✧˖°. BIOLOGY REVIEWER✧˖°.

🧬 CHAPTER 2.4: THE CELLS INTRICATE

• The nucleus of an atom consists of two types of
particles;
(1) positively charged particles called protons
MACHINERY (2) neutrally charged particles called neutrons.

• exploration of eukaryotic cells
• Robert Hooke’s analogy of a small room is a useful
analogy
- Walls surround a cell (cell membrane)
- Provides stable structure (cytoskeleton)
- Provides various openings
- Occupants in the room share information similar to
organelles that reside inside the cell
• Protons (+) Neutrons (-) in an atom represent the
nucleus of an atom.
• The Nucleus of an atom consists of a tightly
packed arrangement of protons and neutrons. These
are the two heavy particles in an atom and hence
99.9% of the mass is concentrated in the nucleus.

✧ Cell structures for protection

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1. Cell membrane 🧬CELL MEMBRANE

2. Cell wall
3. Cytoplasm
• also called the plasma membrane
✧ Manufacturing, storage, distribution and • thin barrier that forms a boundary separating an
individual cell from the external environment.
breakdown of organelles • a living system that controls the passage of needed
1. Endoplasmic reticulum materials (molecules, ions, and gasses) into and out
2. Golgi apparatus of the cell.
3. Vesicles • exist in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
4. Vacuoles • consists of a double layer of phospholipids
5. Lysosomes embedded with molecules
6. Peroxisomes
• Each phospholipid is composed of 3 basic parts;
✧ Energy-processing organelles  Charged phosphate group (head)
 Glycerol (head)
1. Mitochondria  2 fatty acid chains (tail)
2. Plastids

✧ Organelles for structural support, movement,

• head - bears a charge, considered a polar
molecule. The head can join hydrogen bonds with
and communication between cells water molecules.
• Hydrophilic - oriented in two directions:
1. Centrosome and centrioles 1.) In the exterior of the cell membrane the
2. Cilia and flagella phospholipids layer faces toward the outside
3. Cytoskeleton environment

🧬 NUCLEUS
2.) The other head faces the interior cytoplasm

• Because the membrane touches the cytoplasm

FUNCTIONS
(1) control of the genetical information of the cell and
heredity characteristics of an organism
(2) control of the protein and enzyme synthesis. (3)
control of cell division and cell growth.
(4) storage of DNA, RNA, and ribosome. (5)
regulation of the transcription of the mRNA to
protein. production of ribosomes.
inside the cell and the watery fluid outside the cell,
the properties of polar heads and nonpolar tails
cause the phospholipids to arrange themselves in
layers.
• tail - considered as non-polar. Cannot form
hydrogen bonds with water molecules
• Hydrophobic - attracted to each other while being
repelled by the water.

