Section 5. Level Measurement

Section 5.
Level Measurement
Process Control and

Instrumentation
Process Control and Instrumentation Level Measurement
Section 5
Level Measurement
5.1 Sight and float gauging
The level of a liquid or solid, contained in a vessel, is a measure of the surface height or
displacement above a predetermined reference or datum line. The measurement of level
entails the determination, and subsequent representation, in analog or numerical form, of the
magnitude of that height or displacement.
Although level may be expressed directly in terms of its height (millimetres or percentage of
tank depth) it is often calibrated to express volume (cubic metres), capacity (litres and barrels)
and mass (kilograms and tons). In some cases the mass of the vessel and its contents may be
determined directly using load cells. By subtracting the known mass of the vessel from the
total mass, the level may then be derived from a knowledge of the tank dimensions.
Sight gauging
Probably the most fundamental level measuring mechanism is the sight glass. In its most
basic form, it comprises a window or porthole set in the side of the vessel (Figure 5.1) that
allows direct viewing of the liquid level through the glass.
Figure 5.1. Sight glass allows direct viewing of the liquid level through
the glass.
The main problems associated with the sight glass are in maintaining the
integrity of the glass/metal seals over long periods of time and the fact
that obscuration due to coating and encrustations can only be removed by
emptying the vessel.
This last problem may be overcome by using the sight gauge in which a glass tube is attached
at both ends to the vessel containing the liquid (Figure 5.2) — with top and bottom mounted
valves used to isolate the gauge for maintenance or repair.
©Mick Crabtree 2007 Page 5.2

Figure 5.2. In the sight gauge a glass

tube is attached at both ends to the
vessel containing the liquid. Liquid level
Isolation
The liquid remains at the same level in valves Graduated
both the vessel and the glass tube and
scale
thus the liquid level may be read along a
calibrated scale attached to the gauge.
Special gauge glasses reinforced with a
forged metal housing are capable of
withstanding boiler pressures up to 500
kPa and temperatures of more than
500°C. Special variations are also
available for low-temperature, corrosive, Vessel
and viscous liquid applications.
Float gauges
A typical ball-float level switch signals when a specific fluid level is reached in open or
pressurised tanks. The level switch is fitted to the side of the tank at the height to be
monitored. The pivoted float (Figure 5.3), is secured in the tank interior and follows the fluid
level. When the float reaches a specific setting, a magnetic follower system actuates a reed
contact. Because the float setting is transmitted to the switching device by means of a
magnet, the tank interior and switch housing are separated in a pressure-tight manner.
Reed switch Magnet
enclosure
Float
Figure 5.3. A typical ball-float level switch (Courtesy Krohne).
In the system shown in Figure 5.4 a float with built-in magnet system is guided on a non-
magnetic tube. The built-in magnet system actuates reed switches, located inside the tube,
which shunt over parts of a resistor string. Since the magnet system operates the reed
switches according to the position of the float, the ohmic resistance of the resistor string
changes as a function of the liquid level. A signal conditioner converts the resistance change
into a 4 –20 mA output signal.

Figure 5.4. Remote reading magnetic coupled

indicator (Courtesy Krohne).
Tank gauging
Tank Gauging, the generic name for the static quantity
assessment of liquid products in bulk storage tanks, is Reed switches
characterised by the need for very high accuracy. with resistor
Non-magnetic string
guide tube
Typical capacities of bulk storage tanks range from
1000 m3 (1000 kl) to more than 120 000 m3 (120 Ml),
with the value of the products stored in them
amounting to many millions of dollars. Consequently,
a level uncertainty of only 1 mm or 0.01% in a 10 m
high, 50 000 m3 tank (50 Ml), equals 5 m3 or 5000 Magnetic
litres. Hence accuracy is a prime requisite for good float
inventory management.
Displacement or servo gauge

The servo tank gauge is mainly used for tank gauging and makes use of Archimedes' principle
in which the float of the buoyancy tape system is replaced by a small displacer suspended by a
strong, flexible measuring wire.
The measuring wire is wound on and off a

measuring drum by an electrical
servomotor that raises and lowers the
displacer in extremely small increments. In
the servo gauge system an integral
weighing system continuously measures the
mass and buoyancy of the displacer and Servo torque Rotary
controls the servo system. In addition, a motor encoder
transmitter directly coupled to the motor Cable drum
provides a direct output in terms of the
length of measuring wire paid out (Figure
5.5).
Figure 5.5. Servo gauging system using

