BOTANY

BOTA 100: GENERAL BOTANY

COURSE OUTLINE

WEEK TOPIC
1 Introduction to Botany; the need to study Botany, History and
Importance.
2 Plant Anatomy: plant cell, cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm,
membranous and non-membranous structures
3 Plant physiological processes; Diffusion, osmosis and active transport
4 Plant tissues; meristematic, dermal, ground, vascular bundles
5 Plant morphology; root and shoot systems
6 Plant taxonomy; artificial and natural system of classification, binomial
nomenclature
7 Non-vascular plants; Bryophytes
8 Pteridophytes
9 Plant-like organisms; Algae, fungi
10 Plant ecology

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 BOTANY
BOTA 100: GENERAL BOTANY

Introduction to Botany
Botany is one of the world’s oldest natural sciences. The term ‘botany’ is derived from
the Greek word ‘botane’. It is the branch of Biology that deals with the study of plants.
Initially, Botany included all the plant-like organisms such as algae, lichens, fungi,
bacteria. Later on, with the invention and use of microscopes, it was discovered that
bacteria, algae and fungi belong to a different kingdom. The main branches of botany
are commonly divided into three groups: the study of the fundamental natural
phenomena and processes of plant life, the classification and description of plant
diversity; applied topics which study the ways in which plants may be used for
economic benefit in horticulture, agriculture, forestry and medicine; and organismal
topics which focus on plant groups such as mosses, ferns or flowering plants. Actually,
Botany comprises many sub-disciplines each studying a different aspect of plants: cell
biology, anatomy, morphology, genetics, systematics, physiology, pathology and
ecology.

Branches of Botany
The plant morphology deals with the form and structure of plants, particularly the
whole plant and its major components, while the plant anatomy deals with the cellular
and subcellular structures (internal structures), especially using the microscope. The
behavior and functioning of plants are studied by the plant physiologists, although since
they frequently use biochemical techniques, they are often called a Plant Biochemists. A
plant geneticist uses biochemical and biophysical techniques to study the mechanism of
inheritance and may relate this to the evolution of an individual plant. An important
practical branch of genetics is plant breeding. The plant ecologist relates the form
(morphology and anatomy), function (physiology), and evolution of plants to their
environment. The plant taxonomist, or systematic botanist, specializes in the science of
classification, which involves cataloging, identifying, and naming plants using their
morphological, physiological, and genetic characteristics. Cytology, the study of the
individual cell, involves techniques used in morphology, physiology, and genetics.
Within these broad divisions there are many specialist fields of research. The plant
physiologist may, for instance, be particularly interested in photosynthesis or
respiration. Similarly, the systematic biologist may specialize in the study of algae
(algology), fungi (mycology), or mosses (bryology). Other specialists study the plant in
relation to its uses (economic botany), plant diseases (plant pathology), or the
agricultural importance of plants (agricultural botany). Plant Pathology; the study of
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organisms and environmental conditions that are responsible for causing diseases in
plants, the mechanisms by which the disease occurs, and the methods of controlling
plant diseases. Plant Ecology; studies the distribution of plants, how do the
environmental factors affect plants and the interaction between plants and other
organisms. Palaeobotany; deals with the recovery and identification of plant fossils,
thereby, studying the evolutionary history of plants. Archaeobotany; deals with how
plants were used by people in the past. Understanding a plant also helps in
understanding the medicinal and spiritual significances of a plant in the past. Forensic
Botany; is the use of plants and parts of plants such as pollens, seeds, leaves, etc. to
investigate criminal or non-criminal cases, legal disputes or questions, to discover the
cause of death or former location.

Importance of Botany

Plants are an integral part of human life and are used in various aspects of day to day
lives. Products such as food, medicine, wood, fabrics, alcohol and rubber are all derived
from plants. Botany is the key to the development of biofuels such as biomass and
methane gas (biogas) that are used as alternatives to fossil fuels. Botany is important in
the study of crops and ideal growing techniques that help farmers increase crop yield
thus economic productivity. The study of plants is also important in environment
protection. The Conservation botanists list the different types of plants present on earth
and determine their plant populations and recommend alert for conservation. Botany
relates the study of different kinds of plants, hence influence the fields of science,
medicine and cosmetics. Botanists may influence the studies of other academic
disciplines, such as life science, science communication, ecology, and evolutionary
biology.

History of botany
The forerunners of botanists were men and women who collected herbs for medical use
long before philosophers turned to the scientific study of nature. However, the title of
"father of botany" goes to Theophrastus, a pupil of Aristotle, whose inquiry into plants
sought to classify the types, parts, and uses of the members of the plant kingdom.
Passing over the work of the elder Pliny and that of his contemporary, Dioscorides,
botany received few further lasting contributions until the renaissance, the intervening
period making do with the more or less fabulous "herbals" of the medical botanists. The
most famous pre-Darwinian classification of the plant kingdom was that of Linnaeus, in
which modern binomial names first appeared (1753). While Nehemiah Grew and John
Ray had laid the foundations for plant anatomy and physiology in the 17th and 18th

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centuries, and Robert Hooke had identified the cell (1665) with the aid of his
microscope, these subjects were not actively pursued until the 19th century when
Robert Brown identified the nucleus and Theodor Schwann proposed his comprehensive
cell theory. The work of Charles Darwin revolutionized the theory of classification, while
that of Gregor Mendel pointed the way to a true science of plant genetics and breeding.

Why choose a career in botany? Careers available in plant science include:

Ecologist, Taxonomist, Conservationist, Forester, Plant explorer, Biophysics.
Developmental botany, Geneticist, Plant physiologist, Plant biochemist, Molecular
biologist, Chemotaxonomist, Microbiologist, Plant breeding etc.

Plant Anatomy

Plant Cell Structure

The cell is the structural and functional unit of the plant’s body. Plant cells are
eukaryotic cells in which the DNA is enclosed within the nucleus. Plants have specialized
cells in order to perform certain functions for their survival. Some cells manufacture and
store organic molecules, others transport nutrients throughout the plant.

Some specialized plant cells include: parenchyma cells, collenchyma cells, sclerenchyma
cells, water conducting cells and food conducting cells. All parts of the plant play a
significant role in the proper functioning of the cell. Plant cells are surrounded by a rigid
cell wall.

Distinctive Features of Plant Cell

The most important distinctive structure of plant cell is the presence of the cell wall
outside the cell membrane. It forms the outer lining of the cell. The cell wall mostly
constitutes of cellulose and its main function is providing support and rigidity. Plant cells
also contain many membrane bound cellular structures. These organelles carry out
specific functions necessary for survival and normal operation of the cells. There are a
wide range of operations like producing hormones, enzymes, and all metabolic activities
of the cell. The features that are distinctive in plant cells are as follows:

Cell wall: provides plant cells rigidity and structural support and cell to cell
interaction. The cell wall is a rigid layer that surrounds the plant cells. It is made up of
cellulose. Cell wall is a characteristic feature to cells of plants. Plant cell walls are
primarily made up of cellulose. Cell wall consists of three layers: the primary cell wall,
secondary cell wall and the middle lamella. It is located outside the cell membrane

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whose main function is to provide rigidity, strength, protection against mechanical
stress and infection. It is made up of cellulose, pectins, glycoproteins, hemicellulose and
lignin. Plasmodesmata: are microscopic channels which traverse the cell walls of
plant cells and enables transport and communication between them.