STRUCTURE and COMPOSITION • polar - they interact with the watery environment
both outside and inside a cell.
• nonpolar tails - they are protected from the watery
environment
STRUCTURES
1. Cholesterol - helps strengthen the cell
membrane, making it more flexible but less fluid,
which makes the membrane less permeable to
water-soluble substances such as ions or simple
sugars.
2. Carbohydrates - attached to membrane proteins
serve as identification tags, enabling cells to
distinguish one type of cell from another.
3. Membrane proteins
• transport proteins - extend from the phospholipid
layer to help materials cross the membrane
• channel proteins - form tunnels that help cells
import or export needed materials and expel wastes
• cell recognition proteins - enable cells to
distinguish their own cells from those of other
organisms
• enzymatic proteins - participate in metabolic
reactions such as degradative and synthetic
reactions
• cytoskeleton proteins - act as muscle and skeleton
to maintain cell shape and motility
• junction proteins - assist cell-to-cell adhesion and
communication between cells
• receptor proteins - facilitate the exchange of
signals with other cells by changing shape to allow a
specific molecule, the ligand, to bind it.
• Through these interactions with various membrane
proteins, the cells establish connections, allowing
various cell-to-cell communication, and paving the
way for them to form tissues and organs.
• Scientists also described the cell membrane
through a fluid mosaic model due to the
arrangement of molecules that make up a cell
membrane. This model of cell membrane structure
takes this description from two characteristics;
(1) the cell membrane is described as flexible and
not rigid. This flexibility is attributed to the
phospholipids' ability to move side to side and slide
past each other within each layer.
(2) the variety of molecules scattered along the
membrane provides a variety of different textures
and patterns making up a mosaic.
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🧬 CELL WALL
• plant cell has but the animal cell doesn’t
• is a rigid layer that gives protection, support, and
shape to the cell.
[example] - the wood making up a tree trunk
consists of dead cells whose cell walls continue to
support the entire tree. Moreover, the cell wall's
composition varies and is related to the different
needs of each type of organism.
• In plants and algae, the cell wall is made up of the
polysaccharide cellulose. Since molecules cannot
easily pass across the cellulose, the cell walls of
plants and algae have openings or channels to let
water and other molecules to diffuse.
FUNCTIONS
(1) Provides structure and strength
(2) Protects the internal contents of the cell
(3) Regulates cell growth
STRUCTURE and COMPOSITION
(1) Hemicellulose - An important group of
polysaccharides that provides the structure for the
primary and secondary walls, cell expansion, seed
storage for carbohydrates, and aggregation to
facilitate plant growth.
(2) Pectin - keeps the walls of adjacent cells joined
together.
(3) Cellulose microfibril - Contributes to the control of
cell growth and development.
(4) Middle lamella - Acts as a cementing material
between two adjacent cells.
(5) Primary cell wall - Layer of the cell wall where
cell growth is permitted.
(6) Plasma/ cell membrane - Provides protection for
a cell and allows the transport of nutrients into the
cell and the removal of toxic substances from the
cell.
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🧬 CYTOPLASM
• fills the space between the nucleus and the cell
membrane.
• Cytosol is the fluid portion consisting mainly of
water and excluding the organelles in it.
• The chemical makeup of cytosol having a high
concentration of water suggests that it is necessary
for maintaining cell structure.
• this is the reason why water is an essential
component of life.
• Many chemical reactions occur in the cytoplasm
wherein water acts as a natural solvent.
FUNCTIONS
(1) Cellular respiration
(2) Structural support • Rough endoplasmic reticulum - The surface of the
(3) Storage ER is covered by ribosomes, called rough because
(4) Cell signaling of their bumpy look under the microscope.

STRUCTURES • Smooth endoplasmic reticulum - is responsible for

the production of lipids and the performance of other
(1) Cytosol specialized functions, such as breaking down drugs
(2) Organelles and alcohol. Surfaces of the ER that are not studded
(3) Cytoskeleton with ribosomes
(4) Inclusions
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🧬 GOLGI APPARATUS
COMPONENTS
• From the ER, proteins are transported into layered
(1) Water stacks of membrane-enclosed spaces called the
(2) Ions Golgi apparatus or Golgi complex, where proteins
(3) Small molecules are processed, sorted, and delivered.
(4) Enzymes
(5) Ribonucleic acid (RNas)
• The membranes of the Golgi apparatus have
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enzymes that further modify the proteins. Finally,

🧬 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
finished products are packaged in this organelle.

• Some of the packaged proteins are stored

temporarily within the Golgi apparatus for later use.
• part of the endomembrane system Some are transported to other organelles within the
cell or carried to the membrane where they will be
FUNCTIONS eventually secreted out of the cell.
(1) transport chemical between and within cells
(2) calcium storage, protein synthesis, and lipid STRUCTURE and COMPOSITION
metabolism
• composed of stacks of flattened structures that
contain numerous vesicles containing secretory
STRUCTURES granules. However, Golgi apparatus appears as a
complex array of interconnecting tubules, vesicles,
(1) interconnected network of chain and folded and cisternae
membranes ___________________________________

🧬 VESICLES
(2) arranged like a maze
(3) with many creases and folds
(4) interior of this maze: LUMEN
• The lumen and its surface are the sites for many
processes such as the production of proteins and • After a protein has been manufactured, part of the
lipids. ER pinches off to form small, membrane-bound sacs
called vesicles enclosing the protein.

