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Extraction of natural dye from the mesocarp and exocarp of Cocos nucifera,
textile dyeing, and colour fastness properties

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 Materials Today: Proceedings 48 (2022) 790–795

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials Today: Proceedings

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matpr

Extraction of natural dye from the mesocarp and exocarp of Cocos

nucifera, textile dyeing, and colour fastness properties
M.H. Rodiah ⇑, S. Noor Hafizah, H. Noor Asiah, I. Nurhafizah, M.N. Norakma, I. Norazlina
Department of Science and Biotechnology, Faculty of Engineering and Life Sciences, Universiti Selangor, Bestari Jaya Campus, Jalan Timur Tambahan, 45600 Bestari Jaya,
Selangor, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Dyes derived from coconut (Cocos nucifera) husk have materialised as an important substitute to syn-
Available online 4 March 2021 thetic dyes. However, better extraction techniques are needed to leach out the natural colourants from
this plant. The influence of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) concentration (0.2 to 0.8 M) and time of extraction
Keywords: (2 to 10 min) on the maximum extraction yield of natural dye from the mesocarp and exocarp of C. nuci-
Anthocyanin fera have been studied. The results indicate a significant (p < 0.05) increase in dye yield for both mesocarp
Microwave assisted extraction and exocarp extracts when using 0.8 M NaOH for 4 min. This study had also investigated the effect of dif-
Natural colourant
ferent concentrations of tannic acid as a mordant on dyeing properties and wash fastness of cotton fabrics
dyed with the mesocarp and exocarp C. nucifera dyes. The dyeing process of the natural dye was per-
formed by varying the concentrations of tannic acid (2.5%, 5.0%, and 7.5%) at 40 °C for 60 min. Pre-
mordanted dyed cotton fabrics showed a deeper colour than unmordanted dyed cotton fabrics. As the
concentration of tannic acid increases, the L* value decreases in all pre-mordanted fabrics. Tannic acid
as a mordant exhibited better result at 7.5% concentration than the 2.5% and 5.0% concentration. The
darkness and shade of the dye from the mesocarp exhibited a better outcome than the exocarp of C. nuci-
fera and confirms that the mordant enhanced the dye hue on cotton fabric. Wash fastness properties of
mesocarp dyed cotton fabrics ranged from poor (2) to good (3) depended on the tannic acid concentration
used. This work suggests that mesocarp C. nucifera dye can complement synthetic dyes in the dye
industries.
Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 2nd International Con-
ference on Innovative Technology and Sciences (iCITES 2020).

1. Introduction
The dye is a chemical substance that can be applied to another
compound as a colourant that impacts its colour change [1]. Natu-
ral dyes obtained from plants are substitutes of artificial dyes in
various fields, such as pharmaceuticals, textile, and food. The glo-
bal demand for natural dye is about 10,000 tonnes per year and
progressively expand in forthcoming years [2]. Natural dyes are
more valuable if they could positively impact health like exhibiting
lower toxicity and allergic reaction [3,4]. Colour is one of the deter-
mining factors in a customer’s purchase behaviour [5]. The apparel
would look appealing to a customer because of the colour(s) [6].
Most natural dyes are water-soluble; thus, used in aqueous dye-
ing of textile materials [7]. Nonetheless, the drawbacks of natural
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rodiaha@unisel.edu.my (M.H. Rodiah).
dyes, e.g., the lack of hue uniformity, low yield, poor adhesion,
and poor fastness characteristics limit its usage in textile produc-
tion [8]. Despite these limitations, colourists tend to substitute
synthetic dyes with natural dyes [9]. Apparently, due to their tox-
icity, non-biodegradability, and environmental effects, synthetic
dyes are being replaced with natural dyes, which could eradicate
the problems [10]. The application of mordants in the natural dye-
ing process improves weak adhesion, colour uniformity, and fast-
ness properties of naturally-dyed textile materials [11]. Most of
the time, mordants are metal salts that create an affinity between
the fabric and the dye, and the widely used mordants are chro-
mium, stannous chloride, copper sulphate, and ferrous sulphate
[12]. Biomordants, mostly tannin-rich compounds, are responsible
for forming hydrogen bonds and could help replace these metallic
equivalents, as they are ideal for sustainability [13].
Several modern techniques, such as microwave and ultrasound-
assisted extractions [14] and supercritical fluid extraction [15] are