Cell membrane: is the outer boundary of the cell, it encloses the cytoplasm and the
organelles of the cells. In plants cells, it is inside the cell wall. The cell membrane is
semi permeable, allowing only specific substances to pass through and blocking others.
The Fluid Mosaic Model
When a phospholipid is placed in water, it spontaneously folds upon itself to create a
double layer, or bilayer. This bilayer phenomenon is also the foundation for the widely
upheld fluid mosaic model of membrane structure. The phospholipid molecule has a
water-soluble, polar “head” and two fat-soluble, nonpolar “tails.” The hydrophobic tails
always try to avoid water and face the inside of the bilayer, whereas the hydrophilic
head faces the exterior and the interior. Within the phospholipid bilayer are many
different types of embedded proteins and cholesterol molecules whose presence give
the term mosaic. From scanning electron microscope images, it was observed that the
embedded molecules can move sideways throughout the membrane, meaning the
membrane is not solid, but more like a fluid. The membranes also have glycoproteins
attached to their surface, which aid in their location and identification of food, water,
waste products among others.

Figure 1. A typical membrane structure as described by Fluid-mosaic model.

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J. R. Mwetich 6
Functions of plasma proteins

The proteins embedded in the membrane serve many of the membrane functions, such
as holding the membrane in a regular, identifiable structure for easy bonding. They also
have a specific and unique shape that allows them to function as receptors and
receptor sites for attachment to the appropriate raw materials needed for cellular
functions. In some cases, the receptor protein is also a signal transducer that begins
a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions to stimulate a particular reaction or function
within a cell. Finally, the transport proteins, also called carrier proteins, help substances
move across membranes;
Ion channels (ionophores) - allow the passage of ions. Aquaporins - allow passage
of water molecules.

Cytoplasm: It is a gel-like matrix inside enclosed by the cell membrane. It contains

dissolved substances and suspends organelles. The cytoplasm supports cell organelles
and also prevents the cell from bursting or shrinking.

Membranous Structures in the Cytoplasm

Plastids
The term plastid was coined by Schimper in 1885 and was derived from a Greek word
'plastikas' which means formed or moulded. Plastids are cell organelles that store
specific substances found only in plant cell but absent in animal cells. In plant cell, they
are found in the cytoplasm. Plastids are spherical or ovoid in shape. They are involved
in manufacture and storage of certain important chemical compounds. Plastids include
chloroplasts, chromoplasts, leucoplasts, amyloplast, elaioplast and
proteinoplast/aleuronoplast depending on the function they play. They are storage
organelles, storing plant products like starch for synthesis of fatty acids and terpenes.
Chloroplasts
The word chloroplast is derived from the Greek word chloros meaning green and plast
meaning form or entity. It is the most important plastid as they are involved in
photosynthesis. The chloroplasts are situated near the surface of the cell and in parts
where there is sufficient reception of sunlight. The shape of the chloroplast varies, it
may be spheroid or ovoid.

For a given cell type the size of plastid is constant but it differs from species to species.
It is about 4-5 microns in length and 1-3 microns in thickness. The number of
chloroplasts may be 20 to 40 per cell but may be upto 1000. The number varies from

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species to species but is constant for a particular plant species. Specific cells in plants
have chloroplasts. They include palisade mesophyll, spongy mesophyll, guard cells etc

Structure

Chloroplasts are elongated disc-shaped and are enclosed by a double membrane.

Within the inner membrane is a protein-rich substance known as stroma, it is
embedded in a membrane system. This membrane system forms membrane bound
vesicles called thylakoids. The thylakoids lie in stacks that appear like stack of coins
called grana. This contains the photosynthetic pigments - chlorophyll a and b and
carotenoids. Lamellae are tubular membranes which interconnect the grana.

Functions
The chlorophyll is a green pigment that absorbs energy from sunlight, converting it into
chemical energy, ATP and NADPH and using them to convert CO 2 to glucose
(carbohydrates) in a process called photosynthesis.

Chromoplast
Chromo means color; plast means living. Chromoplasts are colored plastids and they
contain various pigments like yellow, orange and red. They are found in photosynthetic
eukaryotic species, commonly in flowers and fruits. The color is due to the presence of
pigments, carotenes and xanthophylls.

Functions
They are plastids responsible for pigment synthesis and storage. They are found in
colored organs of plants like fruits and flowers. In flowers, the main function is to
attract agents for pollination and in fruits, attract agents for dispersal.

Leucoplasts
These are colorless (non-pigmented) plastids and occur in parts of plants that are not
exposed to light like roots and seeds. The absence of color is due to the lack of
pigments.

Functions
Used to form and store starch.
Also synthesizes oils and proteins.
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Vacuoles: are water-filled, membrane bound organelles which stores useful
materials. Vacuoles are known as cells storage center. Plant cells have large membrane
bound chamber called vacuole. Its main function is storage. Vacuoles are found in the
cytoplasm of most plant cells. They are membrane bound organelles, they perform
functions of secretion, excretion and storage. A membrane surrounding the vacuole is
called tonoplast.

Golgi complex: The Golgi bodies appear like the endoplasmic reticulum and are
situated near the nucleus. They are found in almost all eukaryotic cells. Their main
function is to process and package macromolecules synthesized from other parts of the
cell. The Golgi apparatus is referred to as the cell's packaging center.

Endoplasmic reticulum: Endoplasmic reticulum is a membrane bound compartment,

which look like flattened sacs lined side by side. It is a large network of interconnecting
membrane tunnels. It is composed of both rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum.
They are responsible for protein translation, and protein transport to be used in the cell
membrane. They also aid in sequestration of calcium, and production and storage of
glycogen and other macromolecules.

Mitochondria: Mitochondria are surrounded by two membranes. They are described

as the 'power plants' of the cell as they convert glucose to energy molecules (ATP).
They possess their own hereditary material which help in self duplication and
multiplication.

Lysosome: Lysosome contain digestive enzymes. They digest excess or worn out
organelles, food particles and any foreign bodies.

Microbody: It is a single membrane bound organelle that comprises of degradative

enzymes

Nucleus: It is the control center of the cell. It is bound by a double membrane known
as the nuclear envelope. It is a porous membrane, it allows passage of substances and
is a distinctive characteristic of the eukaryotic cell. Most of the genetic material is
organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules. The nucleus directs all the activities of
the cell and also help in protein formation.

Non-Membranous Structures

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Cytoskeleton: It is a network of fibers made up of micro-tubules and micro-filaments.
They maintain the shape and give support to the cell.

Microtubules: They are hollow cylinder-like structures found in the cytoplasm of the
cells. Functions; transport and structural support.

Microfilaments: are solid rod like structures whose primary function is structural
support.

Ribosomes: Ribosomes are smallest and the most abundant cell organelles. They are
comprised of RNA and protein. Ribosomes are sites for protein synthesis. They are
found in all cells because proteins are necessary for the survival of the cell. The
ribosomes are known as the protein factories of the cell.