COMPOSITION • The protein being protected by the vesicle can now

be transported to the Golgi apparatus, where further
(1) Nuclear envelope - separates the nucleus from modifications can be made. A new vesicle will again
the cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells be formed at the end of the Golgi apparatus for
(2) Ribosomes - site of protein synthesis in the cell storage, transport, or secretion.
(3) Cisternae - part of the packaging and
modification processes of proteins
• Due to the various functions of the vesicles, they
(4) Rough ER - helps make and process proteins
can be categorized as storage vesicles, transport
- series of connected flattened sacs
vesicles, or secretory vesicles. Vesicles are
- dotted with ribosomes
generally short-lived and are formed and recycled as
- “rough” appearance
needed by the cell.
(5) Smooth ER - helps make and process liquids
- not studded with ribosomes
• the synthesis, storage, and export of molecules is
- Tabular form
made possible because these organelles are
functionally connected with each other. Instructions
from the nucleus pass out through the nuclear pore
to the ER. Transport vesicles travel from the ER to
the Golgi apparatus and then to other destinations.
• Some vesicles may develop into lysosomes and
vacuoles.
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🧬 VACUOLES
• A space within a cell that is empty of cytoplasm
• vacuole - “empty space”
• A vacuole is a fluid-filled sac for the storage of
materials needed by the cell that includes water,
food molecules, inorganic ions, and enzymes.
• Most animal cells contain many small vacuoles,
while plants have a central vacuole that is unique
only to them.
• central vacuole
- is a single large vacuole that takes up most of the
space inside a plant cell, which most of the time
dislodging the nucleus to the side of the cell.
- filled with a watery fluid that strengthens the cell
and helps support the entire plant by making it
erect.
- When a plant wilts, such as when you do not water
it, its leaves shrivel because there is not enough
water in each cell's central vacuole to support the
leaf's normal structure.
- may also contain other substances, such as toxins
that can harm predators and protect the plant, waste
products that may harm the cell itself, and pigments
that give colors to the petals of a flower.
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🧬 LYSOSOMES
• “clean up crew” of the cell
• are round-shaped, membrane-bound structures
containing chemicals that can break down materials
in the cell.
• They contain powerful enzymes, known as
lysozyme, which can defend a cell from invading
bacteria and viruses. They also break down
damaged worn-out cell parts.
• tend to be more numerous in animal cells than in
plant cells.
STRUCTURES
(1) Lipid layer
(2) Membrane
(3) Glycosylated membrane transport proteins
(4) Hydrolytic enzyme mixture
FUNCTIONS
(1) Intracellular digestion
(2) Autophagy
(3) Waste disposal
(4) Programmed cell death
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🧬 PEROXISOMES
• break down toxic materials.
• found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells
• Though they contain digestive enzymes, just like
lysosomes, peroxisomes carry oxidative enzymes
that require oxygen.
• They absorb nutrients that have been acquired by
cells. The enzymes in the peroxisomes break down
complex molecules into smaller molecules.
• help in breaking down alcohol in the body.
Because of this, you would expect your liver cells to
have more peroxisomes than other cells in your
body.
FUNCTIONS
(1) Generation and degradation of Hydrogen
Peroxide
(2) Protects the cells from ROS
(3) Long-chain fatty acid metabolism
(4) Detoxification of harmful chemicals by
superoxide dismutase
(5) Synthesis of plasmalogens and platelet-
activating factors
STRUCTURE and COMPOSITION
(1) Phospholipid bilayer
(2) Crstalloid core
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🧬 MITOCHONDRIA
• function: produce energy
• They are round- to oval-shaped organelles and
have two membranes. The inner membrane has
many folds that greatly increase its surface area.
• Within these inner folds and compartments, a
series of chemical reactions converts molecules
from the food you eat into usable energy.
• Unlike most organelles, mitochondria have their
