also known as the cost of living index.
With the help of Consumer Price Index Number, it is intended to show over time the average change in prices paid
by the consumers belonging to the population group proposed to be covered by the index for a fixed list of goods
and services consumed by them”
Construction of Consumer Price Index
1. Scope and Coverage: The scope of consumer price index, proposed to be constructed, must be very clearly
defined. This implies the identification of the class of people for whom the index will be constructed such as
industrial workers, agricultural workers, urban wage earners, etc. The selected class of people should form a
homogeneous group so that weights of various commodities are same for all the people.
2. Selection of Base Period: A normal period having comparative economic stability should be selected as a
base period in order that the consumption pattern used in the construction of the index remain practically
stable over a fairly long period.
3. Conducting Family Budget Enquiry: A family budget gives the details of expenditure incurred by the family
on various items in a given period. In order to estimate the consumption pattern, a sample survey of family
budgets of the group of people, for whom the index is to be constructed, is conducted and from this an
average family budget is prepared. The goods and services that are to be included in the construction of the
index are selected from this average family budget.
4. Obtaining Price Quotations: The next step in the construction of consumer price index is to obtain the retail
price quotations of various items that are selected. The price quotations should be obtained from those
markets from which the group of people, for whom the index number is being constructed, normally make
purchases.
5. Computation of the Index Number: After the collection of necessary data, the consumer price index can be
computed by using either of the following formulae.
a. Aggregate Expenditure Method: Base year quantities are taken as weights in the aggregate
expenditure method. The formula for the consumer price index is
CPI =
b. Family Budget Method: This method is also known as weighted average of price relatives method and
accordingly values are taken as weights. The formula for the
Q – 8 What is report writing? Explain the format of writing research report?

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 Ans: A report is a very formal document that is written for a variety of purposes, generally in the sciences, social
sciences, engineering and business disciplines. Generally, findings pertaining to a given or specific task are written
up into a report. Reports are legal documents in the workplace and, thus, they need to be precise, accurate and
difficult to misinterpret.
Format of writing research report :
The following is the format of a research report:
1. Title Page: Title Page should indicate the topic on which the report is prepared. It should include the name of
the person or agency who has prepared the report.
2. Table of Contents: The table of contents will help the reader to know "what the report contains". The
table of contents should indicate the various parts or sections of the report. It should also indicate the
chapter headings along with the page number.
3. Executive Summary: If your report is long and drawn out, the person to whom you have prepared the
report may not have the time to read it in detail. Apart from this, an executive summary will help in
highlighting major points. It is a condensed version of the whole report. It should be written in one or two
pages. Since top executives read only the executive summary, it should be accurate and well-written. An
executive summary should help in decision-making. An executive summary should have,
a. Objectives
b. Brief methodology
c. Important findings
d. Key results
e. Conclusion
4. The Body: This section includes:
a. Introduction: The introduction must explain clearly the decision problem and research objective. The
background information should be provided on the product and services provided by the organisation
which is under study.
b. Methodology: How you have collected the data is the key in this section. For example, Was
primary data collected or secondary data used? Was a questionnaire used? What was the sample
size and sampling plan and method of analysis? Was the design exploratory or conclusive?
c. Limitations: Every report will have some shortcoming. The limitations may be of time,
geographical area, the methodology adopted, correctness of the responses, etc.
d. Analysis and interpretations: collected data will be tabulated. Statistical tools if any will be applied
to make analysis and to take decisions.
5. Conclusion and Recommendation:
a. What was the conclusion drawn from the study?
b. Based on the study, what recommendation do you make?
6. Bibliography: If portions of your report are based on secondary data, use a bibliography section to list the
publications or sources that you have consulted. The bibliography should include, title of the book, name of
the journal in case of article, volume number, page number, edition, etc.
7. Appendix: The purpose of an appendix is to provide a place for material which is not absolutely essential to
the body of the report. The appendix will contain copies of data collection forms called questionnaires
details of the annual report of the company, details of graphs/charts, photographs, CDs, interviewers'
instructions. Following are the items to be placed in this section.
a. Data collection forms
b. Project related paper cuttings
c. Pictures and diagrams related to project