Cell Types in the Plant’s Body

Parenchyma

 Least specialized plant cells, undifferentiated

 Have thin and flexible cell walls
 Are living at maturity
 Carry out most of the plant's metabolic functions
 Generally, have a large central vacuole
o Most parenchyma cells have the ability to differentiate into other cell types
under special conditions. Example, during repair and replacement of
organs after injury

Collenchyma

 Have thicker primary cells walls (usually with uneven thickness)

 Living at maturity
 Role in mechanical support in herbaceous plants
o Example - the cortex of stems, roots of vascular plants such as maize,
bean etc.

Sclerenchyma

 Thick secondary cell walls

 Dead at physiological maturity

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  Cannot increase in length - occur in parts of the plant which have quit growing in
length
 Two types - fibers and sclereids
o Fibers - long, slender cells with a more or less regular secondary cell wall
 Example - fibers in sisal for making ropes
o Sclereids - shorter cells with an irregular shape
 Example - stone cells in pears and hard nut and seed shells

Tissue Organization in Plants

Vascular plants have four types of tissues namely:

Meristematic tissue- growth

Ground tissue – food storage and synthesis
Vascular tissue- Fluid movement
Dermal tissue- protection

Meristematic tissue
 Also called growth tissue or meristem, is considered undifferentiated tissue in
which cell division occurs during growth.

 Undifferentiated because the cells it produces will eventually become one of the
other three cell types i.e. vascular, dermal or ground.

 Meristematic cell divisions generate additional cells; one of the resultant cells
remains in the meristems, to produce still more cells, while the other become
specialized/differentiated into one of the three kinds of plant tissue, becoming
part of the plant organs of the growing plant.

Dermal Tissue

 The "skin" of the plant

 Generally, a single layer of cells
 Primarily parenchyma cells
 Main role is protection of the plant

Ground Tissue

 Makes up the bulk of the plant

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  Composed of parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma cells
 Diverse functions including support, storage and photosynthesis.

Vascular Tissue

 Composed of xylem, phloem, parenchyma, sclerenchyma

Xylem

 Thick secondary cell walls, often deposited unevenly in a coil-like pattern so that
they may stretch
 Dead at physiological maturity.
 Two types;
o Xylem tracheids - long, slender cells connected to each other by pits.
Found in all vascular plants
o Xylem vessels - shorter, larger diameter cells with completely perforated
cell wall ends. Found only in angiosperms.
 Involved in transport of water and ions in the plant

Phloem

 End walls connect to each other via sieve-plates.

 Two types of cells in the phloem - sieve-tube members and companion cells
o Sieve-tube members - actual tube for organic compounds transport
o Companion cells - has a nucleus that may also control the sieve-tube
element and may aid in sucrose loading.
 Involved in the translocation of photosynthates; sucrose, amino acids, hormones
etc.
 Also has a secondary role in support

Plant Growth

 Plants exhibit a growth pattern called indeterminate growth

 The plant retains areas where rapidly dividing, undifferentiated cells remain all
through the life of the plant.
 These areas are called meristems
o Meristematic tissue continues to rapidly divide producing undifferentiated
cells which may eventually differentiate to form the other tissues.
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  Plants continue to grow throughout their life.
 The pattern of plant growth depends upon the location of meristems;

1. Primary growth; Produced by apical meristems

 apical meristems are located at the tips of roots and shoots

o supply cells for the plant to increase in length (grow up for shoots and
down for roots), type of growth is called primary growth
o primary growth; found in herbaceous and woody plants, and in monocots
and dicots

2. Secondary growth: caused by lateral meristems

 lateral meristems are located near the periphery of the plant’s body, usually in
a cylinder
o supply cells for the plant to increase in girth/width, plant growth is known
as secondary growth
o found in all woody and some herbaceous plants
o lateral meristems and secondary growth are found only in dicots.

Primary Growth in the Root

Root Cap

o Cap-like covering which protects the delicate apical meristem

o Produced from cells derived from the root apical meristem
o Secretes polysaccharide slime that lubricates the soil
o Root cap is constantly sloughed off and replaced

Apical Meristem

o Region of rapid cell division of undifferentiated cells

o Most cell division is directed away from the root cap

Quiescent Center

o Group of cells in apical meristem which reproduce much more slowly than
other meristematic cells
o Resistant to radiation and chemical damage
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 o A reserve of cells that rapidly reproduces if the apical meristem is
damaged

The Zone of Cell Division - Primary Meristems

o Three areas just above the apical meristem that continue to divide for
some time
o Protoderm - outermost primary meristem - produces cells which will
become dermal tissue
o Ground meristem - central primary meristem - produces cells which will
become ground tissue
o Procambium - innermost primary meristem - produces cells which will
become vascular tissue

The Zone of Elongation

o Cells elongate up to ten times their original length

o This growth pushes the root further downward into the soil

The Zone of Maturation

o Region of the root where completely functional cells are found.

Root Anatomy - Dicot Roots

Epidermis

 Formed by dermal tissue; protection of the root, root hair cells for absorption

Cortex

 Formed by ground tissue;

 Function; Storage of photosynthates.
 Uptake and movement of water and minerals through symplastic, apoplastic and
vacuolar pathways.

Endodermis

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  cylinder of one cell thick layer that forms a boundary between the cortex and the
stele, forming the casparian strip, the cells are covered by suberin i.e
suberized.
 The suberin does not cover the cell wall pits and plasmodesmata, but it creates a
barrier to apoplastic pathway, forcing movement of water and ions through
symplastic pathway, creating a pressure known as root pressure.

Pericycle

 Cylinder of a layer of cells found just inside of the endodermis

 may become meristematic
 responsible for the formation of lateral roots.

Vascular tissue

 Contains xylem and phloem

 Forms an X or star-shaped pattern in center of root

Root Anatomy - Monocot Roots

Epidermis

 Dermal tissue
 Protection of the root

Cortex

 Ground tissue
 Storage of photosynthetic products
 Active in the uptake of water and minerals

Endodermis

 cylinder one cell thick that forms a boundary between the cortex and the stele
 even more distinct than in dicots
 Forms the casparian strip.

Vascular Tissue
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  Xylem and phloem
 Forms a ring near center of plant

Pith

 Located at the center of root

Primary Growth of Shoots

Apical meristem

 Dome-shaped mass of dividing cells at tip of terminal bud

 Gives rise to three primary meristems: protoderm, ground meristem and
procambium just as root apical meristem
 Leaves arise as leaf primordia on the flanks of apical meristem

Axillary/lateral bud meristems

 Regions of meristematic tissue left behind from apical meristem

 Dormant, but have the ability to become activated and form a branch (i.e.
becomes the branch's apical meristem)
o Note difference between how shoots form a branch versus how a root
forms a branch
o This is due to the position of the vascular tissue in a root vs. the vascular
tissue in a shoot
 Subtended by a leaf

Secondary Growth

Lateral Meristems add girth by producing secondary vascular tissue and periderm

 Secondary plant body - tissue produced meristems involved in secondary

growth
 Vascular cambium - secondary growth meristem which produces secondary
xylem and phloem
 Cork cambium - secondary growth meristem which produces cork, a tough
material that replaces the epidermis

Vascular cambium
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Secondary growth begins with the initiation of the vascular cambium, a cylinder of
meristematic tissue that produces additional xylem and phloem tissues. The cells that
eventually form the vascular cambium originate from the procambium in the vascular
bundles and the interfascicular parenchyma cells located between vascular bundles
(Figure 4 a, b and c). The two populations of dividing cells unite to form a continuous
ring of dividing cells, the vascular cambium. Two patterns of division occur in vascular
cambium. Initial cells can undergo multiplicative divisions (red line, Figure 4c) or they
can undergo additive divisions (blue line). Multiplicative divisions produce more initial
cells and result in the increased circumference of the vascular cambium. Of the two
cells produced from an additive division one is retained as an initial cell that will divide
again, and the other will become a phloem mother cell or a xylem mother cell.