displacer.
Displacer
Tank

When immersed in a liquid the displacer will be subject to a buoyancy force FA that is
determined by the density of the displaced liquid and the volume of the displacer.
Thus, in free air, the displacer might have, for example, a mass of 100 g. If the displacer is
lowered until it reaches the air/oil interface there will be a change in the apparent mass from
100 g to, for example, 80 g (Figure 5.6). At this point the length of the measuring wire is an
exact indication of the level of the oil in the tank.
Above On In liquid 1 At In liquid 2

liquid surface interface
100 g
Figure 5.6. Change in 80 g

apparent mass of the
displacer in different
70 g
media (Courtesy
Krohne).
60 g
50 g
If the displacer is lowered even further into the medium until it is fully immersed, its apparent
mass will change to, for example, 70 g. By again measuring the mass of the displacer a direct
indication of the media density can be obtained.
The level of the oil/water interface can be measured in a similar fashion by observing the
change in apparent mass of the displacer from 70 g to 60 g. And again the density of the
second medium (e.g. water) can be checked by noting the displacer mass (in this case 50 g)
when it is fully immersed.
Advantages
• Accurate: 1 mm in the range of up to 40 mm
• Direct measurement of the oil/water interface
• Average density and density profile provided by a single gauge
• Approved for custody transfer by a large number of excise and weights and measures
authorities.
• Approved for use in hazardous areas
Disadvantages
• Expensive
• Moving parts subject to wear

5.2 Electrical measurement
The electrical measurement of level can be broken down into to main categories: conductive
level detection and capacitive level measurement.
Conductive level detection

Many liquids, including sewage, seawater and potable water, contain dissolved salts that lend
themselves to point level measurement using the liquid's conductivity.
In its simplest form a probe of known length, insulated from the vessel, is mounted as shown
in Figure 5.7. When the product is not in contact with the probe, the electrical resistance
between the probe and the tank wall will be very high or even infinite. When the level of the
product rises and comes into contact with the probe, the circuit between the probe and the
tank wall is completed and the resistance will fall to a relatively low value.
Figure 5.7. Conductive probe mounted

in tank (Courtesy Endress + Hauser).
This difference in resistance is detected

by means of an adjustable selective
amplifier and can be used for alarm or
control via a relay providing a potential-
free change-over contact.
A basic requirement for this system is that either the tank material is conductive or use must
be made of a feed pipe or mounting bracket that is always in contact with the liquid.
Alternatively a second probe may be used, which again must maintain contact with the liquid.
In all cases it is essential that a good earth connection must be provided. In this regard, in
order to prevent oxidation as a result of electrolysis, the power source applied to the probe is
alternating current rather than direct current.
Conductivity probes are mainly used for Hi/Lo level detection. One method of achieving two-
point control is to use a second probe that can be used with the same amplifier as shown in
Figure 5.8.

Figure 5.8. Two-point

control achieved using a
second probe (Courtesy
Endress + Hauser).
Other solutions make use of

multi-sensor probes. A two-
sensor probe (Figure 5.9)
for example can provide Hi/Lo detection in a tank made of conductive material.
Earth
connection
Figure 5.9. A two-sensor probe can provide Hi/Lo

detection in a tank made of conductive material
(Courtesy Instrument Data Communications).
Max
One of the main limitations of this technology is that

Min
the liquid must be conductive. Further, the application
is severely limited when used with products whose
conductivity may change
considerably — making it difficult to adjust the set-
point. The other main limitation is that contaminants
may adhere to the probe and affect the results.
Capacitive level measurement

As distinct from the conductivity level detector that offers point level detection, the capacitive
level system offers continuous level measurement.
Capacitive level systems take advantage of the dielectric constant of materials to determine
the level of the product in the vessel and fall into two dear categories: those designed for non-
conductive process materials and those designed for conductive materials.
The capacitance (Figure 5.10) of an electrical capacitor (expressed in Farads) is determined

by the distance (d) between the two plates, their surface area (A), the dielectric constant (εr)
and the permittivity of free space (εo) — a constant (8.5 x 10-12):
εo ε r A
C= ……………………………… (1)
d

A Figure 5.10. Basic parameters of electrical

capacitor (Courtesy Endress + Hauser).
εr In a capacitance level meter designed for non-
conductive materials, one plate is formed by the
tank or silo wall and the other comprises an
insulated probe mounted vertically in the tank—
with the process material forming the dielectric
material.
Whilst a vacuum has a dielectric constant of 1 all other materials have a higher value (Table
5.1).
Table 5.1 Dielectric constant of several materials.
Material Dielectric constant