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 d. Any other relevant things.
Q – 9 what do you mean by time series and the important components of time series?
Ans: A time series consists of data arranged chronologically. A time series may be defined as a sequence of repeated
measurements of a variable made periodically through time. A time series may be defined as a sequence of values of
some variable corresponding to successive points in time.
Components of time series:
1. Secular trend: Secular trend or simply trend is the general tendency of the data to increase or decrease or
stagnate over a long period of time. Most of the business and economic time series would reveal a tendency
to increase or to decrease over a number of years. For example, data regarding industrial production,
agricultural production, population, bank deposits, deficit financing, etc.,
Secular trend is, “that irreversible movement which continues, in general, in the same direction for a
considerable period of time”. There are two parts of this definition: (i) movement in same direction, which
implies that if the values are increasing (or decreasing) in successive periods, the tendency continues; and (ii) a
considerable period of time.
2. Seasonal variations: The periodic movements in business activity are those which occur at regular intervals
i.e. every year. The seasonal variations in a time series will be there if the data are recorded quarterly,
monthly, weekly, daily, hourly etc.
Causes of seasonal variations are natural factors and man made conventions.
The study of seasonal variations is of utmost important to businessmen, producers, sales managers etc. in
framing future policies pertaining to purchase, production, sales, advertisement programmes.
3. Cyclical variations: In several time series we find periodic up and down movements in economic data to
which we call cyclical variations. These movements are like a wave, but the distance from peak to trough is
not the same. These cycles are generally repeated at intervals ranging from about 3 to 10 years. These are
caused by a complex combination of forces affecting the equilibrium between demand and supply.
A business cycle may refer to four phases of a cycle which includes prosperity, recession, depression and
recovery.
4. Irregular or random variations: It is known as residual, random, irregular, episode, erratic or accidental
fluctuations. These fluctuations are different from the other three components as these are not only erratic
but also unpredictable. These variations are attributable to non-recurring circumstances like wars, strikes,
lockouts, revolutions droughts, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions storms etc. These variations are short term
variations but their effects sometimes, are so intense that they may give rise to new cyclical or other
movements.
Q – 10 What do you mean by hypothesis testing? Explain the process of hypothesis testing?
Ans: A statistical hypothesis test is a method of making statistical decisions using experimental data. In statistics, a
result is called statistically significant if it is unlikely to have occurred by chance. Hypothesis testing is sometimes
called confirmatory data analysis, in contrast to exploratory data analysis. In frequency probability, these decisions
are almost always made using null hypothesis tests; that is, ones that answer the question. Assuming that the null
hypothesis is true, what is the probability of observing a value for the test statistic that is at least as extreme as the
value that was actually observed? One use of hypothesis testing is deciding whether experimental results contain
enough information to cast doubt on conventional wisdom.
Steps Involved in Hypothesis Testing
 Formulate the Hypothesis