Secondary Growth in Dicots - Herbaceous and Woody

 Both herbaceous and woody dicots exhibit secondary growth.

 In herbaceous dicots, secondary xylem and phloem are in a single ring of
discrete bundles
 In woody dicots, the secondary xylem forms a continuous cylinder

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Figure 2a. Vascular cambium in a stem with only primary growth.

Figure 4b. Vascular cambium

Figure 4c. Multiplicative and additive divisions.

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The Cork Cambium and the Production of Periderm

During secondary growth, the epidermis produced by primary growth splits and falls off
the stem.
It is replaced by a new protective tissue produced by the cork cambium;

 A cylinder of meristematic tissue that initially forms from the outer cortex of the
stem
 Cork cambium produces cork cells, which form exterior to the cork cambium
 As cork cells mature, they secrete suberin (a waxy substance) in their cell walls
and then die
 Cork cells function as a barrier to protect the stem from physical damage and
pathogens

The combination of cork cambium and the cork is known as the periderm.
The bark of the tree consists of the periderm and the phloem.
Unlike the vascular cambium which can grow in diameter via multiplicative growth, the
cork cambium is fixed in size.

 After a few weeks, the cork cambium loses meristematic ability

 Expansion splits the original periderm
 New cork cambium then forms deeper in the cortex of the stem
 Eventually no more cortex remains, so the cork cambium then forms from
parenchyma cells of the secondary xylem

The Monocot Stem - A stem lacking secondary growth

Monocot stems differ from dicot stems in that they lack secondary growth

 No vascular cambium nor cork cambium

 Stems usually uniform in diameter
 Scattered vascular bundles (not in a ring like dicot stems)

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Cell Physiology

Movement of Substances between Compartments

There are major two ways in which substances can enter or leave a cell:

1) Passive Transport
Passive transport occurs when no energy is required to move a substance, such as
water or carbon dioxide, from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration until the concentration is equal, sometimes across a membrane. The
high-to-low concentration gradient is the driving force for passive transport because it
fulfils a fundamental law of nature: Things tend to move from a high-energy, ordered
structure to a lower-energy, increasing randomness, or increasing entropy state of
being. The following are the classes of passive transport:
a) Diffusion (Simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion)
c) Osmosis
2) Active transport (Movement of ions)

Simple diffusion
Diffusion is the net passive movement of molecules from a region in which they are in
higher concentration to regions of lower concentration. It continues until the
concentration of substances is uniform throughout. This is a good example of how
certain molecules, such as oxygen, simply move directly through a membrane in
response to the high-to-low concentration gradient. As an example, oxygen diffuses out
of the lungs and into the blood for transport to all of the cells.

Some major examples of diffusion in biology:

• Movement of carbon dioxide from air to leaf for photosynthesis
 Movement of oxygen from leaf to atmosphere.
 Diffusion of water vapour from sub-stomatal space to the atmosphere
 Gas exchange at the alveoli - oxygen from air to blood, carbon dioxide from
blood to air.
• Gas exchange for respiration - oxygen from blood to tissue cells, carbon dioxide in
opposite direction.
• Transfer of transmitter substance - acetylcholine from presynaptic to postsynaptic
membrane at a synapse.
Facilitated Diffusion

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This is the movement of specific molecules such as glucose, hormones, amino acids,
down their concentration gradient, passing through the membrane aided by a
specific carrier protein. Each carrier has its own shape and only allows one molecule
(or one group of closely related molecules) to pass through. Selection is by size; shape;
charge. It is passive and requires no energy from the cell. If the molecule is changed
on entering the cell (glucose + ATP → glucose phosphate + ADP), then the
concentration gradient of glucose will be kept high, and there will be a steady one-
way movement. This is a special type of diffusion that is useful because substances are
sometimes too large to move freely through a membrane, or they need to move against
a concentration gradient so transport proteins embedded in the membrane assist with
the passage. In most cases, the transport protein creates a chemical channel for the
passage of a specific substance. Because no energy is expended, the rate of facilitated
diffusion depends on the number of transport proteins embedded in the membrane.

J. R. Mwetich 21
Figure 3. Illustration of diffusion and active transport

J. R. Mwetich 22
Factors affecting diffusion

High diffusion rate: short distance, large surface area to volume ratio, steeper
concentration difference, high temperatures; small molecules, lighter molecules,
increase diffusion.

Osmosis
Osmosis is a special example of diffusion. It is the movement of water molecules from a
region of higher concentration of water molecules to a region of lower concentration of
water molecules through a partially permeable membrane. Or from a more dilute
solution to a more concentrated solution - down the water potential gradient. A partially
permeable membrane is a barrier that permits the passage of some substances but not
others; it allows the passage of the solvent molecules but not some of the larger solute
molecules. Cell membranes are described as selectively permeable because not only do
they allow the passage of water but also allow the passage of certain solutes. The
presence of particular solutes or ions, stimulates the membrane to open specific
channels or trigger active transport mechanisms to allow the passage of those
chemicals across the membrane. This is similar to diffusion except that it refers only to
water diffusing through a permeable membrane. Water as a solvent, moves from a
region of high to low concentration. In biological systems, water molecules move from a
low-solute to a high-solute solution/region until the concentration is equal. The solution
that has a high-solute concentration is a hypotonic solution relative to another lower-
solute solution or hypertonic solution. Water will continue to osmotically move from the
low-solute/high-solvent concentration toward the high-solute/low-solvent concentration
until both sides are isotonic, or equal.
Some major examples of osmosis
• Absorption of water by plant roots.
 Movement of water from root hair cells through the cortex to the xylem.
 Diffusion of water molecules from stem xylem to stem cortex cells and from
xylem in leaf veins to mesophyll cells, for photosynthesis.
• Re-absorption of water by the proximal and distal convoluted tubules of the nephron.
• Re-absorption of tissue fluid into the venule ends of the blood capillaries.
• Absorption of water by the alimentary canal — stomach, small intestine and the colon.

J. R. Mwetich 23
Figure 4. Facilitate diffusion

J. R. Mwetich 24
Osmosis in plant cells
(a) Plant cells in a hypotonic (weaker) solution – cells have lower water potential
• the plant cells gain water by osmosis.
• the vacuole and cytoplasm increase in volume.
• the cell membrane is pushed harder against the cell wall causing it to stretch a little.
• the plant tissue becomes swollen/stiffer (turgid).