own ribosomes and DNA, suggesting that
mitochondria were originally free-living prokaryotes
that were taken in by larger cells. The relationship
must have helped both organisms to survive
STRUCTURES
(1) Outer membrane
(2) Inner membrane
(3) Matrix
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🧬 PLASTIDS
• Chloroplasts are organelles that help a plant to
convert solar energy to chemical energy.
• Chloroplasts carry out photosynthesis, which is a
series of complex chemical reactions that transform
solar energy into energy-rich molecules the cell can
use. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts are highly
compartmentalized.
• They have both an outer membrane and an inner
membrane. Sacs, called thylakoids, are in the
chloroplast membrane. These structures are
organized into a stack called granum.
• Thylakoids contain chlorophyll, a light-absorbing
pigment that gives plants their green color and plays
a role in photosynthesis. Stroma is the liquid portion
of the chloroplast. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts
also have their own ribosomes and DNA.
• Both chloroplasts and mitochondria are present in
plant cells, where they work together to capture and
convert energy. Chloroplasts are found in the cells of
certain other organisms, including algae.
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🧬 CENTROSOME AND CENTRIOLES
• The centrosome is a small dense region of
cytoplasm that serves as the main microtubule
organizing center (MTOC), where microtubules are
organized and assembled.
• In animal cells, it contain two barrel-like structures
called centrioles that are perpendicular to each
other.
FUNCTIONS
(1) signals that it is okay to proceed to cytokinesis
(2) maintains chromosome number during cell
division
(3) stimulates changes in the shape of the cell
membrane
(4) organizes the microtubules, in mitosis
(5) regulates the movement to microtubules and
cytoskeletal structures
STRUCTURES
(1) Centrosome
(2) Two centrioles
COMPOSITION
• Centrioles are cylinder-shaped organelles made of
nine triplets of short microtubules arranged in a ring.
• In animal cells, it contain two barrel-like structures
called centrioles that are perpendicular to each
other.
• Before an animal cell divides, the centrosome
including the centrioles doubles, and the two new
centrosomes move to opposite ends of the cell.
• Microtubules develop from each centrosome,
forming spindle fibers. These fibers affix to the sister
chromatids and help divide it between the two cells.
• Centrioles also organize microtubules to form cilia
and flagella.
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🧬 CILIA AND FLAGELLA
• Cilia and flagella are two locomotory projections of
eukaryotes. They allow the cell to move like an oar
or a whip. Both have the same structural
composition, containing nine microtubule doublets
arranged in a circle around two central microtubules
called the 92 patterns.
FUNCTIONS
(1) Locomotion
(2) Sensory Perception
• Cilia look like little hairs with a much shorter length.
They move in a coordinated fashion like the motion
of oars in a rowing team.
Types:
• Non-motile - sensory cilia or primary cilia. they act
as sensory organelles. They receive signals from
nearby cells and act as antennae for the cells.
• Motile - the respiratory tract and fallopian tubes of
the human body. Where they sweep mucus in the
airways and facilitate the movement of ova from the
ovary to the uterus respectively
• Flagella, look like a whip or a tail.
Types:
• Bacterial flagella
• Eukaryotic flagella
• Archaeal flagella
• For single cells, the movement of cilia or flagella
results in swimming. For cells anchored in tissue,
ciliary motion sweeps liquid across the cell surface.
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🧬 CYTOSKELETON
• The cytoskeleton is made up of a small protein
subunit, forming long threads or fibers that can
crisscross the entire cell, thus providing sturdy
mechanical support.
• They help the cell to organize its contents and to
direct the cell's movement in response to the cell's
changing needs and signals from its external
environment.
• There are three flexible networks of proteins that
provide structural support to the cell with a specific
range of functions: microtubules, intermediate
filaments, and microfilaments.