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.02.315
2214-7853/Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 2nd International Conference on Innovative Technology and Sciences (iCITES 2020).
M.H. Rodiah, S. Noor Hafizah, H. Noor Asiah et al.
used to extract natural dyes. Additionally, dyes are also extracted
using alkalis, acids, organic solvents, and their aqueous mixtures
[16]. Some researchers prefer alkaline condition for natural dye
extraction, e.g., sodium hydroxide (NaOH), which was used to
extract dye from olive waste [17] and henna leaves [18]. Meanwhile,
sodium chloride and sodium carbonate were used to extract dyes
from red calico leaves [19] and tea stem waste respectively [16].
Therefore, new pigment crops are being sought to meet the
growing demand for natural dyes. In this study, the husk of coco-
nut (Cocos nucifera) has been recently suggested as a valuable nat-
ural dye source [20]. C. nucifera fruit comprises three layers, i.e.,
exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp. The coconut husk corresponds
to around 85% of the fruit weight and its disposal is problematic
due to its ecological impact on the environment [21]. Therefore,
the extraction of dye from husks may solve the problem. C. nucifera
was reported to contain petunidin-3-glucoside, proanthocyanidin
trimer, cyanidin-3-sambubioside, and delphinidin-3-glucoside
[22], which are responsible for the natural colourant. In this study,
different concentrations of NaOH, at different time extractions
using a microwave technique were investigated to extract natural
dye from the mesocarp and the exocarp of C. nucifera. The dye
extracted was also tested on pre-mordanted cotton fabric to seek
its potential as a fabric dye.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Sample preparation
C. nucifera was obtained from the coconut plantation located at
Tanjung Karang, Selangor, Malaysia. The mesocarp and exocarp
from matured C. nucifera were used. The exocarp was separated
from the mesocarp using a knife, and both parts were cut into
small pieces (2–3 cm). Both samples were ground with a grinder
(Zhong Xing, Malaysia) and sieved with a 0.5-mm sieve to obtain
a uniform size before kept in a vacuum-packed plastic container.
2.2. Microwave-assisted extraction
The mesocarp and exocarp dyes were extracted using
microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) at a microwave power of
300 W based on the previous method by [20], with a slight modi-
fication. The modification involved varying NaOH concentration
(0.2 to 0.8 M) and time (2 to 10 min). The extraction method via
MAE has been proven to rapidly heat the sample solvent mixture,
rendering the main benefit of this technique. NaOH was chosen as
the extraction solvent for mesocarp and exocarp dyes due to the
high solubility of bioactive compounds in alkaline medium.
Approximately 2 g of mesocarp and exocarp powder was mixed
with 40 mL of NaOH (ratio of 1:20) in a conical flask. Samples were
prepared according to the number of treatment time. The samples
were taken for analysis at every time intervals. All experiments
were conducted in duplicates.
2.3. Method of analysis
2.3.1. Yield of natural colourant
The gravimetric method was performed as described by [20].
The new of mesocarp and exocarp dyes were prepared, as stated
earlier in Section 2.2. The extracted samples for each treatment
were dried overnight in a hot air oven (Cole-Parmer, USA) at
80 °C until a constant weight was obtained. The yield of natural
dye was calculated as follows:
natural dye extract obtainedðgÞ
