Data warehouse and mining notes

Q1. Define clustering? Why clustering is important in Data Mining? Write its uses.

Ans. Clustering is a data mining technique that involves the grouping of similar data points
based on certain characteristics or features. The primary goal is to form clusters, where items
within a cluster are more similar to each other than to items in other clusters. Clustering
helps reveal the inherent structures, patterns, and relationships within datasets.

Importance of Clustering in Data Mining:

1.Pattern Recognition:

Clustering is crucial for recognizing patterns within datasets. By grouping similar data points,
it becomes easier to identify trends and structures, aiding in pattern recognition.

2.Data Summarization:

Clustering facilitates the summarization of large datasets. Instead of analyzing individual data
points, clusters provide a more concise representation of the data.

3.Anomaly Detection:

Clustering helps identify anomalies or outliers within datasets. Data points that do not fit well
into any cluster may signal irregularities or unique patterns.

4.Data Exploration:

Clustering is important for exploring the underlying structure of a dataset. It provides a visual
representation of relationships, making it easier for analysts to explore and understand
complex data.

Uses of Clustering:

1. Customer Segmentation:

Businesses use clustering to group customers with similar behaviors or preferences. This aids
in targeted marketing strategies and personalized customer experiences.

2.Image Segmentation:

In image processing, clustering is applied to segment images into meaningful regions. This is
useful for tasks such as object recognition and computer vision.

3.Document Clustering:

In natural language processing, clustering is employed to group similar documents together.

It supports tasks like document categorization and information retrieval.
4.Medical Diagnosis:

Clustering is utilized in healthcare for grouping patients based on similar symptoms or

characteristics, aiding in medical diagnosis and personalized treatment plans.

5.Network Security:

Clustering helps detect unusual patterns or behaviors in network traffic, assisting in the
identification of potential security threats or anomalies.

Q2. What are different types of Data Mining Techniques? Explain any one in detail?

Ans. Data mining refers to extracting or mining knowledge from large amounts of data. In
other words, Data mining is the science, art, and technology of discovering large and
complex bodies of data in order to discover useful patterns. Theoreticians and
practitioners are continually seeking improved techniques to make the process more
efficient, cost-effective, and accurate. Many other terms carry a similar or slightly
different meaning to data mining such as knowledge mining from data, knowledge
extraction, data/pattern analysis data dredging.

Data Mining Techniques

1. Association

Association analysis is the finding of association rules showing attribute-value conditions that
occur frequently together in a given set of data. Association analysis is widely used for a market
basket or transaction data analysis. Association rule mining is a significant and exceptionally
dynamic area of data mining research. One method of association-based classification, called
associative classification, consists of two steps. In the main step, association instructions are
generated using a modified version of the standard association rule mining algorithm known as
Apriori. The second step constructs a classifier based on the association rules discovered.

2. Classification

Classification is the processing of finding a set of models (or functions) that describe
and distinguish data classes or concepts, for the purpose of being able to use the model
to predict the class of objects whose class label is unknown. The determined model
depends on the investigation of a set of training data information (i.e. data objects
whose class label is known). The derived model may be represented in various forms,
such as classification (if – then) rules, decision trees, and neural networks. Data Mining
has a different type of classifier:
 Decision Tree
SVM(Support Vector Machine)
Generalized Linear Models
Bayesian classification:
Classification by Backpropagation
K-NN Classifier
Rule-Based Classification
Frequent-Pattern Based Classification
Rough set theory
Fuzzy Logic

Decision Trees: A decision tree is a flow-chart-like tree structure, where each node
represents a test on an attribute value, each branch denotes an outcome of a test, and
tree leaves represent classes or class distributions. Decision trees can be easily
transformed into classification rules. Decision tree enlistment is a nonparametric
methodology for building classification models. In other words, it does not require any
prior assumptions regarding the type of probability distribution satisfied by the class
and other attributes.

Support Vector Machine (SVM) Classifier Method: Support Vector Machines is a

supervised learning strategy used for classification and additionally used for regression.
When the output of the support vector machine is a continuous value, the learning
methodology is claimed to perform regression; and once the learning methodology will
predict a category label of the input object, it’s known as classification. The
independent variables could or could not be quantitative

Generalized Linear Models: Generalized Linear Models(GLM) is a statistical technique,

for linear modeling. GLM provides extensive coefficient statistics and model statistics,
as well as row diagnostics. It also supports confidence bounds.

Bayesian Classification: Bayesian classifier is a statistical classifier. They can predict

class membership probabilities, for instance, the probability that a given sample
belongs to a particular class. Bayesian classification is created on the Bayes theorem.
Studies comparing the classification algorithms have found a simple Bayesian classifier
known as the naive Bayesian classifier to be comparable in performance with decision
tree and neural network classifiers.