(b) Plant cells in a hypertonic (stronger) solution – cells have higher water potential
• the plant cells lose water by osmosis.
• the vacuole and cytoplasm decrease in volume.
• the cell membrane shrinks away from the cell wall.
• shrinkage stops when the cell sap is at the same concentration as the external
solution.
• the plant tissue becomes flaccid, it has shrunk slightly
• may become plasmolysed.

Turgor
Turgor is the pressure of the swollen cell contents against the cell wall when the
external solution is more dilute than the cell sap of the vacuole.
Role of Turgor in Plants
• Mechanical support for soft non-woody tissue, e.g., leaves.
• Change in shape of guard cells forming the stomatal opening between them.
• Enlargement of young immature plant cells to mature size.

Water potential
• This is the tendency of water to move from a region of high concentration of water
molecules to a region of lower concentration.
• Values are always negative.
• Water always flows downhill i.e. towards the more negative number.
• Units are pressure (kPa)
• Water potential is a function of pressure and solute potentials and can be represented
by the following formula;

Water Potential (ψ) = Pressure Potential (ψp) + Solute Potential (ψs)

• Pressure Potential = the force of the cell wall on the contents.
• Solute potential = potential energy due the presence of solutes in solution

J. R. Mwetich 25
Active Transport
Active transport is the movement of ions across a cell membrane through ionophores,
from their region of low concentration to the region of high concentration. The
movement of ions is against their concentration gradient, i.e., from lower
concentration to higher concentration. Energy is expended in the movement of the ions.
The energy for active transport comes from ATP generated by respiration (in
mitochondria).

Major examples of active transport

 Absorption of mineral ions from the soil to root hair cells.
 Movement of ions from root hair cells, cortex cells to the xylem.
 Movement of glucose, amino acids and hormones from mesophyll cells to the
phloem.

J. R. Mwetich 26
PLANT MORPHOLOGY

Plants have broadly been divided to vascular and non-vascular. Vascular plants include
the angiosperms and gymnosperms. Angiosperms are by far the most diverse group of
plants known (over 275,000 named species). Within the angiosperms, there are two
groups, the Monocots and the Dicots. The distinction between these two groups is
outlined below:

Characters Monocots Dicots

Floral Arrangement 3's 4's and 5's
Leaf Venation Parallel Net
Vascular bundles Scattered Ring
Habit Herbaceous Herbaceous and Woody
Roots Fibrous Taproot
Growth Primary only Primary and Secondary
Examples: Grass, Palm, Orchid Oaks, Roses, Sunflowers

Plant morphology is derived from Greek word, ‘Morphe’ = form + logos. It deals with the
study of forms and features of different plant organs like roots, stems, leaves, flowers, seeds,
fruits i.e deals with the study of external features/structures and shapes. Depending on the
type of plant, stems may be woody or herbaceous, and solid or hollow in cross section.

Herbaceous (non-woody) stems with solid or hollow stems are typical of forbs
(eudicots), grasses, and grass-like plants called rushes and sedges (monocots). The
stems are generally filled with a soft spongy tissue called pith, that stores and
transports nutrients. The culm (stem) of a grass plant ( Poa spp.) is hollow with pith
only at the jointed nodes. The base of the leaf circles around the stem forming a series
of overlapping sheaths. Sedges (Carex spp.), differ from grasses and rushes in that the
stems are triangular (V-shaped) in cross section at the base (“sedges have edges”),
have a solid pith, and are not jointed. Rushes differ from grasses in that stems are not
jointed (no nodes) and are typically filled with pith. Some rush genera, such

J. R. Mwetich 27
as Luzula spp. can look very grass-like with leaf blades while in Juncus spp. the leaves
may be reduced to just a rounded sheath.

In contrast to herbaceous stems that die at the end of the growing season, woody
stems are permanent structures that grow in length and girth (diameter) each year and
produce bark as a protective covering. The general features of the woody stem
illustrated in Figure below is characteristic for a particular plant species.

External features of a woody stem

The shape, size and arrangement of buds and lenticels (small openings in the outer
bark that allow for the exchange of gases), are often identifiable in trees and shrubs.
The thickness, texture, pattern, and color of the bark of many woody plants is both a
distinctive species characteristic for identification.

Plant identification depends on knowledge of taxonomy and understanding of

stem, leaf, bud, flower and fruit morphology.
J. R. Mwetich 28
The typical plant body
The root system

J. R. Mwetich 29
Root System

Usually underground
Primary roots and adventitious root may have similar structures and functions

The tips of most roots are covered and protected by a root cap; cells of root cap
secrete mucigel, a slimy substance containing sugars, enzymes and amino acids.
Mucigel protects roots from drying out. It also may contain compounds that diffuse into
the soil and inhibit growth of other roots e.g. mucigel of giant foxtail can decrease the
growth of nearby corn roots by 33%. Mucigel also lubricate roots as they grow between
soil particles. Soil particles cling to mucigel thereby increasing the root contact with the
soil. The water absorbing properties of mucigel keep maintaining the continuity
between roots, soil and water. Mucigel makes it possible for minerals along with water
in the soil to be absorbed by roots.

Functions of roots
1. Root system anchors the plant in the soil.
2. Roots also help to absorb water and inorganic nutrients from the soil.
3. Conduct water and nutrients
4. Fibrous root system holds soil particles together and prevent soil erosion.
5. Some roots e.g adventitious roots e.g sweet potatoes are modified for food
storage.
6. Some roots e.g adventitious roots are a primary means of vegetative or asexual
reproduction
7. Some adventitious roots e.g of ivy plant help them to climb walls.
8. Food Storage

The Shoot System

The shoot system
• Above ground (usually), stem, leaves, flowers, fruits/seeds
• Many functions including:
o photosynthesis
o reproduction and dispersal
o food and water conduction

J. R. Mwetich 30
Plant shoots grow above the ground. The shoot develops from plumule of the embryo
and consists of stem which bear leaves and floral parts/shoots which germinate into
flowers. Leaves are attached to the stems at nodes. A stem consists of alternating
nodes and internodes. Leaves may be attached to each node singly (alternate leaves) in
opposite pairs (opposite leaves) or more than two at a node (whorled leaves). In the
angle (axil) formed by each leaf and the stem is an axillary bud, which contain
embryonic site leaves, which may elongate to form lateral branches. Most axillary buds
are dormant, growth is usually concentrated at the apex (tip) of a shoot containing
terminal bud which also is a growing region (shoot apex) protected by developing
leaves. Growth of the terminal bud adds to the length of the shoot. The presence of a
terminal bud is partly responsible for inhibiting of the growth of the axillary buds, a
phenomenon called apical dominance. Apical dominance is an evolutionary adaptation
to increase the plant exposure to light especially in a location with dense vegetation.
Each of the buds (lateral and terminal) may develop into reproductive shoot bearing
flowers or a vegetative branch complete with its own terminal bud, leaves and axillary
buds. In some cases, the terminal buds are removed stimulating the growth of lateral
buds, a rationale for pruning trees or shrubs.
A flower is a modified shoot. The parts of a flower e.g. sepals, petals etc. are modified
leaves. The part of the shoot system bearing flowers is the inflorescence.
There are two basic patterns of branching of a shoot system.
i. Monopodial
ii. Sympodial
In a plant with monopodial branching, each apex remains active and continues to add
to the length of the shoot indefinitely. Axillary branches project sideways and remain
shorter than the axis to which they are attached. This usually produces a plant which in
side view is broad at the base and narrows towards the top e.g. Casuarina spp.
(whistling pines).
In a plant with sympodial branching, the apical of each branch is regularly used up in
the formation of an inflorescence or ceases to grow for some other reasons. Further
growth is from axillary buds close of the apex. This type of growth usually but not
always, produce a plant which is spreading or bushy e.g flame tree.

