SOLUTION OF NORMAL LINEAR EQUATIONS

 Introduction
 Linear equations are equations that contain independent unknowns and falls in three main categories namely
 Linear equations with more unknowns than the number of equations (Solution results in complex
numbers)
𝟐𝒙 + 𝒚 + 𝒛 = 𝟒
𝟎𝒙 + 𝟑𝒚 − 𝟑𝒛 = 𝟎
 Linear equations with fewer unknowns than the number of equations (Solution is not unique, is bias)
𝒚+𝒛=𝟒
𝟑𝒚 − 𝟑𝒛 = 𝟎
−𝒚 + 𝟐𝒛 = 𝟏
 Linear equations with unknowns equal to the number of equations (result in unique/exact solution )
𝟐𝒙 + 𝒚 + 𝒛 = 𝟒
𝟑𝒚 − 𝟑𝒛 = 𝟎
−𝒚 + 𝟐𝒛 = 𝟏 1

 While categories one and two above do not result in unique/exact solution of the unknowns, the third
category result in unique unbiased solution of the unknowns.
 SOLUTION OF NORMAL LINEAR EQUATIONS

 Methods of solving linear/normal equations

 For this purpose, the third category are referred to as the normal case hence the NORMAL
equations. The coefficients of the normal equations are usually generated through a least squares
adjustment process and are usually symmetric about the main diagonal and is used to check if
the normal equations have been formed correctly
 There are several methods of solving a system of linear equation but they are generally
categorized into two namely:
 Direct methods: provide a one-off exact solution of the unknown variables
 Indirect/iterative methods: provide a solution of the unknown variables by start with a first
approximation and compute iteratively a sequence of (hopefully increasingly better)
approximations of the unknowns until a best solution is obtained
 The iterative methods are considered to be more accurate since the direct methods are usually
2

affected by rounding off error while the iterative methods provide an opportunity for refining
the rounding-off errors
 SOLUTION OF NORMAL LINEAR EQUATIONS

 Direct methods of solving linear/normal equations

 There are three common methods of solving systems of linear equations using direct method namely:
 The Gaussian elimination method
 The substitution method and
 The decomposition/factorization method
 The Gaussian elimination method
 One of the ways of solving a linear system is to use the elimination method. In the elimination method
you either add or subtract the equations to get an equation in one variable.
 The fundamental idea is to add multiples of one equation to the others in order to eliminate a variable
and to continue this process until only one variable is left.
 When the coefficients of one variable are opposites you add the equations to eliminate a variable and
when the coefficients of one variable are equal you subtract the equations to eliminate a variable.
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 SOLUTION OF NORMAL LINEAR EQUATIONS
 Example 1
 The normal equations 𝐴𝑇 𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴𝑇 𝑦 were:
3 2 1 𝐷1 13.99
2 4 2 𝐷2 = 15.30
1 2 3 𝐷3 12.12
 We have a set of three equations as
3𝐷1 + 2𝐷2 + 1𝐷3 = 13.99 ---------(i)
2𝐷1 + 4𝐷2 + 2𝐷3 = 15.30 ---------(ii)
1𝐷1 + 2𝐷2 + 3𝐷3 = 12.12 ---------(iii)
 We multiply (ii) equation by 1.5 and (iii) equation by 3 we obtain
3𝐷1 + 2𝐷2 + 1𝐷3 = 13.99 ---------(iv)
3𝐷1 + 6𝐷2 + 3𝐷3 = 22.95 ---------(v)
3𝐷1 + 6𝐷2 + 9𝐷3 = 36.36 ---------(vi)
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 SOLUTION OF NORMAL LINEAR EQUATIONS