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 The normal approach is to set two hypotheses instead of one, in such a way, that if one hypothesis is true, the other is
false. Alternatively, if one hypothesis is false or rejected, then the other is true or accepted.
These two hypotheses are: 1. Null hypothesis
2. Alternate hypothesis
 Significance Level
Having formulated the hypothesis, the next step is its validity at a certain level of significance. The confidence with
which a null hypothesis is accepted or rejected depends upon the significance level. A significance level of say 5%
means that the risk of making a wrong decision is 5%. A significance level of say 1% means, that the researcher is
running the risk of being wrong in accepting or rejecting the hypothesis is one of every 100 occasions. Therefore, a
1% significance level provides greater confidence to the decision than 5% significance level.
 Degree of Freedom
It tells the researcher the number of elements that can be chosen freely.
 Select Test Criteria
If the hypothesis pertains to a larger sample (30 or more), the Z-test is used. When the sample is small (less than 30),
the T-test is used.
 Compute
Carry out computation.
 Make Decisions
Accepting or rejecting of the null hypothesis depends on whether the computed value falls in the region of rejection
at a given level of significance.
SHORT QUES.
Q – 1 (a) pilot survey (b) Business research
(a) Pilot survey
A small study conducted in advance of a planned project, specifically to test aspects of the research design (such as
stimulus material) and to allow necessary adjustment before final commitment to the design.
Although not unknown in qualitative research, these are more common in large quantitative studies, since adjustment
after the beginning of fieldwork is less possible than in qualitative work.
With pilot survey a researcher get a clearer idea of what they want to know and how they can best find out without
the expense and effort of a full-fledged study. They are used commonly to try out survey questions and to refine
research hypotheses.
(b) Business research
Research in common man's language refers to "search for Knowledge". Research is an art of scientific
investigation.
Business research is a systematic and objective process of gathering, recording and analyzing data for aid in making
business decisions. Business research comes within the purview of social science research. Social science research
refers to research conducted by social scientists (primarily within sociology and social psychology), but also within
other disciplines such as social policy, human geography, political science, social anthropology and education.
Sociologists and other social scientists study diverse things: from census data on hundreds of thousands of human
beings, through the in-depth analysis of the life of a single important person to monitoring what is happening on a
street today-or what was happening a few hundred years ago.
Q – 2 Difference between (a) census and sampling (b) convenience sampling.
(a) Census and sampling
1. Census refers to complete inclusion of all elements in the population. A
sample is a sub-group of the population.
2. A census is appropriate if the size of population is small.

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 Sampling is appropriate when the size of population is large.
3. Census is appropriate when the researcher is interested in gathering information from every
individual.
Sampling is appropriate, if the population is homogeneous.
4. Example: A researcher may be interested in contacting firms in iron and steel or petroleum products industry.
These industries are limited in number, so a census will be suitable.
Example of sampling: Reactions to global advertising by a company
(b) Convenience sampling : Under convenience sampling, the sample selection is done on the basis of
convenience of the investigator rather than judgement or probability basis. A sample obtained from readily
available lists such as automobile registrations i.e. telephone directories etc. is an example of convenience
sampling.
Merits of convenience sampling:
1. It is economical in time and money.
2. It is more simple.
3. This method is more suitable where the population is not clearly defined.
Demerits :
1. It is unscientific and unreliable.
2. It is affected by personal biasness of investigator.
3. The results obtained can hardly be representative of the population.
Q – 3 Meaning of ratio scale
Ans: Ratio scale is a special kind of internal scale that has a meaningful zero point. With this scale, length, weight
or distance can be measured. In this scale, it is possible to say, how many times greater or smaller one object is
being compared to the other.
These scales are used to measure actual variables. The highest level of measurement is a ratio scale. This has the
properties of an interval scale together with a fixed origin or zero point. Examples of variables which are ratio
scaled include weights, lengths and times. Ratio scales permit the researcher to compare both differences in
scores and in the relative magnitude of scores.
Q – 4 State any two methods of primary data collection.
1. Observation method: In the observation method, only present/current behaviour can be studied.
Therefore, many researchers feel that this is a great disadvantage. A causal observation could enlighten the
researcher to identify the problem. Such as the length of the queue in front of a food chain, price and
advertising activity of the competitor etc. Observation is the least expensive mode of data collection.
Types of Observation Methods
 Structured or unstructured method
 Disguised or undisguised method
 Direct-indirect observation
 Human-mechanical observation
Advantages of Observation Method
1. The original data can be collected at the time of occurrence of the event.
2. Observation is done in natural surroundings. Therefore, the facts emerge more clearly.
3. Sometimes, the respondents may not like to part with some of the information. Such information can be
obtained by the researcher through observation.
Limitations of observation method
1. The observer might wait for longer period at the point of observation. And yet the desired event may not
take place.
2. For observation, an extensive training of observers is required.