Functions of shoots

J. R. Mwetich 31
 1. To form and support the photosynthetic organs (leaves) in position for
photosynthesis.
2. To transport water and inorganic nutrients from the roots to the leaves.
3. To transport organic (products of photosynthesis) from leaves to the roots.
4. Some stems/shoots of some plants are modified as reproductive organs e.g
flowers, suckers, rhizomes etc.
5. Some plant shoots contain lenticels used for transpiration (lenticular
transpiration).
6. Some plant stems are green and important in photosynthesis.

With examples, explain other significance of the stem to the plant.

LEAVES
Leaves are the outgrowths of the shoot apex that are the light capturing photosynthetic
organs of most plants. Photosynthesis takes place mainly in the lamina. Leaves vary
extensively in form (morphology) but most have a flattened portion, the blade and a
slender stalk, the petiole which joints the leaf to a node of the stem.
Veins consisting of both xylem and phloem run through the leaves. In monocots, veins
are parallel, in dicots they are usually net like. The arrangement of leaves maximizes
the absorption of sunlight for photosynthesis. The leaf is attached to the node by its
leaf base. The leaf base is swollen and called pulvinus enabling the leaf to respond to
environmental stimuli. Some plant Leaves lack petioles and are called sessile, leaf blade
is attached directly to the pulvinus. Plant leaves with petioles are said to be petiolate. If
the leaf has a flat undivided blade, this is referred to as simple leaf.
Compound leaves have blade divided into several or many separate parts, with the
separate parts called leaflets. Leaflets lack axillary buds; compound leaf has a single
axillary bud at the base of its petiole. There are two kinds of compound leaves.
I. Pinnately compound leaves - leaflets form in pairs along a central stalk like rachis
e.g walnuts, some roses, nandi flame
II. Palmately compound leaves - leaflets attach at the same point much as fingers
that extend from your palm, e.g. in horse chestnut, marijuana, lupine, castor oil
plant etc.
Most plants have alternate leaf arrangement, meaning they have one leaf per node e.g.
in pea plant. Plants with opposite leaf arrangement have two leaves per node of stem.
J. R. Mwetich 32
Plants with a whorled leaf arrangement have three or more leaves per node of horsetail
oleander etc. Peltate leaves are simple leaves with petiole attached at the middle of the
blade e,g. in mayapple (podophyllum), castor oil plant. Perfoliate leaves are simple
sessile leaves that surround stems e,g. those of yellow-wort. Phyllotaxis is the
arrangement of leaves on a stem and helps maximize absorption of light.

J. R. Mwetich 33
Functions of leaves
1. The leaf is the primary photosynthetic organ of most plants- photosynthesis is
the main function of a typical leaf.
2. Leaves enhance transpiration in plants.
3. Modified leaves have other functions other than photosynthesis; these include
support, protection, nutrition and reproduction.

Giving examples, describe the evolutionary adaptation of leaves to their functions .

Flowers and Fruits

A flower is a modified shoot. It develops from apical meristem, but the cells of the inner
part of meristem differentiate into permanent tissues at very early stage. Longitudinal
growth therefore ceases and further development is confined to the surface layers from
which appendages are formed. The appendages are all modified leaves. The end of the
stem bearing the modified leaves forms the receptacle of the flower
A typical flower has four types of appendages; the outermost appendages are the
sepals which together make up the calyx. Within the calyx are the petals, a group of
petals form corolla. The calyx and corolla together constitute the perianth of the flower.
Within the petals are the stamens which make up the androecium. At the centre of the
flower are the pistils (stigma and style) also called the gynoecium. The androecium and
the gynoecium are the fertile reproductive parts of a flower. The stamens produce
pollen grains, which produce sperms. Inside the carpel (fertile leaf) are one or more
ovules close to each margin on the axial surface. Inside each ovule is a single egg. After
the sperm and egg fuse, an embryo forms inside the ovule and the ovules develop into
a seed. The ovary of the flower then becomes a fruit that protects, covers and help
disperse the seed or seeds inside.
Some flowers lack sepals, petals, stamen or pistil. A flower that has all the major parts
is a complete flower i.e possesses sepals, petals, stamens and a pistil. Incomplete
flower lacks one or more of these four whorls of parts. Even when sepals and petals
are missing, a flower with both androecium and a gynoecium is called a perfect
flower; therefore, all complete flowers are perfect but not all perfect flowers are
complete. Flowers with only stamens or only pistils are imperfect flowers. Superior
ovary (Hypergynous) - the base of the ovary is attached above the sepals, petals and
stamens e.g. in Hypericum species. In inferior ovary (Hypogynous), the other three
whorls; the sepals, petals and pistil rest on top of the ovary. Example, daffodil
(Narcissus sp.). Staminate flowers: flowers with male parts but no ovules. Pistillate
J. R. Mwetich 34
flowers: flowers producing ovules but no pollen. Plants such as corn with staminate and
pistillate flowers on the same plant are called monoecious. Plants with staminate
flowers and pistillate flowers on different plants are called dioecious, hence
reproduction in such plants can occur only by cross pollination.
Intermediate ovary (Perigynous) e.g in rose have an ovary that is surrounded by the
receptacle; the petals and stamen branch from the receptacle above the ovary. Ovules
are attached along placenta, which may or may not be swollen. The ovary of the carpel
may have one or more cavities(loculi) and if has one, then it is described as unilocular.
It is said to have marginal placentation because placentas are at one side of the ovary.
In many plants with more than one carpel in the flower, the carpel is fused together in
the region of ovary. The manner in which they have fused and subsequently changed
affect the number of loculi present and the positions of the placement within the ovary.
When there are two or more carpels which may be supposed to have folded before they
fused, the ovary has many loculi as carpel e.g. ( Crinum spp; crinum lily; Solanum spp),
the ovules are attached at the centre of the ovary and the ovary has axile placentation.
In some plants, the partitions between the loculi may break down leaving the placentas
attached only at the bottom of the ovary. Such an ovary is unilocular and has free
central placentation e.g. Talinum triangulate. Where the carpels have fused by their
edges without folding, the resulting ovary is unilocular and have parietal placentation.
Example, passion fruit.
Differentiate among trilocular, axile and multilocular placentations.
Groups of flowers comprise of inflorescence. Flowers may be solitary or they may be
grouped closely together in an inflorescence.
Like a solitary flower, an inflorescence has a main stalk, or peduncle. it also bears
numerous smaller stalks called pedicels, each with a flower at its tip. The arrangement
of pedicels on a peduncle characterizes different kinds of inflorescence. Examples;
1. Spike: an unbranched elongated main axis whose flowers have very short
or no pedicels e.g. spearmint
2. Raceme: an unbranched elongated main axis whose flowers have
pedicels that are about the same length e.g. snapdragon, mustard
3. Panicle: a branched main axis with branches bearing loose clusters of
flowers e.g. oat, rice etc.

