CGS-202 X-Ray physics II

X-ray emission

Reference Text
Radiologic Science for technologists (Physics, Biology and protection) Stewart Carlyle
Bushong, 2021,12th Edition
Updated November 2022
 Objectives
1. Define radiation quantity and its relation to x-ray
intensity

2. List and discuss the factors affecting the intensity

of the x-ray beam.

3. Explain the x-ray quality and penetrability

4. Define half value layer.

 Objectives
5. Explain the steps to determine the HVL

6. List and discuss the factors affecting the quality of

the x-ray beam
7. Define filtration

8. Explain the types of filtration

9. Explain the importance of compensating filters in

examination of body parts.
 X-ray quantity
X-ray intensity

• Measured in roentgens (R or mGya) or mR

termed as x-ray quantity.

• Another term, radiation exposure often used.

• All have same meaning and measured in mGya

(mR)
 X-ray quantity
• The roentgen (mGya) is a measure of the number of
ion pairs produced in air by a quantity of x-rays.

• Ionization of air increases as the number of x-rays in

the beam increases.

• Exposure rates expressed as mR/s, mR/min, or

mR/mAs can also be used to express x-ray intensity.
 X-ray quantity
• X-ray quantity is the number of x-rays in the
useful beam.

• Most general purpose radiographic tubes, when

operated at approximately 70 kVp, produce x-
ray intensities of approximately 5mR/mAs (50
µGya) at a 100-cm source-to-image receptor
distance (SID).
 Factors affecting X-ray Quantity
• Nearly the same as those controlling the optical
density on a radiograph.

• Milliampere-seconds (mAs); X-ray quantity is

directly proportional to mAs.

• When mAs is doubled, the number of electrons

striking the tube target is doubled → number of
x-rays emitted is doubled.
 Factors affecting X-ray Quantity

• mAs is just a measure of electrons that travel

from cathode to anode to produce x-rays.

• mAs = mA X s = mC/s X s = mC

• Where C (coulomb) is a measure of

electrostatic charges and 1C = 6.25 X 1018
electrons
X-ray quantity and amperage
 Question

A lateral chest technique calls for 110kVp,

10mAs, which results in an X-ray intensity of 320
µGya (32mR) at the position of the patient. If the
mAs is increased to 20mAs, what will the X-ray
intensity be?
 Question

The radiographic technique for a kidneys,

ureters, and bladder (KUB) examination uses
74kVp/60mAs. The result is a patient exposure
of 2.5mGya (250mR). What will be the exposure
if the mAs can be reduced to 45mAs?
 Question

A radiograph is made at 74kVp/100mAs. How

many electrons interact with the target?

1C= 6.25X1018 electrons

100mAs=100mC = 6.25X1017 electrons

 X-ray quantity and kVp
• Kilovolt Peak (kVp)

• X-ray quantity varies rapidly with changes in kVp. The

change in x-ray quantity is proportional to the square
of the ratio of the kVp.

• i.e if kVp were doubled, the x-ray intensity would

increase by a factor of four.
 X-ray quantity and kVp
X-ray quantity is proportional to the kVp2.

I1/I2 = (kVp1/kVp2)2

where I1 and I2 are the x-ray intensities at kVp1

and kVp2 respectively

X-ray quantity is proportional to the kVp2

 Question

A lateral chest technique calls for 110kVp,

10mAsand results in an X-ray intensity of
0.32mGya (32 mR). What will be the intensity if
the kVp is increased to 125kVpand the mAs
remains fixed?
 X-ray quantity and Distance
• X-ray intensity varies inversely with the square of the
distance from the x-ray tube target. This relationship is
known as the inverse square law.

• I1/I2 = (d2/d1)2.

• Where I1 and I2 are the x-ray intensities at distances d1

and d2 respectively.

• X-ray quantity is inversely proportional to the square of

the distance from the source.
 Question

Mobile radiography is conducted at 100cm SID

and results in an exposure of 0.13mGya (13mR)
at the image receptor. If 91 cm is the maximum
SID that can be obtained for a particular
examination, what will be the image receptor
exposure?
 X-ray quality- penetrability
• Energy of x-ray beam ↑ penetrability ↑

• Penetrability refers to range of x-rays in tissue.

• High-energy x-rays are able to penetrate tissue

farther than low-energy x-rays.
 X-ray quality- penetrability
• Penetrability of an x-ray beam is called the x-ray
quality.

• X-rays with high penetrability are high quality x-

rays .

• Those with low penetrability are low-quality x-

rays
 X-ray quality- penetrability

• Identified numerically by HVL

• HVL is affected by the kVp and the added

filtration in the useful beam.

• Therefore x-ray quality is also influenced by kVp

and filtration.
 X-ray quality- penetrability
• Factors that affect beam quality also influence
radiographic contrast.

• Distance and mAs do not affect radiation

quality; they do affect radiation quantity.
 Half-Value layer
• X-rays are attenuated exponentially

• Higher energy x-rays are more penetrating

than low-energy x-rays.
 Half-Value layer
• 100-keV x-rays are attenuated at the rate of
approximately 3%/cm of soft tissue, 10-keV x-
rays are attenuated at approximately 15%/cm
of soft tissue.