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 3. This is an expensive method.
4. Two observers may observe the same event, but may draw different inferences.
2. Questionnaire: A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other
prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. The questionnaire was invented by
Sir Francis Galton.
Characteristics of Questionnaire
1. It must be simple. The respondents should be able to understand the questions.
2. It must generate replies that can be easily be recorded by the interviewer.
3. It should be specific, so as to allow the interviewer to keep the interview to the point.
4. It should be well arranged, to facilitate analysis and interpretation.
5. It must keep the respondent interested throughout.
Q – 5 Merits and demerits of arithmetic mean, mode and median
Arithmetic mean
Merits:
1. Simplicity: Arithmetic mean is the simplest of all the measures of central tendency.
2. Certainty: Arithmetic mean is a certain value; it has no scope for estimated values.
3. Based on all items: Arithmetic mean is based on all the items in a series. It is therefore, a
representative value of the different items.
4. Algebraic treatment: Arithmetic mean is capable for further algebraic treatment. It is therefore,
extensively used in statistical analysis.
Demerits:
1. Effect of extreme value: The main defect of arithmetic mean is that it gets distorted by extreme values
of the series. Therefore, it is not always an accurate measure.
2. Mean value may not figure in the series at all: The mean value may sometimes be that value which does not
figure in series at all.
3. Unsuitability: Arithmetic mean is not a suitable measure in case of percentage or proportionate values.
Mode
Merits:
1. Simple and popular: Mode is a very simple measure of the central tendency. Sometimes just a glance
at the series is enough to locate the modal value.
2. Less effect of marginal values: Compared to mean, mode is less affected by marginal values in the series.
Mode is determined by the value with the highest frequencies.
3. Graphic determination: Mode can be located graphically, with the help of histogram.
4. No need of knowing all the items or frequencies: The calculation of mode does not require knowledge of all
the items and frequencies of a distribution. It is enough if one knows the item with highest frequency in the
distribution.
Demerits:
1. Uncertain and vague: Mode is an uncertain and vague measure of central tendency.
2. Not capable of algebraic treatment: Unlike mean, mode is not capable of further algebraic
treatment.
3. Difficult: When frequencies of items are identical, it is difficult to identify the modal value.
Median
Merits:
1. Simplicity: It is very simple measure of the central tendency of the series.
2. Certainty: Median value is always a certain specific value in the series.

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 3. Graphic presentation: The median value can be estimated also through the graphic presentation of data.
4. Possible even when data is incomplete: Median can be estimated even in the case of certain incomplete
series. It is enough if one knows the number of items and the middle items of series.
Demerits:
1. Lack of representative character: Median is of limited representative character as it is based on all the
items in the series.
2. Unrealistic: When the median is located somewhere between the two middle values, it remains only an
approximate measure, not a precise value.
3. Lack of algebraic treatment: Arithmetic mean is capable of further algebraic treatment, but median is not.
Q – 6. Difference between oral and written report.
ORAL REPORT WRITTEN REPORT
1. No rigid standard format. 1. Standard format can be adopted.
2. Remembering all that is said is difficult if 2. This can be read a number of times
not impossible. This is because the and clarification can be sought
presenter cannot be interrupted whenever the reader chooses.
frequently for clarification.
3. Tone, voice modulation, 3. Free from presentation problems.
comprehensibility and several other
communication factors play an
important role. 4. Mistakes, if any, can be pinpointed and
4. Correcting mistakes if any, is difficult corrected.
5. The audience has no control over the 5. Not applicable
speed of presentation.
6. The audience does not have the choice of 6. The reader can pick and choose what he
picking and choosing from the thinks is relevant to him. For instance,
presentation. the need for information is different for
technical and
nontechnical persons.

Q – 7 Difference between cluster sampling and stratified random sampling.