J. R. Mwetich 35
 4. Corymb: an unbranched elongated main axis whose flowers has pedicels
of unequal length forming an inflorescence that appears flat topped e.g.
apple
5. Simple umbel: a peduncle bearing all of the pedicels at its apex e.g.
onion, geranium, milkweed
6. Compound umbel: a cluster of simple umbels at the apex of main axis
of carrot
7. Head: a peduncle bearing closely packed flowers that have no pedicels of
sunflower, marigold, dandelion
8. Catkin: a spike-like inflorescence that bears only unisexual flowers,
catkins bear only in woody plants.

Fruits
A fruit is a seed container that develops from ovary of a flower and other tissues
surrounding it, therefore fruits are products of flowers and hence occur only in
flowering plants. Fruits protect the enclosed seeds and help in the dispersal of seeds.
The fruit begins to develop after pollination triggers the hormonal changes that cause
the ovary to grow. Ovaries that have matured into a fleshy fruit consist of; the skin
(exocarp) the fleshy part or juicy part (the mesocarp) and the interior, the endocarp,
that surrounds the seed, collectively these three regions constitute the pericarp which is
the thickened wall of the fruit; the wall of the ovary. Fruits are classified into several
types depending on their developmental origin;
A Simple fruit - a fruit derived from a single ovary. A simple fruit may be juicy/fleshy
e.g. cherry or dry e.g. soy bean pod.
An Aggregate fruit results from a single flower with many separate carpels which
develop into tiny drupes e.g blackberry, while in magnolia, develop into follicles.
Compound or multiple fruits are false fruits which develop from inflorescence, a
group of separate flowers tightly clustered together. When the walls of the many
ovaries start to thicken, they fuse together and become incorporated into one fruit e.g
in pineapple. False fruits from a single flower are developed when a flower has an
inferior ovary and the receptacle or other floral parts are included in the structure of the
fruit. They can be recognized by the presence of the remains of the calyx or the other
floral parts at the end of the fruit e.g in Guava.

J. R. Mwetich 36
NON-VASCULAR PLANTS
Division Bryophyta
Plants belonging to this division are green with approximately 24,700 species.
They are simple but highly adapted to a diversity of terrestrial environments.
They lack vascular tissue and have no true roots but rhizoids.
The cells have cellulose cell walls and store starch.
Their chloroplast pigments include; chlorophyll a and b, carotene and xanthophylls.
They have motile sperm cells with two whiplash flagella attached at the anterior end.
Their sexual reproductive organs are antheridia (male) and archegonia (female). Both
are carried on short stalks.
Bryophytes show alternation of generation in which the sporophyte and gametophyte
are almost equally combined. Sporophytes are attached to the gametophytes and
depend on them nutritionally. The gametophytes are photosynthetic. They depend on
water for their existence and to reproduce sexually, hence they are found in moist
environment. It is thought that bryophytes evolved from green algae and colonized
land over 400 million years ago.

Life Cycle
Bryophyte lifecycle is haplodiplontic. The multicellular gametangia are formed at the
tips of the leafy gametophytes. Female gametangia, the archegonia may develop either
on the same gametophytes as the male gametangia, the antheridia or on separate plants.
A single egg is produced in the swollen lower part of archegonium, while numerous
sperms are produced in an antheridium. Sperms released from antheridium swim with
aid of flagella through a film of dew or rain water to the archegonia. One sperm
(haploid) unites with an egg (also haploid) forming a diploid zygote. The zygote
divides by mitosis developing into sporophyte, a slender, basal stalk with a swollen
capsule, the sporangium at its tips. As the sporophyte develops, its base is embedded in
gametophyte tissue which provides nutritional materials to the sporophyte. Spore
mother cells within sporangium undergo meiosis, each producing four haploid spores
in many mosses. At maturity, the top of the sporangium pops off, releasing spores. A
spore that lands in a suitable damp location germinates into threadlike structure which
branches to form rhizoids and ‘buds’ that grow upright.
J. R. Mwetich 37
Each bud develops into a new gametophyte plant consisting of a leafy axis.

Life cycle of bryophyte; mosses

1. Male sex organs, antheridia and female sex organs, archegonia are borne on
separate branches of the leafy gametophytes.

2. The antheridium is the sac in which the male gametes form. They are liberated in
wet weather when the cap cell bursts. Multicellular hairs called paraphyses help
to retain water.

3. The spermatozoa use two flagella to swim in a film of moisture to the

archegonium.

4. Archegonia are found in groups with paraphyses. They are flask shaped
structures in which the ovum forms. The spermatozoid swims down the neck,
fuses with the ovum to form the sporophyte generation.

5. After fertilization, capsule forms in which meiosis takes place and spores form
and develop. The spores are protected by the remains of the archegonium
forming the calyptra that is raised above the gametophyte by a long seta.

6. As the seta elongates, the calyptra falls off, exposing the operculum.

7. As the spores mature, the operculum falls off exposing the annulus and the
peristome teeth. The peristome teeth shrink and dry wither and the spores are
released.
J. R. Mwetich 38
 8. A spore develops into a microscopic protonema from which new gametophyte
plants develop.

The anatomy and morphology of bryophytes

Most bryophytes are small; 7cm in height. They are green plants. They possess
gametophyte (haploid) generation which alternates with sporophytes (diploid)
generation. Gametophyte means ‘gamete plant’ and sporophyte means ‘spore plant’.
The terms indicate the kind of reproductive cells the respective generations produce.
The gametophyte is green e.g. in moss plants.
The sporophytes are usually smaller, brownish or yellowish structures attached to the
tissues of the gametophyte, which consist of small leaf like structures (not true leaves)
arranged spirally or alternately on the stem axis. The axis is anchored to its substrate by
rhizoids. Each rhizoid consists of several cells that absorb water but the green ‘leaves’
have flattened blade and slightly thickened midrib running down the middle. They are
one cell layer thick, they lack vascular strands and stomata, and all the cells are haploid.
Some e.g. mosses have specialized food conducting cells surrounding those conducting
water. At the tip of sporophyte is a swollen capsule, the sporangium, often cylindrical
or club-shaped, also containing calyptra forming the archegonium. Archegonium
consists of a lower swollen venter and a long, narrow neck. The wall of the venter is one
or more cells thick and contains a basal ovum and a ventral canal cell. The neck has a
wall which is one cell thick, surrounding an axial row of neck canal cells.
The antheridium is spherical or elongated and has a wall of sterile cells/hairs (jacket)
one cell thick, enclosing a large number of fertile cells (spermatocytes). Each
spermatocyte develops into elongated biflagellate sperms, which are released by
rapture of the jacket.

Classification of bryophytes
The division of Bryophyta is divided into three classes; music (mosses), anthocerocae
(hornworts) and hepatocae (liverworts).