 We subtract equation (iv) from both equation (v) and (vi) we then obtain
3𝐷1 + 2𝐷2 + 1𝐷3 = 13.99 ---------(vii)
0𝐷1 + 4𝐷2 + 2𝐷3 = 8.96 ---------(viii)
0𝐷1 + 4𝐷2 + 8𝐷3 = 22.37 ---------(ix)
 We then subtract equation (viii) from both equation (vii) and (ix) we then obtain
3𝐷1 − 2𝐷2 − 1𝐷3 = 5.03 ---------(x)
0𝐷1 + 4𝐷2 + 2𝐷3 = 8.96 ---------(xi)
0𝐷1 + 0𝐷2 + 6𝐷3 = 13.41 ---------(xii)
 From equation (xii) we can therefore solve for 𝐷3 as follows
6𝐷3 = 13.41
 Therefore
13.41
𝐷3 = = 2.235𝑚
6 5
 SOLUTION OF NORMAL LINEAR EQUATIONS
 From equation (xi)
0𝐷1 + 4𝐷2 + 2𝐷3 = 8.96 ---------(xi)
 But we already have
𝐷3 = 2.235𝑚
 Therefore
4𝐷2 = 8.96 − 2𝐷3 = 8.96 − 2 × 2.235 = 8.96 − 4.47 = 4.49
4.49
𝐷2 = = 1.1225𝑚
4
 Similarly from equation (x)
3𝐷1 − 2𝐷2 − 1𝐷3 = 5.03---------(x)
We therefore have that
3𝐷1 = 5.03 + 2𝐷2 + 1𝐷3 = 5.03 + 2 × 1.1225 + 2.235 = 5.03 + 2.245 + 2.235 = 9.51
9.51
𝐷1 = = 3.17𝑚
3
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 SOLUTION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
 Example 2:
 Solve the normal equations given below using the Gaussian elimination method
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 6𝑧 = −4………………………..i
𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 10…………………………ii
𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 5………………………….iii
 Multiply equation (ii) by 2 and equation (iii) by 2
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 6𝑧 = −4………………………..iv
2𝑥 + 10𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 20………………………v
2𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 10……………………….vi
 Subtract equation (iv) from both equation (v) and equation (vi)
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 6𝑧 = −4………………………..vii
6𝑦 + 12𝑧 = 24………………………viii
2𝑦 + 10𝑧 = 14……………………….ix 7
 SOLUTION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

 Example 2:
 Multiply equation (ix) by 3  And from (xiii)
6𝑦 = 24 − 12 = 12
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 6𝑧 = −4………………………..x
𝑦 = 2………………………xvi
6𝑦 + 12𝑧 = 24………………………xi
 From equation (xii)
6𝑦 + 30𝑧 = 42……………………….xii
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 6𝑧 = −4
 Subtract equation (xi) from equation (xii)
 Hence
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 6𝑧 = −4………………………..xii
2𝑥 = −4 − 4𝑦 + 6𝑧 = −4 − 8 + 6 = −6
6𝑦 + 12𝑧 = 24………………………xiii 2𝑥 = −6
18𝑧 = 18……………………….xiv  Hence
 From (xiv) 𝑥 = −3………………………..xvii
𝑧 = 1………………………xv 8
 SOLUTION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
 The substitution method
 Another way of solving a linear system algebraically is to use the substitution method. The substitution method
functions by substituting one variable with the another variable with the aim of reducing the number of variables in
an equation.
 Example 1:
 Using our previous example, we have a set of three equations as
3𝐷1 + 2𝐷2 + 1𝐷3 = 13.99 ---------------------(i)
2𝐷1 + 4𝐷2 + 2𝐷3 = 15.30 ---------------------(ii)
1𝐷1 + 2𝐷2 + 3𝐷3 = 12.12 ---------------------(iii)
 From equation (i) we have that
𝐷3 = 13.99 − 3𝐷1 − 2𝐷2 ---------------------(iv)
 Substituting equation (iv) into equation (ii) we obtain
2𝐷1 + 4𝐷2 + 2(13.99 − 3𝐷1 − 2𝐷2 ) = 15.30
2𝐷1 + 4𝐷2 + 27.98 − 6𝐷1 − 4𝐷2 = 15.30 9