• X-rays of any given energy are more

penetrating in low atomic number material
than in high atomic number material.
 Attenuation of X-rays
• Attenuation is the reduction in intensity
resulting form absorption and scattering.

• In radiography quality of x-rays is measured by

HVL.

• Therefore HVL is a characteristic of the useful

x-ray beam.
 Half-Value layer
• A diagnostic x-ray beam usually has an HVL in the range
of 3 to 5 mm of Al or 3 to 6 cm of soft tissue.

• The HVL of an x-ray beam is the thickness of absorbing

material necessary to reduce the x-ray intensity to half
of its original value.

• HVL is the best method for specifying x-ray quality.

 Half-Value layer
• Methods used to determine
the HVL of an x-ray beam
➢ Experimental set up as in fig;
consists of
1. X-ray tube
2. Radiation detector
3. Graded thickness of filters
 Half-Value layer
• Data in table are
typical for half-
value layer (HVL)
determination.
• The plot of these
data shows an HVL
of 2.4mm Al
 Steps to Determine the HVL
1. Determine the x-ray beam intensity with no absorbing
material in the beam and then with different known
thickness of absorber.

2. Plot the ordered pairs of data (thickness of absorber,

x-ray quantity)

3. Determine the x-ray quantity equal to half the original

quantity and locate this value on the y or vertical axis
of the graph.
 Steps to Determine the HVL
4. Draw a horizontal line parallel with the x-axis
from the point A in step 3 until it intersects
the curve (B).

5. From point B, drop a vertical line to the x-axis.

6. On the x-axis, read the thickness of absorber

required to reduce the x-ray intensity to half
of its original value point (C). This is the HVL.
 Half-Value layer
• The graph is plotted
from measurements
designed to estimate
HVL. What does this
graph suggest the
HVL to be?
 HVL
• X-ray beam penetrability changes in a complex way with
variations in kVp and filtration.

• Different combinations of added filtration and kVp can

result in the same x-ray beam HVL

• E.g. HVL value of 90kVp with 2-mm Al total filtration

found to be equal to 70kVp with 4-mm Al total filtration

• X-ray penetrability remains constant as does HVL

 Factors Affecting X-Ray Quality
• Some factors that affect x-ray quantity have
no effect on x-ray quality.
• Some affect both quality and quantity.
 Kilovolt peak (kVp)

• As kVp↑ - x-ray beam quality ↑ - HVL ↑

• Shifts the x-ray emission spectrum to the high-

energy side → effective energy of beam↑

• The result is more penetrating x-ray beam

• Increases the kVp peak increases the quality

of an x-ray beam.
 Kilovolt peak (kVp)
• Table shows the
measured change
in HVL as kVp is
increased from 50
to 150kVp.
• The total filtration
is 2.5 mmof Al
 Question
Plot the following data and determine the
precise value of HVL
Added mm Al µGya
None 650
1 480
3 300
5 210
7 160
9 130
 Filtration
• Process of shaping the x-ray beam to increase the ratio of
photons useful for imaging to those photons that increase
patient dose or decrease image contrast.

• Diagnostic x-ray beams are composed of photons that have

a whole spectrum of energies → they are polychromatic.

• Their mean energy is from one third to one half of their

peak energy, so many photons fall in the lower energy
range.
 Filtration
• This tissue can be protected by absorbing lower
energy photons from the beam before they reach the
patient by interposing a filter material between the
patient and the x-ray tube.

• Filters are usually sheets of metal → main function in

diagnostic radiology is to reduce the patient’s
radiation dose.
 Filtration
• Metal filters usually 1 to 3 mm of aluminium (Al)
positioned in the useful beam

• Reduce number of low energy photons that reach

patient.

• Calculation of reduction in exposure requires knowledge

of half-value layer (HVL).

• Disadvantage of x-ray beam filtration is reduced image

contrast owing to beam hardening.
 Filtration
 Used selectively to
remove low-energy x-
rays from the useful
beam.
 Ideal filtration would
remove all low-energy x-
rays
 Increasing filtration
increases the quality of
an x-ray beam.
 Decreases quantity
 Filtration
• In a radiologic examination the x-ray beam is filtered
by absorbers at three different levels.

Beginning at the x-ray source they are as follows;

1. The x-ray tube and its housing (inherent filtration)

2. Sheets of metal placed in the path of the x-ray beam

(added filtration)

3. The patient
 Inherent Filtration
• Filtration resulting from the absorption of x-rays as they
pass through the x-ray tube and its housing

General purpose x-ray tube ; 0.5mm Al equivalent.

• The materials responsible are;

➢ glass envelope enclosing the anode and cathode

➢ the insulting oil surrounding the tube

➢ the window in the tube housing.

 Inherent Filtration
• Inherent filtration is measured in aluminium equivalents,
which represent the thickness of aluminium that would
produce the same degree of attenuation as the thickness
of the material in question.