Air 1.0006
Cement 4
Crude oil 2 –2.8
Flour 2
Grain 2.4
Kerosene 1.8
Lime 2.5
Paraffin 2.2
Sulphur dioxide 17.6
Water 80
As the tank level increases and the media replaces the air as the dielectric medium, the
capacitance will increase in direct proportion to the increase in dielectric constant. Thus, by
measuring the capacitance, it is possible to obtain a direct indication of the material level.
The probe is usually insulated with a Telflon coating to prevent process material building up
on the probe and effecting the reading. In reality, however, this is not necessary for use with
non-conductive materials.
The capacitance formed between the probe and the wall of the vessel through the air is quite
low. However, when the process material cover the probe the circuit now comprises a much
larger capacitance and a change in resistance. When the process material is conductive, the
probe insulation assumes far more importance since the liquid now forms an electrical short
between the probe and the wall. Thus the only dielectric, is that formed by the insulating
layer on the probe. Consequently, as the process material rises it is not the dielectric that
changes but rather the effective size of the plate comprising the conductive material.

5.3 Hydrostatic head measurement

head techniques
The term hydrostatic pressure relates to the pressure of a fluid at rest. The basis of
hydrostatic head measurement is that the measured pressure is proportional to the head or
level of the liquid in the vessel. The pressure is related to the height by:
P=h.ρ.g
where:
P = pressure
H = height of the liquid above the point of measurement
ρ = relative density
g = acceleration due to gravity
From the above it can be seen that if the density does not change, the only variable is the
height, h, and thus the measurement of pressure is a direct measurement of the level of the
liquid in the vessel.
It is important to note that the measurement of level is direct — irrespective of the tank’s
volume or shape.
Dip-tube or ‘bubbler’
The dip-tube or ‘bubbler’ method a simple, reliable device that is still widely used in
industrial measurement. As shown in Figure 5.11, compressed air, at constant volume and
pressure, is applied to an airline, immersed in the liquid, so that bubbles of air escape slowly
through the open end at the bottom of the vessel. At this point, the pressure in the airline is
equal to the back or hydrostatic pressure exerted by the head of liquid and can be measured
with a pressure transducer that converts the pressure into an electrical signal.
Pressure
PT
transmitter
Impulse
tubing
Flow
meter
Figure 5.11. Basic dip-tube or
‘bubbler’ method.
Dip
tube Pressure
regulator
Although this method allows the hydrostatic head to be determined relatively accurately (1 or
2%) like all hydrostatic measuring method it assumes both a constant specific gravity liquid
and that the vapour above the liquid surface is not pressurised.
If

Advantages
• suitable for use with corrosive and viscous liquids, and liquids with entrained solids
• intrinsically safe
• may be used with high temperature liquids
• simple and reliable
Disadvantages
• complex system required for pressurised vessels
• requires pressurised air which is not always readily available
• leaks in air system can lead to undetected errors
Pressure transmitter
In recent times the most common method of measuring hydrostatic head pressure is with a
pressure transmitter that is usually mounted at or near the bottom of the tank (Figure 5.12)
and in which the reference side of the sensor is exposed to atmospheric pressure (i.e. gauge
pressure). In the simplest case, where the tank is open or vented, both the liquid surface and
the gauge are thus referenced to atmospheric pressure.
Atmospheric
pressure
Hydrostatic
pressure
Pressure
transmitter
Figure 5.12. Where the tank is vented, both the liquid surface and the gauge are
referenced to atmospheric pressure.
When the tank or vessel is used for water only, the specific gravity is 1 — reducing the
pressure/height equation to:
P=h.g
Since g is a constant, the pressure may be related to the hydrostatic head directly where:
1 bar = 100 kPa ≈ 10 m head of water

Where a tank contains a liquid that is not water but is always the same, the pressure-
measuring transmitter must be scaled to compensate for the difference in specific gravity of
the liquid. Once this step is complete, the tank level can be determined directly from the
hydrostatic head pressure measurement.
If the sensor cannot be mounted directly in the side of the tank, at the appropriate depth
(Figure 5.13) , a submersible pressure transmitter can be lowered on a cable or rod from the
top of the tank to the appropriate depth. Typically the cable would be neoprene jacketed to
prevent the ingress of water and would incorporate a Kevlar fibre cable support as well as a
breather tube that exposes the reference side of the transmitter sensor to atmospheric pressure.
Figure 5.13. Submersible pressure

Transmitter
transmitter can be lowered on a cable or rod
from the top of the tank to the appropriate
depth (Courtesy Viatran).
Submersible
sensor
In the food processing industry, a single tank may be used for several different types of juice
or sauce. As a result, in order to establish the liquid levels, the measurement system must be
capable of determining, simultaneously, both the specific gravity of the tank’s liquid and the
hydrostatic head pressure at the base of the tank.
A solution to this problem is shown in Figure 5.14 that makes use of a conventional gauge
pressure transmitter to measure the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the vessel as before.
In addition, however, use is made of a differential pressure transmitter to measure the pressure
of the tank contents at two fixed levels, e.g. 250 mm apart. For a particular liquid the
differential pressure, between these fixed points might correspond to a separation distance of
300 mm of water which would mean that the liquid in the tank is 20% heavier than water with
a specific gravity of 1,2. By dividing the output signal from the hydrostatic pressure
transmitter by the output from the differential transmitter a fully compensated reading can be
obtained.