Classification By Backpropagation: A Backpropagation learns by iteratively processing a

set of training samples, comparing the network’s estimate for each sample with the
actual known class label. For each training sample, weights are modified to minimize the
mean squared error between the network’s prediction and the actual class. These
changes are made in the “backward” direction, i.e., from the output layer, through each
concealed layer down to the first hidden layer (hence the name backpropagation).
K-Nearest Neighbor (K-NN) Classifier Method: The k-nearest neighbor (K-NN) classifier is
taken into account as an example-based classifier, which means that the training
documents are used for comparison instead of an exact class illustration, like the class
profiles utilized by other classifiers.

Rule-Based Classification: Rule-Based classification represent the knowledge in the

form of If-Then rules. An assessment of a rule evaluated according to the accuracy and
coverage of the classifier. If more than one rule is triggered then we need to conflict
resolution in rule-based classification.

Frequent-Pattern Based Classification: Frequent pattern discovery (or FP discovery, FP

mining, or Frequent itemset mining) is part of data mining. It describes the task of
finding the most frequent and relevant patterns in large datasets. The idea was first
presented for mining transaction databases.

Rough Set Theory: Rough set theory can be used for classification to discover structural
relationships within imprecise or noisy data. It applies to discrete-valued features.
Continuous-valued attributes must therefore be discrete prior to their use. Rough set
theory is based on the establishment of equivalence classes within the given training
data. All the data samples forming a similarity class are indiscernible, that is, the
samples are equal with respect to the attributes describing the data.

Fuzzy-Logic: Rule-based systems for classification have the disadvantage that they
involve sharp cut-offs for continuous attributes. Fuzzy Logic is valuable for data mining
frameworks performing grouping /classification. It provides the benefit of working at a
high level of abstraction.

3. Prediction

Prediction in the context of data mining refers to the process of using models or patterns
learned from historical data to make informed predictions or estimations about future or
unseen data. Prediction is a key aspect of many data mining techniques, especially those
falling under supervised learning.

4.Clustering
Clustering is a data mining technique that involves the grouping of similar data points based
on certain characteristics or features. The primary objective is to form clusters, where items
within a cluster are more similar to each other than to items in other clusters. Clustering is an
unsupervised learning method, meaning that the algorithm does not require predefined class
labels for the data points.

5. Regression
Regression is a data mining technique that involves predicting a numerical value (the
dependent variable) based on the values of one or more input variables (independent
variables). The primary goal of regression is to model the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables, enabling the prediction of future values or
understanding the impact of changes in the independent variables on the dependent
variable.

6. Artificial Neural network (ANN) Classifier Method

An artificial neural network (ANN) also referred to as simply a “Neural Network” (NN),
could be a process model supported by biological neural networks. It consists of an
interconnected collection of artificial neurons. A neural network is a set of connected
input/output units where each connection has a weight associated with it. During the
knowledge phase, the network acquires by adjusting the weights to be able to predict
the correct class label of the input samples.

7. Outlier Detection

A database may contain data objects that do not comply with the general behavior or
model of the data. These data objects are Outliers. The investigation of OUTLIER data is
known as OUTLIER MINING. An outlier may be detected using statistical tests which
assume a distribution or probability model for the data, or using distance measures
where objects having a small fraction of “close” neighbors in space are considered
outliers. Rather than utilizing factual or distance measures, deviation-based techniques
distinguish exceptions/outlier by inspecting differences in the principle attributes of
items in a group.

8. Genetic Algorithm

Genetic algorithms are adaptive heuristic search algorithms that belong to the larger
part of evolutionary algorithms. Genetic algorithms are based on the ideas of natural
selection and genetics. These are intelligent exploitation of random search provided
with historical data to direct the search into the region of better performance in
solution space. They are commonly used to generate high-quality solutions for
optimization problems and search problems.

Q3. Explain the concept of Boosting.

Boosting is an ensemble learning technique that combines the predictions of multiple weak
learners (individual models) to create a strong learner. The primary goal of boosting is to
improve the overall performance of the model by sequentially training weak learners, each
focusing on the mistakes made by the previous ones. Boosting is particularly effective in
situations where individual models may not perform well on their own.
Q4. What is Data Warehousing and why we need it? Also explain the architecture of Data
Warehouse in detail.

Ans .Data Warehouse is a relational database management system (RDBMS) construct to

meet the requirement of transaction processing systems.A Data Warehouse is separate
from DBMS, it stores a huge amount of data, which is typically collected from multiple
heterogeneous sources like files, DBMS, etc. The goal is to produce statistical results
that may help in decision makings. For example, a college might want to see quick
different results, like how the placement of CS students has improved over the last 10
years, in terms of salaries, counts, etc.

Why We Need Data Warehousing:

Centralized Data Repository: Data warehousing provides a centralized repository for all
enterprise data from various sources, such as transactional databases, operational
systems, and external sources. This enables organizations to have a comprehensive view
of their data, which can help in making informed business decisions.