%Yield of natural dye ¼  100
weight of sample usedðgÞ
791
Materials Today: Proceedings 48 (2022) 790–795
2.3.2. Colour determination
The colour of dye extract and fabric were measured using a col-
our reader (Konika Minolta, Japan). The colour was based on the
CIELAB colour space and demonstrated as L*, a*, b*, c*, and h* val-
ues. L* represents the lightness value, whereby the lowest values
are a darker colour, while higher values are lighter. a* represents
the colour ranging from red to green, with positive values indicate
redness, while negative values indicate greenness. b* presents the
colour ranging from blue to yellow, with positive values represent
yellow, while negative values represent blue. c* represents the
chroma, which measures the colourant’s intensity, and h* repre-
sents the hue, i.e., representing the tonality of the colour [23].
2.4. Pre-mordanting and dyeing process
The mesocarp and exocarp dye extracts were prepared accord-
ing to the best condition of the extraction. The dye extracts from
the husk of C. nucifera were used to dye a piece of plain cotton fab-
ric. Pre-mordanting method using tannic acid as the mordant was
applied [24]. The cotton fabric was cut into a square shape
(4 cm  4 cm) and weighed. All fabrics were soaked in tannic acid
at 40 °C for 60 min at different concentrations (2.5%, 5%, and 7.5%)
based on the fabric’s weight. The fabrics were then air-dried for 2 h
at 35 °C in a dryer oven. The pre-mordanted cotton was soaked in
the dye at 70 °C for 90 min. The dyed cotton was then immediately
washed with cold water, squeezed, and air-dried for 2 h at 35 °C in
a dryer oven. The colour of the dried fabric was measured using a
calorimeter. In this study, the positive control (cotton fabric dyed
with natural dye without a mordant) and negative control (undyed
and unmordanted cotton fabric) were also prepared.
2.5. Fastness testing
The dyed samples were tested for fastness properties according
to standard methods of the American Association of Textile Che-
mists and Colourists (AATCC) Test Method 61 (2009) [25]. In this
study, only colour fastness to washing based on the ISO 105-
C02:1989 was evaluated. The rate for colour changes on a score
from 1 (very poor) to 5 (excellent) was observed.
2.6. Statistical analysis
All experiments were carried out in duplicates, and the results
were expressed as mean ± SD (standard deviation). SPSS 16.0
was used for data analysis. One-way ANOVA was used to analyse
the experimental data, and the Tukey test was applied to deter-
mine the significant difference (p < 0.05) of all samples.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Yield of natural dye
Table 1 and Table 2 display the effect of heating time and NaOH
concentration on the yield of mesocarp and exocarp dyes. In this
study, the heating time had influenced the production yield of
most dyes. Most NaOH concentrations exhibited an increase in
yield until 4 min of treatment before decreasing towards the end
of treatment time. Based on the observation, all samples started
to dry upon a prolonged time, and the dyes showed burning signs
after heated at 6 min onwards. This could result in reduced colour-
ant yield. The results also indicated that the yield of dye intensified
as the concentration of NaOH increased. The highest yield obtained
for mesocarp and exocarp was 82.15% and 97.15%, respectively,
when both samples were extracted with 0.8 M NaOH for 4 min.
The NaOH concentration may affect the mesocarp and exocarp
M.H. Rodiah, S. Noor Hafizah, H. Noor Asiah et al. Materials Today: Proceedings 48 (2022) 790–795