Atmospheric
pressure
Figure 5.14. Differential pressure

transmitter is used to measure SG. Differential
pressure
transmitter
Comparator
Pressure
transmitter
In the petroleum and chemical processing industries the vessels are often sealed and a higher-
than-atmospheric-pressure gas blanket forms on top of the liquid. This increases the pressure
on the liquid. Apart from minimising evaporation the use of pressurised tanks also offers a
quick way of forcing the liquid out of the tank in order to move it elsewhere.
Because the pressure of the gas blanket would be included in the measurement it is thus not
possible to obtain an accurate reading of level by simply measuring the pressure at the
bottom of a sealed tank. This problem is again overcome through the use of a differential
pressure transmitter (Figure 5.15). Here, the two pressure inputs are connected to two taps in
the tank — one at some point at the top within the gas blanket, and one at the bottom. The
differential pressure transmitter measures the difference in pressure between the gas blanket
and the bottom of the tank. Since the pressure at the bottom of the tank equals the sum of the
gas blanket and the hydrostatic head pressure of the liquid, the differential pressure between
the gas blanket and the base of the tank must be the hydrostatic head pressure of the liquid.
Blanket
Figure 5.15. The differential pressure pressure
transmitter measures the difference in Impulse
pressure between the gas blanket and the tubing
bottom of the tank.
Differential
pressure
transmitter
Hydrostatic
pressure plus
blanket
pressure

5.4 Ultrasonic level measurement

. Ultrasonic level measurement
Ultrasonic level measurement is probably the most widely accepted non-contact technology in
use today. Applications range from levels in silos and tanks, flow in open channels, and
blocked chute detection.
The underlying principle of ultrasonic level

measurement is simple. A transducer
Transducer
located at the top of the vessel transmits a
pulse of sound energy down to the material
surface where it is reflected and travels
back to the transducer (Figure 5.16). Here
it is converted into an electrical pulse and
the time delay from transmit to received
echo — the time of flight — is converted Reflected
into distance. In this manner, the level of sonic wave
the material is determined.
Transmitted
sonic wave
Material
surface
Figure 5.16. Basic principle of ultrasonic

level measurement.
Basic sound theory

All sound originates from a vibrating body and is generated when the normal random motion
of air molecules is displaced. When, for example, the string of a musical instrument is
plucked, the air molecules are displaced to produce alternate rarefaction (expansion) and
compression — with the rate of vibration determining the pitch or frequency.
Sound requires a medium to propagate from the source to the receiver — in this case the
listener’s ear. Although air is the most common medium used for the propagation of sound, it
may also be propagated through a variety of other materials including water, metal, wood and
even rubber.
Transducer
At the heart of the transducer lies one or more piezoelectric ceramic crystals used for the
transmission and reception of the sound signal (Figure 5.17). When electrical energy is
applied to the transmitting piezoelectric crystal it produces a small mechanical movement that
is converted, through the membrane, into a sound signal. Similarly, the mechanical
movement produced at the crystal by the reflected sound wave is converted into a small
electrical signal.

Whilst earlier piezoelectric crystals were manufactured from barium titanate, most modern
transducers are now made from lead zirconate titanate (PZT) due to its higher Curie
temperature — the point at which the piezoelectric properties disappear.
Damping
compound Piezoelectric
crystals
Mounting Mounting
flange flange
Membrane 1/4 λ layer
Figure 5.17. Arrangement of piezoelectric ceramic crystals used for the

transmission and reception of the sound signal (Courtesy Endress + Hauser).
Typically, the voltage applied to generate the sonic pulse is in the order of hundreds of volts
while the amplitudes of the received echoes may vary between about one volt down to a
fraction of a microvolt — depending upon target range and losses. The transmission
frequency is determined by the resonant frequency of the piezoelectric crystal.
Although separate transducers may be used for sending and receiving often, as illustrated, a
single transducer is used for both roles — a preferred economy since the transducer represents
a significant proportion of system price. Since acoustic transducers are generally very
inefficient, due to the poor interface between the piezoelectric crystal and the air, this
mismatch may be overcome through the use of an acoustic matching device in the form of a
cone-shaped horn — called an acoustic transformer.
Time of flight
The distance of the surface of the medium from the face of the transducer is calculated from
the ‘time of flight’ — the time taken for the ultrasonic pulse to travel from the transmitter
down to the material surface and back to the transducer. The distance is calculated by
multiplying the elapsed time (time of flight) by the speed of sound in the medium and then
dividing by two (in order to take into account the fact that the sound travels the distance
twice.)
Thus:
tf ∗ C
D=
2
where:
D = distance of medium surface of the from the transducer face;