4𝐷1 = 27.98 − 15.30 = 12.68

𝐷1 = 3.17𝑚
 SOLUTION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
 Similarly substituting equation (iv) into equation (iii) we obtain
𝐷1 + 2𝐷2 + 3(13.99 − 3𝐷1 − 2𝐷2 ) = 12.12
𝐷1 + 2𝐷2 + 41.97 − 9𝐷1 − 6𝐷2 = 12.12
8𝐷1 + 4𝐷2 = 41.97 − 12.12 = 29.85
 But
𝐷1 = 3.17𝑚
 Therefore
4𝐷2 = 29.85 − 8 × 3.17 = 29.85 − 25.36 = 4.49
𝐷2 = 1.1225𝑚
 We then solve for 𝐷3 from equation (iv) as
𝐷3 = 13.99 − 3𝐷1 − 2𝐷2
𝐷3 = 13.99 − 3(3.17) − 2(1.1225)
𝐷3 = 13.99 − 9.51 − 2.245 10

𝐷3 = 2.235𝑚
 SOLUTION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

 Example 2:
 Solve the set of linear equations below using  Example 2:
the method of substitution
3𝑧 = 3………….(vi)
𝟐𝒙 + 𝒚 + 𝒛 = 𝟒……….(i)
𝑧 = 1………….(vii)
𝟑𝒚 − 𝟑𝒛 = 𝟎………….(ii)
 Substituting equation (vii) into equation (iv) we
−𝒚 + 𝟐𝒛 = 𝟏…………...(iii) have
 From equation (iii) 𝑦 = 2𝑧 − 1 = 2 − 1 = 1…………...(viii)
𝑦 = 2𝑧 − 1…………...(iv)  Substituting both equation (vii) and (viii) into
equation (i) we have
 Substituting equation (iv) into equation (ii) we have
3𝑦 = 3𝑧 2𝑥 = 4 − 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 4 − 1 − 1 = 2……….(ix)
3 2𝑧 − 1 = 3𝑧 𝑥 = 1…….(x)
6𝑧 − 3 = 3𝑧………….(v) 11
 SOLUTION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

 Example 4:
 We have that y = at2 + bt + c
 The height, y, of an object thrown into the 1 23
 At time 𝑡 = , 𝑦 =
air is known to be given by a quadratic 2 4

function of t (time) of the 23 1 2 1 𝑎 𝑏

 =𝑎 +𝑏 +𝑐 = 4+2+𝑐
form y = at2 + bt + c. If the object is at 4 2 2

height y = 23/4 at time t = 1/2, at y = 7 at  ֜ 𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 4𝑐 = 23

time t = 1, and at y = 2 at t = 2, determine  At time 𝑡 = 1, 𝑦 = 7
the coefficients a, b, and c. 2
 7=𝑎 1 +𝑏 1 +𝑐 =𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
 Using Gaussian-elimination method
 ֜ 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 =7
 Substitution method
 At time 𝑡 = 2, 𝑦 = 2
2
 2=𝑎 2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 = 4𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 𝑐
12

 ֜ 4𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 𝑐 = 2
 SOLUTION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
 Example 4:
 Example 4:
 Solution using Gaussian-elimination method
 Multiply equation (ix) by 2Τ3 we get:
 We have our linear equations as:
4𝑎 + 8𝑏 + 16𝑐 = 92 --------------------(x)
𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 4𝑐 = 23 --------------------(i)
4𝑏 + 12𝑐 = 64 --------------------(xi)
𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 7 --------------------(ii)
4𝑏 + 10𝑐 = 60 --------------------(xii)
4𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 𝑐 = 2 --------------------(iii)
 We then subtract equation (xii) from equation (ix) to obtain
 Multiply equation (i) by 4 and Equation (ii) by 4 we obtain
4𝑎 + 8𝑏 + 16𝑐 = 92 --------------------(xiii)
4𝑎 + 8𝑏 + 16𝑐 = 92 --------------------(iv)
4𝑏 + 12𝑐 = 64 --------------------(xiv)
4𝑎 + 4𝑏 + 4𝑐 = 28 --------------------(v)
2𝑐 = 4 --------------------(xv)
4𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 𝑐 = 2 --------------------(vi)
 From equation (xv) we have c = 2
 We then subtract equation (v) and equation (vi) from  From equation (xiv) we have 4𝑏 = 64 − 12𝑐 = 40
equation (iv) to obtain
b = 10
4𝑎 + 8𝑏 + 16𝑐 = 92 --------------------(vii)
 From equation (xiii) we have 4𝑎 = 92 − 8𝑏 − 16𝑐 = −20
4𝑏 + 12𝑐 = 64 --------------------(viii) a = −5
13
6𝑏 + 15𝑐 = 90 --------------------(ix)
 SOLUTION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
 Example 4:
 Example 4:
 Solution using Substitution method
 From equation (v):
 We have our linear equations as:
𝑏 = 16 − 3𝑐 --------------------(vii)
𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 4𝑐 = 23 --------------------(i)
 We then substitute equation (vii) into equation (vi) to
𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 7 --------------------(ii)
obtain
4𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 𝑐 = 2 --------------------(iii)
2 16 − 3𝑐 + 3𝑐 = 26
 From Equation (ii) we obtain
32 − 6𝑐 + 3𝑐 = 26
𝑎 = 7 − 𝑏 − 𝑐 --------------------(iv)
3𝑐 = 6
 We then substitute equation (iv) into equation (i) to obtain
𝑐 = 2 --------------------(viii)
7 − b − 𝑐 + 2𝑏 + 4𝑐 = 23
𝑏 + 3𝑐 = 16 --------------------(v)  From eq. (vii) we have b = 16 − 3c = 16 − 6 = 10