(1) Microtubules are filaments characterized to be
lengthy and the thickest among the filaments.
• They are stiff, hollow tubes that give the cell shape
and serve as anchorage for the membrane-bound
organelles and other cell parts.
• They act as "tracks'' for the movement of vesicles
and other cell components. During cell division,
microtubules form spindle fibers that pull each sister
chromatid into each daughter cell. Microtubules also
form permanent structures, such as the whiplike
Flagellum that propels the sperm toward the egg.
(2) Intermediate filaments are somewhat smaller
than microtubules and ropelike in appearance. They
give the cell tensile strength or the ability to stretch
without breaking apart.
• They are prominently present in skin cells or other
body sites subject to mechanical stress.
Intermediate filaments are important in ensuring the
strength of claws, hairs, and feathers of animals.
(3) Microfilaments are the thinnest among the
cytoskeletons and are also known as actin filaments.
• They are tiny flexible filaments that provide
protective meshwork under the plasma membrane.
Actin filaments are important particularly in cell
movement, as they allow muscles to contract and
relax.
🧬 CHAPTER 2.5: VARIETIES OF CELL IN
THE BODY
“How do different cells in the body keep you
alive?”
• Since the cells in our body have specific jobs or
functions to keep us alive. For example, the nerve
cell or neuron transmits messages for the brain to
function. Red blood cells carry oxygen throughout
the body, which is needed for energy. White blood
cells defend our body against bacteria and germs.
All the cells in our body work together to keep us
healthy and alive
CELLS
• came from preexisting cells and are made of the
same components that work in a similar manner,
such as generating energy, converting nutrients to
energy, and reproducing or exporting wastes.
• vary enormously in terms of appearance to perform
a specific function.
a. Size (large/small)
b. Motility (can/cannot move)
- so bale yung ibang cells daw ay nakakagala while
you iba ay stuck lang sa isang place
• There are about 200 different cell types inside your
body.
EX: the hepatocytes, cells found in the liver that
detoxify drugs, are specialized versions of a typical
eukaryotic cell.
[ common modified cells in your
bodies and their functions]
NERVE CELL OR NEURON
• facilitates the transmission of messages for the
brain to function
• contains several branchlike dendrites that receive
impulses, while its long axon transmits impulses.
SPERM CELL
• to fertilize an egg, pass on its genetic information,
and produce the next generation.
• its whiplike tail, known as flagellum, allows it to
move toward the egg cell.
• The human egg cell, or ovum, is considered one of
the largest cells in humans. That is why it can be
visible to the human eye without the aid of a
microscope or magnification device.
OVUM
• to contribute half of the DNA or genetic material
upon combining the sperm with the egg upon
fertilization during sexual reproduction.
• not capable of movement with a tiny amount of
nutritive yolk to nourish the embryo in its earliest
stage of embryonic development.
RED BLOOD CELLS (RBC)
• circular, enucleated, and biconcave in appearance
• modified to transport oxygen from the lungs to
different body parts.
WHITE BLOOD CELLS
• bigger in size and fewer in number than RBCs
• function - protect the body from bacteria and
germs
MUSCLE CELLS
• spindle-shaped in appearance to withstand
continuous movement. Function - movement.
• contain contractile protein fiber, called actin and
myosin, which help muscles contract.
• Muscle cells contain many mitochondria that
produce enough energy during muscle contraction.
GLAND CELLS
• produce and secrete substances such as sweat,
saliva, breast milk, digestive enzymes, and
hormones needed for certain biological processes.
BONE CELLS
• make up bone tissue. Bone is a highly specialized
connective tissue
• three main functions
(1) to protect the internal organs
(2) to create a rigid frame for muscular movement
(3) to store minerals such as calcium and
phosphorous
🧬 CHAPTER 3.1: THE CELLS’ NEED TO
DIVIDE
What triggers the growth and development of
cells?
• The growth and development of cells are mainly
triggered by genetic instructions within the cell itself,