Musci

J. R. Mwetich 39
The cells of mosses contain many parietal chloroplasts, the chloroplasts lack pyrenoids
and also oil bodies in the cells. All mosses have green leafy gametophytes with leaves
spirally arranged on the stem axis. Mosses stems mostly have a central strand of
elongated and thickened fibre-like cells, surrounded by a parenchymatous cortex and
epidermis. Moss leaves may be one cell thick throughout their width, but often have
one or more nerves. The nerve is more than one cell thick and is composed of elongated
cells like those of central strand of the stem. The base of the nerve ends in the outer
cortex of stem. The central strand of the stem and the nerve of the leaf gives mechanical
support to the stem and leaf respectively, but do not have any conducting function.
Mosses are anchored to the substrate by branched, multicellular filamentous rhizoids.
Some mosses grow in upright tufts of stems called orthotropic mosses, others have
branched prostrate stem, called plagiotropic mosses. Moss plants maybe monoecious or
dioecious. Antheridia are axillary to leaves or in terminal cup-like structures at the end
of a stem and called antheridia cups. They are surrounded by many leaves forming the
walls of the cup. Antheridia are protected by sterile hairs called paraphyses which
secrete mucilage. The formation of the antheridia cup does not stop the growth of the
stem, as the stem resumes growth after the antheridia have shed their sperms.
Archegonia are usually small groups of the tips of leafy stems, mixed with paraphyses
and enclosed within perichaetia leaves in the apical bud, if sporophyte grows, the
growth of stem apex ceases.
The moss sporophyte has a long structure called seta with a capsule at its tips which
opens by a cap. The seta develops by elongation of embryo during development. As the
seta elongates, the upper part of archegonium forms a pointed calyptra which breaks
free at the base and is curved up on the end of the sporophyte. The calyptra increases in
size and encloses the developing capsule at the end of the seta. The moss capsule has
the lower region connected to the top of the seta and termed apophysis. The epidermis
of apophysis contains stomata and the whole epidermis is covered by the cuticle. The
apophysis contains a strand of elongated cells, continuous with the inner tissue of the
seta, surrounded by chlorenchyma. Above the apophysis is the theca with its cap. The
central strand of the apophysis runs all the way to the top of the capsule and form
columella.

J. R. Mwetich 40
The columella is surrounded by a layer of sporocytes which divide by meiosis to form
many spores. When the capsule is ripe, the calyptra falls/drops away exposing
hygroscopic teeth called peristome, closing the top of the theca. The peristome teeth are
very sensitive to changes in humidity. In humid weather, they open and force spores to
fall through the opening (hanging capsule). Spores are dispersed by wind.
Spores develop to form green, filamentous branching protonema. The protonema has
rhizoid branches, with elongated cells and oblique cross walls which penetrate the
substrate. After sometime, side branches of the protonema divide to form buds, each of
which grows by apical cell and forms a leafy shoot. The protonema that grows from the
spore is the primary protonema and may form many leafy shoot. Rhizoidal protonema
also grows from the base of the stem and from leaves. This is primary protonema.
Rhizoidal protonema produces green branches when it rises above the surface of the
soil and may produce more leafy branches. This is one type of vegetative reproduction.
Examples

 Calymperes spp. - epiphytes in forest areas

 Octoblepharum albidum - epiphytic moss
 Leucobryum spp.
 Fissidens spp. - river banks, moist earth
 Bryum spp. - small mosses
 Bryum argenteum - in crevices of rocky outcrops
 B. coronatum - in bases of buildings, concrete blocks
 Ectropothecium spp. - creeping mosses on fallen logs, tree bases
 Polytrichum spp. - in soils, roadside banks in high altitudes, above 1000m above
sea level.

J. R. Mwetich 41
 Kingdom Protoctista/Protista

 Made up of single celled eukaryotic organisms, unicellular reproductive organs

 Are aquatic or live in damp terrestrial habitats
 Are autotrophic

Phylum: Chlorophyta e.g. green algae

 Are unicellular e.g. Chlamydomonas chlorella

 Colonial i.e live in colonies (many cells grouped together) e.g. volvox
 Are filamentous e.g. spirogyra
 Thalloid e.g. genera ulva
 Gametes are motile and flagellated
 Have photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll a and b, xanthophylls and carotene,
spirogyra have spiral chloroplast
 They have cellulose cell wall
 Have starch deposits called pyrenoid
 Undergo asexual and sexual reproduction
 Chlamydomonas have high and sensitive spore

Euglenophyta e.g. euglenoids

 Unicellular
 Swim by means of flagella
 Have some chloroplast pigments as green algae but lack cell wall
 Store different carbohydrates (paramylum)
 Most are autotrophic, some lack chloroplasts and are heterotrophic
 Osmoregulation by contractile vacuole

Xanthophyte (yellow-green algae)

 Unicellular, colonial or filamentous

 Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll e.g. xanthophylls and carotene
 Have higher proportion of xanthophylls than in green algae giving their
chloroplast the yellow green color

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 Some unicellular forms are amoeboid, lacking cell wall and moving by changing
shape; others have two unequal flagella
 Store oil, and their cell walls are of cellulose and pectic substances, some with
some silica

Phaeophyta-brown algae

 May be filamentous or thalloid

 Live in marine environment
 Motile spores and gametes have two dissimilar flagella attached at the side
 Chloroplast pigments include chlorophyll a and c, xanthophylls and carotene
 Have high concentration of xanthophylls sometimes referred to as fucoxanthin
giving them their characteristic brown color
 Store carbohydrate called laminarian
 Cell walls contain cellulose and pectic substances

Rhodophyta- red algae

 Unicellular and filamentous forms

 Non motile and non-flagellated
 Contain chlorophyll a and d, xanthophylls and carotene, and red and blue
pigments giving plant their characteristic color
 Store starch like carbohydrate and their cell walls contain cellulose and pectic
substances

Bacillariophyta-diatoms

 Are unicellular but cells sometimes adhere together in loose groups or in

filaments
 Some have motile male gametes, each with a single flagellum at front end.
 Their vegetative (non-reproductive) cells are non-motile, either round and
usually elongated

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  Chloroplast contain chlorophyll a and c, xanthophyll and carotene, and have
brownish color
 Store carbohydrates called leucosine
 Cell walls are of silica

Pyrrophyta - dinoflagellates

 Mostly unicellular
 Are motile; motile cells have two flagella attached at one side
 Some form short filaments
 Contain chlorophyll a and c, xanthophylls and carotene
 They store carbohydrate called leucosine
 Cell wall when present contains cellulose

Economic importance of protists (algae)

 Important in carbon fixation in surface layers of oceans, hence primary

producers.
 Release oxygen to atmosphere which is used by other organisms for respiration.
 May be used as fertilizers on coastal farms.
 Some algae may be used as food.
 Unicellular green algae such as chlorella are easy to cultivate, used as cell of
source protein for human and animal consumption.
 Green algae provide oxygen for aerobic bacteria which break sewage
 Derivatives of alginic acid (alginates) contained in cell walls of brown algae are
non-toxic and readily form gels; they are used as thickeners in many products
including ice cream, hand cream, polish, medicine, paint, ceramic glasses and
confectionery.
 Excessive numbers of algae may develop in bodies of water following pollution
by fertilizers. This causes the water to smell and taste unpleasant, and may lead
to oxygen depletion and death of fish.

Discuss the economic importance of algae to man

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