tf = time of flight; and
C = velocity of sound in the medium.
It is clear from the foregoing that, notwithstanding the ability to measure the time of flight
accurately, the principle dependency is the velocity of sound in the medium.
The velocity of sound in gases is given by the equation:

γ R (273 + T )
C =
M
where:
C = velocity of ultrasonic wave (m/s)
R = universal gas constant 8314,3 (J/Kmol)
T = temperature (°C)
M = molecular weight (kg/Kmol)
γ = adiabatic component
The two principle factors in this equation are the nature of the medium and the temperature.
Changes in medium
In air at 20°C the velocity of sound is:
1,4 ∗ 8314.3 ∗ (273.15 + 20 )

C = = 343m / s
28.961
And in nitrogen it is slightly faster at:
1,4 ∗ 8314.3 ∗ (273.15 + 20 )

C = = 349 m / s
28
Small though this difference is it still represents a potential error of about 1.7% if the medium
were assumed to be air. In a medium such as methane the velocity of sound is:
1,3 ∗ 8314.3 ∗ (273.15 + 20 )

C = = 445 m / s
16
In this case the difference is considerable — representing a potential error of about 23% —
again if the medium were assumed to be air. Table 5.2 shows the velocity of sound of various
gases at different temperatures.
Table 5.2. The velocity of sound (C) of various gases at different temperatures.
Velocity of sound (m/s)

Gas 0°C 20°C 50°C 75°C
Air (N2, O2, Ar) 331 343 360 374
Ammonia (NH3) 416 431 453 470
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 259 268 281 292
Ethylene (C2H4) 324 336 353 366
Helium (He) 970 1005 1055 1096
Methane (CH4) 430 445 467 484
Nitrogen ( N2) 336 349 366 380
Oxygen ( O2) 315 326 342 355
Toluene (C7H8) 179 185 194 202

Table 1.5.2 clearly shows that the speed of sound varies widely depending upon the medium.
Most modern ultrasonic level measuring instruments can be programmed to accept different
sonic velocities for each specific gas. However, in most practical applications, where gases
other than air are present, the medium is likely to be a mixture in which the velocity of the
sound wave will depend upon the concentration of the air-gas mixture. For example, since the
speed of sound in helium is almost triple that in air, even small concentrations will have a
significant affect. Similarly, the velocity of sound in dense steam at 100°C is 405 m/s —
about 20% greater than in air. Consequently, even moderate densities can cause a deceptive
change in velocity.
If these parameters are known and stable, and the transmitting medium remains
homogeneous, they can be accounted for. If this is not the case, then ultrasonics is the
incorrect technology.
Both humidity and pressure also affect performance. A 0 to 100% change in relative
humidity at 20°C, produces a change in the time of flight of about 0,3%. And a change in
pressure of 3 MPa similarly produces a change in the time of flight of about 0,3%.
Changes in temperature
Table 1.5.2 also highlights the effect of changes in temperature. As shown previously, the
velocity of sound increases in proportion to the square root of temperature and for
temperatures in the region of 20°C the rate of increase is about 0.17%/ °C.
In air at 20°C, the velocity of sound is 343 m/s and over a fixed target distance of 10 m the
pulse-echo transit time is 58.3 ms. At 50°C the transit time for the same target distance is
55.5 ms. If the temperature was assumed to be 20°C, with a transit time of 58.3 ms, then the
error in the calculated distance would be 4.8%.
Whilst some instruments provide a programmable temperature input that allows the output to
be corrected for temperature related errors, most modern systems include a temperature sensor
that is used to automatically compensate the velocity calculations for changes in temperature.
Echo profile processing

One of the major characteristics that differentiates ultrasonic meters from one another is their
ability to process the echo profile.As shown in Figure 5.18, the transmitted and received
pulses are in the form of amplitude-modulated carrier waves — with the carrier frequency
being at the chosen acoustic frequency. Since it is the amplitude variation, and not the carrier
that is of interest, the received signal is demodulated to produce an envelope signal (Figure
5.19).