which guide its processes, and external signals like
hormones and nutrients, which provide cues for when and
how the cell should grow, divide, and specialize.
What are the outcomes of cell division?
• Cell division results in two main outcomes: the
production of genetically identical daughter cells in a
process called mitosis, which is essential for growth,
tissue repair, and maintaining the body; and the creation
of specialized cells with unique functions through a
process called meiosis, which is crucial for sexual
reproduction and genetic diversity. These outcomes
ensure the organism can grow, repair itself, and
reproduce.
Enumerate the stages of cell division
• Mitosis - the process by which a single eukaryotic
cell divides into two identical daughter cells. It
consists of several stages:
- Prophase: Chromosomes condense, and the
nuclear envelope breaks down.
- Metaphase: Chromosomes align in the center of
the cell.
- Anaphase: Chromatids are pulled apart and move
to opposite ends of the cell.
- Telophase: Two separate nuclei form, and the cell
starts to pinch in the middle.
- Cytokinesis: The cell physically divides into two
daughter cells.
Why must cells divide?
• Cells must divide for two main reasons: first, to allow an
organism to grow in size by increasing the number of its
cells, and second, to replace old, damaged, or dying cells
with new ones, ensuring the organism remains healthy
and functional. Cell division is essential for the
development, maintenance, and repair of tissues and is a
fundamental process in the life of living organisms.
_____________________________
CELL DIVISION
• ability of individual cells to divide.
• dividing is one of its essential tasks to keep you
alive
• also known as cell reproduction
• linked to the cell theory, which states that all
living things are composed of cells and that all
cells come from preexisting cells
• This tenet emphasized how important it is for the
cell to divide, and that no cell exists today if not
from a previous parent cell.
• allows organisms to reproduce asexually, grow,
and repair worn-out or damaged tissues (cell
replacement).
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GROWTH and DEVELOPMENT
• allows an organism to increase the number of its cells,
leading to growth in size.
• cell division is essential for repairing damaged tissues
and replacing old or dying cells, contributing to the
overall development and maintenance of the organism.
CELL REPLACEMENT
• occurs when old cells in the body die and new
cells form.
• Cell division occurs in the red bone marrow of
your bones such as in the ribs, breastbone,
vertebrae, and hips to continuously make new red
blood cells to replace the dying ones.
• Wound healing also involves the growth of new
cells out of cell division. If your skin is injured with
a cut, cellular repair will also happen with the
production of new cells on the site of injury.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• Reproduction is a common process among life
forms to make a new organism from one or two
parent organisms.
• happens either via sexual or asexual
reproduction.
• Asexual reproduction is a form of cell division where a
single parent cell divides to create genetically identical
offspring, without the need for fertilization or the
combination of genetic material from two parents.
• This process allows for rapid reproduction and the
propagation of organisms with traits well-suited to their
environment, but it does not result in genetic diversity
like sexual reproduction does.
_________________________________
• Cell division is important for both unicellular and
multicellular organisms. Prokaryotes use cell
division for reproduction, while multicellular
organisms use it for growth, development, and
repair. In all the previous examples, the new cells
contain the same set, number, and types of
chromosomes as the parent cells.
• Cell division makes it possible for organisms to
reproduce even asexually. Examining the cell's
nucleus, it will reveal the genetic material
organized in chromosomes.
🧬 CHAPTER 3.2: CHROMOSOME
DNA – carries the genetic information you have
inherited and makes your body function
normally throughout your life
CHROMOSOME – double-stranded molecule,
is tightly coiled in an organized structure
CHROMATIN – is responsible for packaging