Table 1
The effect of heating time and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) concentration on the yield of the mesocarp extracts dye.

Time (min) NaOH Concentration (M)

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
2 16.25 ± 1.62b 25.75 ± 0.63b 63.70 ± 0.28a 67.90 ± 0.49b
4 24.75 ± 1.48a 34.35 ± 1.90a 60.05 ± 1.90a 82.15 ± 0.49a
6 10.15 ± 0.91 cd 21.25 ± 0.21cb 40.89 ± 0.00cb 57.55 ± 0.21d
8 9.50 ± 0.98 cd 20.55 ± 0.1c 45.70 ± 1.83b 58.60 ± 1.13bc
10 13.50 ± 1.27bc 33.50 ± 1.83a 45.30 ± 1.83b 60.15 ± 0.35b

Values are represented as means ± standard deviation. Means that do not share the same letter in the same column were significantly different at p < 0.05.

Table 2
The effect of heating time and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) concentration on the total yield of the exocarp extracts dye.

Time (min) NaOH concentration (M)

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
2 9.35 ± 0.77c 12.40 ± 0.28c 26.95 ± 1.34d 38.40 ± 0.98d
4 23.70 ± 1.13a 49.25 ± 0.35a 79.40 ± 0.98a 97.15 ± 1.48a
6 18.00 ± 0.84ab 51.3 ± 3.39a 58.10 ± 2.82b 64.10 ± 1.83c
8 12.90 ± 1.97b 35.3 ± 0.98b 47.20 ± 0.00c 69.70 ± 1.27b
10 11.10 ± 1.69c 35.9 ± 0.07b 58.45 ± 0.77b 72.05 ± 1.48b

Values are represented as means ± standard deviation. Means that do not share the same letter in the same column were significantly different at p < 0.05.

structure. The cellulose composition of the cell wall produced anio-
nic charge, which create anionic repulsive forces. It loses its
strength and easily ruptures, causing more colour components into
the alkaline medium [26].
In this study, the best condition for the extraction of natural
dye from mesocarp and exocarp was determined based on the
highest yield of dye obtained. The results showed that the
extracted dye yield for both mesocarp and exocarp using
0.8 M of NaOH for 4 min were significantly (p < 0.05) highest
among other concentrations used in this study. The dyes in the
form of glycosides can be extracted under alkaline conditions,
and NaOH is the best complementary solvent for the dyes, as
the phenolic groups in the dyes are soluble in alkaline solution,
resulting in increased yield [27]. A similar observation was
reported in the study of natural dye from henna leaves extracted
using alkaline treatment [28].
3.2. Colour
The colour of dyes extracted from the mesocarp at different
concentrations is similar, as shown in Table 3. The L* values for
all samples extracted using a concentration of 0.2 M until 0.8 M
ranged from 26.4 to 29.5. However, a slight change in hue was
observed when the concentration of NaOH increased. The colour
chroma (C*) fluctuated as the concentration of NaOH increased.
The values of a* and b* are all negative, indicating that the samples
are in the green to the blue zone. The similar observation was
obtained for colour values from the exocarp (Table 4). The L* value
ranged from 27.0 to 30.5. However, an increased pattern can be
observed for L* value from 0.2 M to 0.8 M NaOH. The lower the
L* value, the darker the colour of the sample. The value of a* and
b* are also negative for all samples, demonstrating that the sam-
ples are in the green to the blue zone. Meanwhile, the hue and

Table 3
The colour values of natural dye from mesocarp.

Concentration of NaOH (M) Time Colour coordinates

L a b c h
0.2 2 26.9 1.9 1.3 2.3 214.8
4 27.9 2.0 0.7 2.1 200.7
6 27.9 1.7 1.1 2.0 212.6
8 28.7 1.7 2.0 2.6 229.0
10 27.6 1.6 1.1 2.0 215.1
0.4 2 28.8 1.6 2.3 2.8 234.3
4 29.2 1.8 2.0 2.7 228.3
6 27.3 1.6 1.2 2.0 216.5
8 27.7 1.7 1.2 2.6 214.3
10 29.5 1.8 2.3 3.0 232.1
0.6 2 28.2 1.7 1.9 2.5 228.4
4 29.1 1.7 2.4 3.0 233.8
6 27.3 1.6 1.5 2.2 223.8
8 28.0 1.7 1.6 2.3 223.0
10 29.4 1.8 2.1 2.7 229.3
0.8 2 28.8 1.6 2.0 2.6 231.4
4 29.3 1.7 2.2 2.8 232.4
6 28.0 1.7 1.9 2.6 228.2
8 29.3 1.8 2.4 3.1 233.1
10 26.4 1.4 1.9 2.3 233.4

792
M.H. Rodiah, S. Noor Hafizah, H. Noor Asiah et al. Materials Today: Proceedings 48 (2022) 790–795

Table 4
The colour values of natural dye from exocarp.