Off
Figure 5.18. Transmitted and received pulses are in the form of amplitude-
modulated carrier waves (Courtesy Hawk Measurement Systems).
Emitted pulse
Ringdown Target echo

False echo
Noise
Figure 5.19. Received signal demodulated to produce an envelope (Courtesy Hawk

Measurement Systems).
The next step is to identify the echo. Here, the single biggest problem lies in distinguishing
the process echo from one or more of the false echoes (Figure 5.19). False echoes may be due
to a large number of variables that include: multiple reflections; extraneous electrical noise;
echoes from agitators or stirrers; echoes from internal structures such as beams, girders;
access ladders, etc.
Profile tracking
An increasingly popular method of echo extraction involves storing a profile of the empty or
near-empty bin during commissioning. When the echo profile for this bin is captured the
profile will show echo returns from these bracing struts and any other obstructions. Under
operating conditions, the signal processor compares each echo profile to the template profile
stored in memory and is able to eliminate these erroneous echoes and select only the true
material echo (Figure 5.20).

Surface
Bracing Bracing echo
strut strut
Figure 5.20. Echo profile due to bracing struts and surface reflection.
One of the most useful developments in recent years has been the ability to display the echo
profile on a PC screen. In this manner, it is possible to view the situation and to gain some
insight into the behaviour of the product. For example, where the product is hanging up, then
addition mechanical or pneumatic means may be used to overcome this problem.
Advantages
• Measurement with no physical contact with product
• No moving parts
• Suitable for wide range of liquid and bulk product
• Unaffected by the density, viscosity , conductivity or moisture content of the product
• Accuracies of 0,25% can be attained
• Can be used for open channel flow measurement with direct extract according to weir or
flume type.
Disadvantages
• Not suitable for high pressurised vessels
• Not suitable for evacuated vessels
• Not suitable for use in environments with high dust of water vapour levels
• Atmosphere must be known and must be homogenous
• Surface of the medium must provide a good reflection
• Temperature profile in the transmitting medium must be constant
• Upper temperature limited to about 170°C

5.5 Microwave level measurement
In our discussions on ultrasonic level measurement, we saw that although it is the most widely
used non-contact level measuring technology it also has several drawbacks that limit its use in
many applications. These include:
• high pressurised vessels;
• evacuated vessels;
• environments with high dust of water vapour levels;
• measurements in the presence of foam; and
• non- homogenous atmospheres.
All these problems can be overcome through the use of microwave technology — as applied
to continuous level measurement. Further, microwaves can also result in very high accuracy
measurement down to 1 mm over ranges of 60 m or more.
As with ultrasonic level measurement, the underlying principle is simple. A transmitter

located at the top of the vessel transmits a pulse of microwave energy down to the material
surface where it is reflected and travels back to the receiver where the time delay from
transmit to received echo — the time of flight — is converted into distance. In this manner,
the level of the material is determined. This is the underlying principle of RADAR, an
acronym from RAdio Detection And Ranging, which makes use of microwave
electromagnetic radiation to detect the surface of an object and determine its distance from the
radiation source.
General
The term microwave is generally applied to short wave electromagnetic waves with
frequencies above 2 GHz (15 cm wavelength) and extending up to 120 GHz. As shown in
Figure 5.21, this frequency range is divided into 7 bands — with each allocated a letter code.
Electromagnetic waves are characterised by their frequency f and wavelength λ and linked by
their propagation rate c in which:
c=λf
or λ = c/ f
or f = c/λ
In a vacuum, the propagation rate c is equal to 299 792 458 m/s or, more generally,
approximately 3 x 108 m/s. In gases it is only slightly lower.

FM UHF TV Infrared Visible Ultra

Radio light violet
1m 10 cm 1 cm 1 mm 0,1 mm 10 µm 1 µm
100 MHz 1 GHz 10 GHz 100 GHz 1 THz 10 THz 100 THz 1000 THz
TECHNICAL
MICROWAVES
2,5 4 6 10 16 25 40 60 100
C X J(Ku) K Q(Ka) V O
4 8 12 18 26,5 40 60 140
Figure 5.21. Microwave band allocation.
Generally, level measuring instruments operate in the range from 5.8 to 24 GHz. The choice
of frequency is dependent on a number of factors. At higher frequencies above 20 GHz there
is a greater sensitivity to the atmosphere with preferential absorption producing a high
sensitivity to water vapour.At lower frequencies below 9 GHz a given antenna produces a
wider beam angle with the risk of more spurious reflections.
Radar level measurement