Data Integration: Data warehousing integrates data from different sources into a single,
unified view, which can help in eliminating data silos and reducing data inconsistencies.

Historical Data Storage: Data warehousing stores historical data, which enables
organizations to analyze data trends over time. This can help in identifying patterns and
anomalies in the data, which can be used to improve business performance.

Query and Analysis: Data warehousing provides powerful query and analysis
capabilities that enable users to explore and analyze data in different ways. This can
help in identifying patterns and trends, and can also help in making informed business
decisions.

Data Transformation: Data warehousing includes a process of data transformation,

which involves cleaning, filtering, and formatting data from various sources to make it
consistent and usable. This can help in improving data quality and reducing data
inconsistencies.

Data Mining: Data warehousing provides data mining capabilities, which enable
organizations to discover hidden patterns and relationships in their data. This can help
in identifying new opportunities, predicting future trends, and mitigating risks.

Data Security: Data warehousing provides robust data security features, such as access
controls, data encryption, and data backups, which ensure that the data is secure and
protected from unauthorized access.

Data Warehouse Architecture:

Data warehouse architecture is designed to support the efficient storage, retrieval, and
analysis of large volumes of data for decision-making purposes. The architecture typically
includes various components that work together to provide a robust and scalable
environment. Here is a detailed breakdown of the components in a typical data warehouse
architecture:

Operational Data Sources:

These are the systems and databases where the operational data of an organization is
generated. Sources can include transactional databases, CRM systems, ERP systems,
spreadsheets, and other data repositories.

ETL (Extract, Transform, Load) Layer:

The ETL layer is responsible for extracting data from operational sources,
transforming it into a consistent format, and loading it into the data warehouse. ETL
processes often involve cleaning, aggregating, and structuring the data to meet the
requirements of the data warehouse.

Data Staging Area:

The staging area is an intermediate storage area where data is temporarily held during
the ETL process. Staging allows for data validation, error handling, and the integration
of data from various sources before it is loaded into the main data warehouse.

Data Warehouse Database:

The core of the architecture is the data warehouse database. It is designed for
efficient querying and reporting, typically using a relational database management
system (RDBMS). The data warehouse database stores integrated and transformed
data from various sources.

Data Marts:

Data marts are subsets of the data warehouse that focus on specific business units,
departments, or user groups. They contain a tailored set of data to meet the specific
needs of a particular audience, improving query performance and usability.

OLAP (Online Analytical Processing) Engine:

The OLAP engine allows users to perform complex multidimensional analysis on the
data. It organizes data into cubes, enabling users to drill down, roll up, and pivot to
analyze information from different perspectives.

Metadata Repository:

The metadata repository stores metadata, which is data about the data in the data
warehouse. It includes information about data sources, transformations, business
rules, and the structure of the warehouse. Metadata is crucial for understanding and
managing the data within the warehouse.

Query and Reporting Tools:

 Users interact with the data warehouse through query and reporting tools. These tools
provide a user-friendly interface for writing SQL queries, generating reports, and
visualizing data. Business intelligence tools and reporting dashboards are often used
in this layer.

Data Mining and Analytics Tools:

Advanced analytics and data mining tools may be integrated into the architecture to
uncover patterns, trends, and insights within the data. These tools can help in
predictive modeling, clustering, and other advanced analytics tasks.

Security and Access Control:

Security measures are implemented to control access to the data warehouse. Role-
based access control ensures that users have appropriate permissions based on their
roles and responsibilities. Encryption and authentication mechanisms further
enhance security.

Backup and Recovery:

Backup and recovery processes are in place to safeguard against data loss or system
failures. Regular backups ensure that data can be restored in the event of an issue.

Data Quality and Governance:

Data quality processes and governance mechanisms are implemented to ensure that
the data in the warehouse remains accurate, consistent, and reliable. Data profiling,
cleansing, and validation are part of these processes.

Scalability and Performance Optimization:

Architecture should be designed to scale horizontally or vertically to accommodate

growing data volumes. Performance optimization techniques, such as indexing and
partitioning, are employed to enhance query performance.

Monitoring and Management Tools:

Monitoring tools track the performance of the data warehouse, highlighting areas that
may need optimization. Management tools assist in the administration, maintenance,
and configuration of the data warehouse.

Q5. What is OLAP data warehouse?

Ans. OLAP, which stands for Online Analytical Processing, is a category of technology used in
data warehousing that enables users to interactively analyze multidimensional data from
different perspectives. OLAP data warehouses are designed to support complex analytical
queries and provide a flexible and intuitive environment for exploring and understanding
data. OLAP systems organize data into a multidimensional structure, typically in the form of
cubes, and offer functionalities like drill-down, roll-up, slice-and-dice, and pivoting for
interactive analysis.