Concentration of NaOH (M) Time Colour coordinates

L a b c h
0.2 2 27.0 1.5 1.2 1.9 219.2
4 29.7 1.8 2.2 2.8 231.6
6 27.7 1.6 1.9 2.5 230.4
8 28.8 1.9 2.0 2.7 226.7
10 29.0 1.8 1.8 2.6 225.2
0.4 2 29.0 1.8 2.0 2.7 228.2
4 27.8 1.8 1.4 2.3 218.8
6 28.7 1.7 1.8 2.5 225.5
8 28.3 1.4 1.9 2.3 233.7
10 28.5 1.6 1.8 2.4 227.7
0.6 2 28.6 1.5 1.9 2.4 231.2
4 28.4 1.5 1.7 2.3 229.7
6 29.0 1.9 1.9 2.7 225.8
8 27.9 2.2 1.6 2.7 215.0
10 28.5 2.5 1.8 3.1 214.5
0.8 2 28.2 1.7 1.4 2.2 220.9
4 28.1 1.6 1.4 2.1 220.9
6 28.3 2.6 1.6 3.1 211.7
8 27.2 1.6 1.2 2.0 216.9
10 28.2 2.5 1.8 3.1 214.5

chroma displayed an increased pattern from 0.2 M to 0.8 M. The
mesocarp extract had a darker shade colour than exocarp extract.
3.3. Pre-mordanting and dyeing properties
The pre-mordanting technique was performed on cotton fabric
for the mesocarp and exocarp dyes. Tannic acid was used as a mor-
dant and acted as a binding agent on the fabric. The effect of tannic
acid was observed based on the colour diffused and dyed of the
cotton fabrics. The best concentration of tannic acid for pre-
mordanting is based on the L* value of the cotton fabric (Table 5).
The L* value, which represents the lightness, was used as an indi-
cator to describe the fabric’s colour. The lightness of the fabric dye
decreases with the increased of tannic acid concentration used in
the pre-mordanting method. The lower the L* value, the deeper
the colour on dyed fabric. Unmordanted dyed cotton has the high-
est L* value and lightest colour compared to pre-mordanted dyed
cotton for both mesocarp and exocarp dyes. This could be due to
the ability of tannic acid to enhance the hue of natural dye in cot-
ton fabric. The values of b* > a*, which are positive in unmordanted
and tannic acid mordanted dyed fabrics indicated that their colour
appearance is closer to yellow than red.
The cotton fabric dyed with mesocarp and exocarp dyes showed
the darkest colour when pre-mordanted with 7.5% of tannic acid.
The results indicated that the higher the mordant concentration,
the darker the colour of the fabric. The fabrics dyed in the presence
of tannic acid were a deeper hue than the unmordanted and the
positive control fabric. It indicated that in the absence of a mor-
dant, the colour of the fabric was dull compared to the mordanted
cotton fabric. This confirmed that tannic acid improved the dye-
ability of the fabrics. The finding is congruent with the study by
[29], who reported that dye affinity for the cellulosic fabric was
improved by the mordant. Mordant reacts with textile materials
in the mordanted dyeing process by opening their structures to
enhance their dyeing chemical affinity [30]. The dye molecules
then diffuse into the fabric/fibre matrix, preceded by adsorption
of the dye molecules on the fabric/fibre surface. The adsorbed
dye molecules were further absorbed into the textile material poly-
mer matrix, followed by chemical fixation of dye molecules into
the mordant fabric [31]. Overall, mesocarp dye showed better col-
our fastness on cotton fabric compared to the exocarp dye. The fab-
ric dyed with exocarp dye showed a dull shade compared to fabric
dyed with mesocarp dye, which had a bright shade.
3.4. Colour fastness
Generally, one of the incapacities of natural dyes is poor wash
fastness. Colour fastness properties of dyed cellulosic fabrics can
be improved by mordanting [32] since mordants possess staining
ability [33]. The rating of wash fastness of pre-mordanted cotton
fabric dyed with C. nucifera dye is shown in Table 6. The results
demonstrated that the wash fastness of pre-mordanted cotton fab-
rics with 7.5% tannic acid for both mesocarp and exocarp dyes are
good, but the wash fastness of unmordanted cotton fabrics is poor,