• Usually varies between 0.5 and 1 mm aluminium

equivalent, and the glass envelope is mostly responsible
for it
 Added filtration
• Results from absorbers placed in the path of the x-ray
beam.

• Usually sheets of metal placed in the path of the x-ray

beam near the x-ray tube housing to absorb low energy
radiation before it reaches the patient

• The main function is to protect the patient from useless

radiation
 Added filtration
 Frequently reduces skin exposures by as much as 80%
 Aluminium is usually selected as the filter material for
diagnostic radiology.
 Most high energy photons are transmitted through
aluminium, while low energy photons are absorbed by
photoelectric interactions
 Photoelectric effect selectively absorbs low energy photons
because of its dependence on energy and atomic number.
 Added filtration
• Added filtration results in increased HVL.
• Attenuates x-rays of all energies, but more
attenuation for low-energy than high-energy x-
rays.
• Shifts the x-ray emission spectrum to the high
energy side.
• Results in x-ray beam with higher energy, greater
penetrability and higher quality.
 Filtration
• With age inherent filtration increases. Why?

• Some of the tungsten metal of both target and

filament is vaporized and is deposited on the
inside of the window.

• Special- purpose x-ray tube have very thin x-ray

tube windows, made of beryllium (Z=4); approx
0.1mm Al equivalent
 Filtration
• Attenuates the x-ray beam, affects x-ray quantity.

• This value can be predicted if the HVL of the

beam is known.

• The addition of filtration equal to the beam HVL

reduces the beam quantity to half its prefiltered
value and results in a higher x-ray beam quality.
 Filtration

Patient’s radiation dose depends on ;

• the number of absorbed photons, the first few

centimeters of tissue receive much more
radiation than the rest of the patient.
 Filtration
• As polychromatic radiation passes through patient,
most of lower energy photons are absorbed in the first
few centimeters of tissue.

• Only the higher energy photons penetrate through the

patient to form the radiographic image.
 Filtration

Very low energy photons are not needed in the beam

because;

• in radiotherapy they do not penetrate to the deeper

tissues of the body which are often being treated

• in diagnostic work they do not reach the X-ray film and

therefore do not contribute to the formation of the
radiographic image.
 Filtration

• In both cases low energy photons produce

undesirable doses of radiation to the patient’s
skin.

• For biological safety reasons, beam filtration is

an important feature of equipment design.
 Filter thickness
• 2mm of aluminium absorb nearly all photons with
energies less than 20keV

➢ Most of the advantages is achieved by this thickness

• More thickness causes excessive filtration and has many

disadvantages;

➢ Overall attenuation of the beam, primarily by

absorption of high energy photons
 Wedge filters
• Used in diagnostic radiology to obtain films of
more uniform density when the part being
examined diminishes greatly in thickness from
one side of the field to the other.

• The filter is shaped like a wedge.

 Wedge filters
• When one side of the patient is considerably
thicker than the other, the wedge
compensates the difference.

• Less radiation is absorbed by the thinner part

of the filter, so more is available to penetrate
the thicker part of the patient
 Effect of added filtration on the x-ray
spectrum

• Added filtration is sometimes called hardening

the x-ray beam because of the relative increase
in average energy.

• Characteristic spectrum is not affected, nor the

maximum energy of x-ray emission.
 Total filtration
• Total filtration
consists of
➢ inherent filtration
of the x-ray tube,
➢ an added filter
➢ filtration by the
mirror of the light-
localizing
collimator.
 Compensating filters
• To produce an image with uniform Optical
Density (OD) when examining a body part that
vary in thickness or tissue composition.

• OD – degree of blackening of radiograph.

• Clear area - low OD

• Black area – high OD

 Compensating filters
• In PA chest radiography if left chest is relatively
radiopaque because of fluid, consolidation or
mass image would appear with low OD on the left
and very high on the right.

• Wedge filter can be positioned with the thin part

of the wedge over the left side of the chest to
compensate for this variation
Use of a wedge filter for examination of foot
Compensating filters
 Compensating filters
• A bilateral wedge filter (trough filter) is
sometimes used in chest radiography

• The thin central region of the wedge is

positioned over the mediastinum, while the
lateral thick portions shadow the lung fields.

• This results in a radiograph with more uniform

OD.
Use of a trough filter for examination of
the chest
 Compensating filters
• Special “bow-tie” –shaped filters are used with
some computed tomography imaging systems
to compensate for the shape of the head or
body.

• Conic filters- concave or convex find

application in digital fluoroscopy- image
receptor, the image intensifier tube is round.
 Compensating filters
Step-wedge filter
• Is an adaptation of wedge filter.

• Used in special procedures where long sections of

anatomy are imaged with two or three separate
image receptors

• Common application is a three-step aluminium

wedge.
 Compensating filters
• Arrangement of
apparatus using an
aluminium step-
wedge for serial
radiography of the
abdomen and lower
extremities
 Compensating filters
• Are useful in maintaining image quality.

• They are not radiation protection devices.

• They provide variation in intensity across the

x-ray beam.