Q6. Define clustering? Why clustering is important in Data Mining? Write its uses.

Ans. Clustering is a machine learning and data analysis technique that involves grouping a set
of objects or data points based on their inherent similarities. The goal of clustering is to
partition a dataset into subsets, or clusters, in such a way that objects within the same
cluster are more similar to each other than to those in other clusters. Clustering is an
unsupervised learning approach, meaning that it doesn't require predefined class labels for
the data points.

Why clustering is important in Data Mining

Customer Segmentation:

In business and marketing, clustering is often used for customer segmentation. By

grouping customers based on purchasing behavior, demographics, or preferences,
businesses can tailor marketing strategies to specific customer segments.

Recommendation Systems:

Clustering is employed in recommendation systems to group users or items with

similar preferences. For example, in collaborative filtering, users who belong to the
same cluster may have similar tastes, allowing for more accurate recommendations.

Image and Signal Processing:

In image and signal processing, clustering helps in segmenting and grouping similar
regions or components. This is valuable in tasks such as image segmentation and
compression.

Biology and Genetics:

In biological and genetic studies, clustering is used to identify groups of genes with
similar expression patterns or to categorize biological samples based on common
features.

Document Classification:

In text mining, clustering can group similar documents together. This is useful for tasks
like document categorization, where documents with similar content are grouped into
the same cluster.

Improving Efficiency of Data Mining Algorithms:

Clustering can be a preprocessing step to enhance the efficiency of other data mining
algorithms. By reducing the dimensionality of the data or focusing on specific clusters,
the computational complexity of subsequent analyses can be reduced.
Write its uses.

Credit Scoring:

Grouping individuals with similar credit histories and financial behaviors to assess
credit risk and determine credit scores for lending purposes.

Marketing Campaigns:

Targeting specific clusters of customers with tailored marketing campaigns to increase

the effectiveness of promotional activities.

Manufacturing and Quality Control:

Identifying clusters of similar production defects or quality issues in manufacturing

processes, allowing for targeted improvements and quality control.

Social Network Analysis:

Grouping individuals with similar social network behaviors, interests, or connections,

aiding in social network analysis, community detection, and friend recommendations.

Speech and Audio Processing:

Clustering similar audio patterns for tasks such as speaker identification, music genre
classification, and audio signal processing.

Human Resource Management:

Grouping employees based on skills, performance, or other relevant factors to

optimize team formation, training programs, and talent management.

Q7. Difference between Star Schema and Snowflake Schema

Ans. Star Schema: Star schema is the type of multidimensional model which is used for
data warehouse. In star schema, The fact tables and the dimension tables are
contained. In this schema fewer foreign-key join is used. This schema forms a star with
fact table and dimension tables.

Snowflake Schema: Snowflake Schema is also the type of multidimensional model

which is used for data warehouse. In snowflake schema, The fact tables, dimension
tables as well as sub dimension tables are contained. This schema forms a snowflake
with fact tables, dimension tables as well as sub-dimension tables.

Q8. Difference between OLAP and OLTP in DBMS

Ans: Online Analytical Processing (OLAP) consists of a type of software tool that is used
for data analysis for business decisions. OLAP provides an environment to get insights from
the database retrieved from multiple database systems at one time.

Online transaction processing provides transaction-oriented applications in a 3-tier

architecture. OLTP administers the day-to-day transactions of an organization.

OLTP Examples

An example considered for OLTP System is ATM Center a person who authenticates first will
receive the amount first and the condition is that the amount to be withdrawn must be present
in the ATM.

Q9. Discuss Bootstrapping, Boosting and Bagging with examples.

Bootstrapping:

Definition: Bootstrapping is a resampling technique in statistics where multiple samples are

drawn with replacement from a single dataset. Each bootstrap sample is of the same size as the
original dataset, and the process is repeated multiple times.
Purpose: Bootstrapping is used to estimate the sampling distribution of a statistic, assess the
variability of a model, and provide more robust confidence intervals.

Bagging (Bootstrap Aggregating):

Definition: Bagging is an ensemble learning technique that involves training multiple instances
of the same learning algorithm on different bootstrap samples and then combining their
predictions. Each model is trained independently, and the final prediction is often an average or a
vote from the individual models.
Purpose: Bagging helps reduce overfitting, increase model stability, and improve the overall
performance of the model by leveraging the diversity introduced through bootstrap sampling.

Boosting:

Definition: Boosting is another ensemble learning technique where multiple weak learners
(models that perform slightly better than random chance) are trained sequentially. The focus is on
correcting errors made by the previous models, assigning more weight to misclassified instances.
Purpose: Boosting aims to create a strong learner by combining the strengths of individual weak
learners. Each model in the sequence pays more attention to instances that were misclassified
by previous models, thereby improving overall accuracy.