1. In stratified random sampling, all the strata of the population is sampled while in cluster sampling, the
researcher merely randomly selects a number of clusters from the collection of clusters of the entire
population. Thus, only a number of clusters are sampled, all the other clusters are left unrepresented.
2. When natural groupings are clear in a statistical population, cluster sampling technique is used. While
Stratified sampling is a method where in, the member of a group are grouped into relatively homogeneous
groups.
3. Cluster sampling can be chosen if the group consists of homogeneous members. On the other hand, for
heterogeneous members in the groups, stratified sampling is a good option.
4. The benefit of cluster sampling over other sampling methods is, it is cheaper as compared to the other
methods. While the benefits of stratified sampling are, this method ignores the irrelevant ones and
focuses on the vital sub populations.
5. The major disadvantage of cluster sampling is, it initiates higher sampling error. This sampling error may be
represented as design effect. The disadvantages of stratified random sampling method are, it calls for
choice of relevant stratification variables which can be tough at times. When there are homogeneous
subgroups, random sampling method is not much useful.

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 6. All strata are represented in the sample; but only a subset of clusters is in the sample.
Q – 8 What are the different types of sampling errors?
1. Sampling Error
The only way to guarantee the minimization of sampling error is to choose the appropriate sample size. As
the sample keeps on increasing, the sampling error decreases. Sampling error is the gap between the
sample mean and population mean.
2. Non-sampling Error
One way of distinguishing between the sampling and the non-sampling error is that, while sampling error
relates to random variations which can be found out in the form of standard error, non- sampling error
occurs in some systematic way which is difficult to estimate.
3. Sampling Frame Error
A sampling frame is a specific list of population units, from which the sample for a study being chosen.
4. Non-response Error
This occurs, because the planned sample and final sample vary significantly. The non-response error can be
reduced by increasing the response rate. Higher the response rate, more accurate and reliable is the data.
5. Data Error
This occurs during the data collection, analysis of data or interpretation. Respondents sometimes give
distorted answers unintentionally for questions which are difficult, or if the question is exceptionally long
and the respondent may not have answer. Data errors can also occur depending on the physical and social
characteristics of the interviewer and the respondent. Things such as the tone and voice can affect the
responses. Therefore, we can say that the characteristics of the interviewer can also result in data error.
Also, cheating on the part of the interviewer leads to data error. Data errors can also occur when answers
to open-ended questions are being improperly recorded.

Q – 9 Explain the term probable error of r?

It is an old measure to test the significance of a particular value of r without the knowledge of test of
hypothesis. Probable error of r, denoted by P.E.(r) is 0.6745 times its standard error.
The value 0.6745 is obtained from the fact that in a normal distribution r 0.6745 S.E. covers 50% of the total
distribution.
According to Horace Secrist “The probable error of correlation coefficient is an amount which if added to and
subtracted from the mean correlation coefficient, gives limits within which the chances are even that a coefficient of
correlation from a series selected at random will fall.”
Q – 10 Explain (a) 2 test and T test (b) Difference between one tail and two tail hypothesis?
(a) T-test
T-test is used in the following circumstances: When the sample size n < 30.
Example:
A certain pesticide is packed into bags by a machine. A random sample of 10 bags are drawn and their contents are
found as follows: 50, 49, 52, 44, 45, 48, 46, 45, 49, 45. Confirm whether the average packaging can be taken to be 50
kgs.
In this text, the sample size is less than 30. Standard deviations are not known using this test. We can find out if there
is any significant difference between the two means i.e. whether the two population means are equal.
(b) Difference between one tail and two tail hypothesis

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 1. In one-tailed test the test-statistic for rejection of null hypothesis falls only in one-tailed of sampling
distribution curve.
A two-tailed test is one in which the test statistics leading to rejection of null hypothesis falls on both tails of
the sampling distribution curve.
2. One-tailed test is used when the researcher's interest is primarily on one side of the issue.
A two-tailed test is appropriate, when the researcher has no reason to focus on one side of the issue.
3. Example:
One tail test: A tyre company claims that mean life of its new tyre is 15,000 km. Now the researcher
formulates the hypothesis that tyre life is = 15,000 km.
Two – tail test: "Is the current advertisement less effective than the proposed new advertisement"?

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