A complete radar measuring system comprises a transmitter with antenna, a transmission
path, the reflecting surface, a return transmission path, and a receiver with antenna. Usually a
single antenna is used for both transmitting and receiving the microwave signal. The
microwave signal emitted from the antenna is reflected from the surface of the product and
the echo received again after a time interval t.
The distance of the product surface is determined from the transit time t of the microwave
signal in which the distance measured is h = t/2c. Thus, for a target distance of 5 m the waves
travel a distance of 10 m, with a transit time of approximately 33.33 ns. The level is then
calculated from the difference between the tank height and the distance measured.
The two basic methods used for level measurement are pulse and frequency modulated
continuous wave (FMCW) radar.
Pulse radar
In pulse radar (Figure 5.22) the antenna transmits a short-duration pulse which is reflected off
the product surface after time t1 = h/c and is received back after a total time t2 = 2 h/c.
The main difficulty in this technology lies in obtaining accurate measurement of the time t2.
With a target distance of 5 m we have already seen that the transit time is 33,3 ns. To obtain a
resolution of 0,1%, an accurate time measurement resolution of approximately 33 ps is
required.

Transmitter
Transmitter
Time Receiver
Reflector
measurement
Receiver
h
t0 t1 t2
h/c h/c
Reflecting
surface
Figure 5.22. Typical pulse radar measuring system (Courtesy Krohne).
Frequency modulated continuous wave

In FMCW (frequency modulated continuous wave) radar a constant amplitude frequency-
modulated continuous wave signal is swept linearly over a given time interval (Figure 5.23)
from, for example, 8,5 to 9,5 GHz. This signal is radiated (at time t0) via the antenna and
reflected from the product surface such that the reflected signal is received after a time delay
t1 . When the received signal is mixed with a part of the transmission signal a low-frequency
difference frequency f (typically up to a few kHz) is obtained which is directly
proportional to the difference in time t. The mixer signal output constitutes an exact
indication of the distance from the surface of the product (liquid level). Because the resultant
signal frequencies are low, further signal processing is technically simple and provides very
accurate measurement. Although the microwave and processing boards are both complex and
expensive, when compared with pulse radar, FMCW provides very high precision
measurement and clear identification of the main target and interfering reflections — even if
the interference signal is greater than the main signal. Further, the integrating effect over the
sweep time, filters out unstable liquid surfaces.

Frequency (GHz) Transmitted

signal
fmax
f1
∆f
f0 Received
signal
fmin
Time
t0 t1
∆t
Figure 5.23. Functional principle and signal trend in FMCW radar (Courtesy Saab
Tank Control).
The operation of a radar level-measuring device is dependent upon the strength of the
reflected signal.
Electromagnetic waves are reflected by electromagnetic interaction with both conductive

surfaces and dielectric liquids. For conductive surfaces (metals and highly conductive liquids
such as high concentration acids and saline solutions) the reflection is almost 100%.
However, for dielectric liquids their interaction with electric fields is determined by the
relative permittivity εr.
At a relative permittivity εr = 3, about 10% of the signal

power is reflected and at εr = 1.5 this falls to only 1%. It can 60 Water (10GHz)
be seen that the relative permittivity plays a central role in the
evaluation of reflectivity and applicability of the microwave
level measuring system. Ethanol
20 Water (35GHz)
Most radar level systems require a relative permittivity εr > Propanol
2,5 for satisfactory operation. Thus, as illustrated in Figure
6 Acetic acid
5.24 microwave radar gauging cannot normally be used on
quite a wide range of petrochemicals. 3
Silicon oil
2,5 Propane
Benzene
Figure 5.24. Relative permittivity of several different Engine oil
materials (Courtesy Milltronics). 2 Petrol
1,5 Paraffin
1,025 Nitromethane
1,0 Gas

Time domain reflectometry

The time domain reflectometry (TDR) principle is a universal level measuring technology
that can detect both levels and interfaces on all liquids, and is suitable for level measurement
on powder and granular products or where conventional principles are unsuitable.
An electromagnetic microwave pulse is transmitted along two conductors installed in the tank
(Figure 5.25) (1). The conductors, comprising rods, flexible cables, or a coaxial cable, form a
microwave transmission line.
Air V1
V
V2
Oil
Water
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Figure 5.25. The microwave pulse is transmitted along two conductors installed in
the tank (1 ). When the pulse meets the first liquid surface (2 ) it is partially reflected
— with the transit time being a direct measure of the level (3). The fraction of the
pulse that is not reflected, continues to travel along the conductor and is reflected
on the interface (4) (Courtesy Krohne).
When the pulse meets the first liquid surface, a significant change in the line impedance
occurs by virtue of the change in the dielectric constant (εr) from the air (εr = 1) to that of the
liquid (minimum value (εr =2). As a result the pulse is partially reflected (2) — with the
transit time being a direct measure of the level (3).
Because only the amplitude of the reflected pulse changes according to the product and not
the reflection delay, measurement of the surface level is independent of the liquid's dielectric
constant and since the microwave pulse travels at the speed of light, measurement is not
influenced by dust (even if thick), foam or vapour. Further, because the pulse is confined to
the guides it is uninfluenced by interfering reflections due to the shape of tank and is
insensitive to pressure, temperature, liquid viscosity or any other physical variations of the
product.