the DNA efficiently into smaller volume so that it
fits in the nucleus of the cell to protect the DNA
structure
Chromatid – refers to each strand of the
duplicated chromosome. Together they are
called sister chromatid, which are held together
by the centromere.
KINETOCHORE – attached to the long
spindle fibers during cell division.
🧬 CHAPTER 3.3: THE CELL CYCLE
• growth, duplication and division
• involves distinct and regular phases of growth,
DNA duplication, and cell division that are needed to
allow growth and repair.
INTERPHASE – when the cell is not dividing, as
if it is at rest. During interphase, cells carry out their
normal functions of growth and preparation before
their division.
MITOSIS- when the cell is active and full of
activity
DNA SYNTHESIS – development of the
microscopes revealed the cell’s ability to copy the
DNA
PERIODS GAP 1 AND 2 – when they cannot
see other parts of the interphase
-----STAGES OF CELL CYCLE-----
INTERPHASE
• the growth period in the cycle and is divided into
three parts
GAP 1 (G1)
• first part of the cell cycle wherein the cell carries
out its normal metabolic functions
• cell also increase their size, as their organelles
increase in number
•In terms of duration, cells spend most of their life
cycle in this phase
•cells have required size limit
• Ex. A sperm cell that contains only few
mitochondria may not be able to propel its flagellum
• cells cannot grow bigger than their normal size
SYNTHESIS
• second part of the cell cycle which refers to the
time that the cell makes a copy of the genetic
material in the form of nuclear DNA
• the cell spends considerable amount of time and
energy to make copies of its chromosomes.
• Each chromosome contains one DNA molecule
that is copied with enough accuracy through DNA
replication
• Aside from DNA, the cell also produces a copy of
protein complex called microtubules.
GAP 2 (G2)
• cells continue to carry out their normal functions
and also undergo further growth.
• make sure that everything is in order, including
growing to its correct size and duplicating DNA
MITOSIS (M)
• involves division of the nucleus and the genetic
material. Scientist divide mitosis into 4 parts:
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
• the heredity material of the parent cell is given to
the daughter cells that leads to the formation of two
daughter cells
• DNA replication before mitosis begins
CYTOKINESIS
• two new cells form
• divides the cytoplasm of the cell
• begins early during telophase and continues after
the nuclei have formed in the daughter cells.
🧬 CHAPTER 3.4: THE MECHANISM OF
CELL DIVISION
MITOSIS
• The division of nucleus into two genetically
identical nuclei containing the same full set of DNA.
It occurs in the somatic cells, except the sex cells,
such as egg cells and sperm cells. Mitosis prepares
the cell for cytokinesis.
PROPHASE: START OF MITOSIS
• (pro means “before”)
• nuclear envelope disappears, centrioles move
apart, spindle fibers form
• the chromatin, which are loose complex of DNA
and protein molecules in the nucleus, condenses
into tightly coiled chromosome.
• The nuclear envelope breaks down. Though the
lipids and proteins are still their in the nuclear
membrane, they can no longer form a barrier around
the nucleus, making the chromosomes free to move
around
METAPHASE: CHROMOSOMES AT THE
CENTER
• (meta means “after”)
• chromosomes are at the spindle equator
• the spindle fibers attached to the kinetochore of the
sister chromatids facilitates the movement of
chromosomes toward the middle of the cell
• the chromosomes appear to line up along a plane
equidistant from a microtubule region called
metaphase plate
ANAPHASE: CHROMATIDS TO
OPPOSITE POLE
• (ana means “up” or “back”)
• each chromatid has a copy of a chromosome,
sister chromatids separate, spindle fibers move
sister chromatids toward centrioles
• sister chromatids are tightly paired due to the
centromere and protein cohesion, which are
responsible for holding DNA molecules
TELOPHASE: REFORMATION OF
NUCLEI
• (telo means “end”)
• nuclear envelope reforms, cleavage furrow
(animals) and cell plate (plants) appear)
• the two complete sets of identical chromosomes
are now positioned at each pole of the cell, and the
reverse of the major events in prophase happen.
• By the end of these phase, chromosomes are no
longer visible