 Similarly, we substitute equation (iv) into equation (iii) to obtain  And from equation (iv) we have that
4(7 − b − c) + 2𝑏 + 𝑐 = 2 a = 7 − b − c = 7 − 10 − 2 = −5
28 − 4𝑏 − 4𝑐 + 2𝑏 + 𝑐 = 2 a = −5
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2𝑏 + 3𝑐 = 26 --------------------(vi)
 SOLUTION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
 Example 5:
 Example 5:
 Solution using Gaussian-elimination method
 Multiply equation (ix) by 0.5 we get:
 We have our linear equations as:
2x − 2y − 2z = 0 --------------------(x)
𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0 --------------------(i)
0𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 8 --------------------(xi)
−2𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 8 --------------------(ii)
0𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 2- --------------------(xii)
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 2 --------------------(iii)
 We then subtract equation (xi) from equation (xii) to obtain
 Multiply equation (i) by 2 and Equation (iii) by 2 we obtain
2x − 2y − 2z = 0 --------------------(xiii)
2x − 2y − 2z = 0 --------------------(iv)
0𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 8 --------------------(xiv)
-2x + 4y + 3z = 8 --------------------(v)
0𝑥 + 0𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 6 --------------------(xv)
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 4 --------------------(vi)
 From equation (xv) we have z = −3
 We then add equation (v) and equation (vi) and subtract  From equation (xiv) we have 2𝑦 = 8 − 𝑧 = 8 + 3 = 11
equation (iv) from equation (iv) to obtain
y = 5.5
2x − 2y − 2z = 0 --------------------(vii)
 From equation (xiii) we have 2𝑥 = 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 11 − 6 = 5
0𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 8 --------------------(viii) x = 2.5
15
0𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 4--------------------(ix)
 SOLUTION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
 Example 6:
 Solution using Substitution method  Example 6:
 We have our linear equations as:  From equation (vi):
𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0 --------------------(i) 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 2 --------------------(vii)
−2𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 8 --------------------(ii)  We then substitute equation (vii) into equation (v) to
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 2 --------------------(iii) obtain
 From Equation (i) we obtain 𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 2 = 8
𝑧 = 𝑥 − 𝑦 --------------------(iv) 4𝑥 = 8 + 2 = 10
 We then substitute equation (iv) into equation (ii) to obtain 𝑥 = 2.5
−2𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 3 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 8  From eq. (vii) we have y = 3x − 2 = 7.5 − 2 = 5.5
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 8 --------------------(v)
 And from equation (iv) we have that
 Similarly, we substitute equation (iv) into equation (iii) to obtain
z = x − y = 2.5 − 5.5 = −3
𝑥+𝑦+2 𝑥−𝑦 =2
z = −3
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 2
16
3𝑥 − 𝑦 = 2 --------------------(vi)