Apart from the liquid surface, level measurement of product interfaces is also possible
whereby that fraction of the pulse which is not reflected (3), and which continues to travel
along the conductor, reflects on the interface (4). It was shown that in the measurement of
surface level, variations in the dielectric constant of the liquid, will not effect the
measurement because the transit time remains constant in the gaseous section of the tank.
However, as soon as the pulse passes through a layer of oil or a floating product, its speed is
reduced by a factor determined by the dielectric constant.
Point level detection

Microwave technology can also be applied in point level detection. As shown in Figure 5.26,
the system comprised a transmitter, receiver and relay unit — with the transmitter/receiver
combination forming a microwave beam.
Figure 5.26. Typical point level

Relay amplifier
detection system (Courtesy Endress +
Hauser). and power supply
Typically, the transmitter comprises a

solid state Gunn diode and cavity
resonator with the diode modulated in a
pulse burst form at between 1 to 5 kHz
in order to generated a higher output Microwave
than could be generated in a continuous beam
wave (CW) mode. The receiver is, Transmitter Receiver
typically, a Schotky diode.
When a product interrupts the beam,

the microwave energy will be reduced
due to damping or absorption and the
resultant decrease in the received
energy is used to initiate a relay. The extent to which the microwave beam is attenuated by the
product depends upon the relative permittivity. The higher the relative permittivity, the
greater the attenuation for the same thickness of material.

Section 5. Level Measurement

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Section 5. Level Measurement

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Section 5.

Process Control and

©Mick Crabtree 2007 Page 5.2

Figure 5.2. In the sight gauge a glass

Figure 5.3. A typical ball-float level switch (Courtesy Krohne).

©Mick Crabtree 2007 Page 5.3

Figure 5.4. Remote reading magnetic coupled

Displacement or servo gauge

The measuring wire is wound on and off a

Figure 5.5. Servo gauging system using

©Mick Crabtree 2007 Page 5.4

Above On In liquid 1 At In liquid 2

Figure 5.6. Change in 80 g

©Mick Crabtree 2007 Page 5.5

5.2 Electrical measurement

Conductive level detection

Figure 5.7. Conductive probe mounted

This difference in resistance is detected

©Mick Crabtree 2007 Page 5.6

Figure 5.8. Two-point

Other solutions make use of

Figure 5.9. A two-sensor probe can provide Hi/Lo

One of the main limitations of this technology is that

Capacitive level measurement

The capacitance (Figure 5.10) of an electrical capacitor (expressed in Farads) is determined

©Mick Crabtree 2007 Page 5.7

A Figure 5.10. Basic parameters of electrical

Table 5.1 Dielectric constant of several materials.

Material Dielectric constant

©Mick Crabtree 2007 Page 5.8

5.3 Hydrostatic head measurement

©Mick Crabtree 2007 Page 5.9

1 bar = 100 kPa ≈ 10 m head of water

©Mick Crabtree 2007 Page 5.10

Figure 5.13. Submersible pressure

©Mick Crabtree 2007 Page 5.11

Figure 5.14. Differential pressure

©Mick Crabtree 2007 Page 5.12

5.4 Ultrasonic level measurement

The underlying principle of ultrasonic level

Figure 5.16. Basic principle of ultrasonic

Basic sound theory

©Mick Crabtree 2007 Page 5.13

Membrane 1/4 λ layer

Figure 5.17. Arrangement of piezoelectric ceramic crystals used for the

D = distance of medium surface of the from the transducer face;

The velocity of sound in gases is given by the equation:

©Mick Crabtree 2007 Page 5.14

1,4 ∗ 8314.3 ∗ (273.15 + 20 )

And in nitrogen it is slightly faster at:

1,4 ∗ 8314.3 ∗ (273.15 + 20 )

1,3 ∗ 8314.3 ∗ (273.15 + 20 )

Velocity of sound (m/s)

©Mick Crabtree 2007 Page 5.15

Echo profile processing

©Mick Crabtree 2007 Page 5.16

Ringdown Target echo

Figure 5.19. Received signal demodulated to produce an envelope (Courtesy Hawk

©Mick Crabtree 2007 Page 5.17

©Mick Crabtree 2007 Page 5.18

5.5 Microwave level measurement

As with ultrasonic level measurement, the underlying principle is simple. A transmitter