Table 5
The colour reading of cotton fabric dyed with natural dye.

Cotton fabric Tannic acid concentration (%) Colour coordinates

L a b c h
Negative control 0 81.80 ± 0.14 0.80 ± 0.00 4.35 ± 0.07 4.47 ± 0.03 2.86 ± 0.00
Positive control 0 68.90 ± 0.14 4.75 ± 0.07 10.15 ± 0.07 11.20 ± 0.14 62.20 ± 0.28
Mesocarp 2.5 62.20 ± 0.14 10.80 ± 0.14 20.50 ± 0.14 21.80 ± 0.14 62.40 ± 0.00
5.0 49.65 ± 0.07 13.55 ± 0.07 17.50 ± 0.00 22.15 ± 0.07 52.20 ± 0.14
7.5 44.25 ± 0.07 14.75 ± 0.21 17.55 ± 0.35 22.80 ± 0.00 49.60 ± 0.42
Exocarp 2.5 60.17 ± 0.03 11.00 ± 0.21 18.95 ± 0.35 21.95 ± 0.00 59.6 ± 0.42
5.0 59.70 ± 1.41 11.80 ± 0.07 20.25 ± 0.00 23.45 ± 0.07 59.8 ± 0.14
7.5 46.00 ± 0.28 15.15 ± 0.14 17.00 ± 0.14 20.85 ± 0.14 50.75 ± 0.00

793
M.H. Rodiah, S. Noor Hafizah, H. Noor Asiah et al.
Table 6
The wash fastness of cotton fabrics dyed with mesocarp and exocarp of C. nucifera
dye.
Cotton fabrics Concentration of Tannic acid (%) Score of Wash Fastness
Negative control 0 NA
Positive control 0 1
Mesocarp 2.5 2 Chem. 7 (4) (2014) 23–26.
5.0 3 [5] J.S. Kumar, The psychology of colour influences consumers’ buying behaviour–
7.5 4 a diagnostic study, Ushus J. Bus. Manage. 16 (4) (2017) 1–13.
Exocarp 2.5 2 and antibacterial activity of Lawsonia inermis L. on jute fabrics by chitosan
5.0 2 pretreatment, Text. Cloth. Sustain. 3 (1) (2017) 1–10.
7.5 3 [7] M. Yusuf, M. Shahid, S.A. Khan, M.A. Khan, F. Mohammad, Dyeing studies with
Note: 5-excellent, 4-good, 3, fair, 2-poor, 1; very poor.
NA: Not applicable.
as the dye washed off the fabrics. The rating of wash fastness of
pre-mordanted cotton fabrics for mesocarp and exocarp dyes
increases from 3 to 4 and 2 to 3, respectively, after pre-
mordanted with 7.5% tannic acid. These results indicated that
7.5% of tannic acid is the best to improve the wash fastness of cot-
ton fabrics. Similar result was obtained by [34] where tannic acid
was also the best mordant after dyeing. Due to the formation of
covalent bonds with dye firmly attached to the fabric, tannic acid
provides darker shades that resist detaching after washing [34].
4. Conclusion
Natural dyes offer an environmentally safe option for colouring
of textiles materials. It was found that the natural dye from meso-
carp and exocarp of C. nucifera was best extracted by microwave-
assisted extraction using 0.8 M NaOH for 4 min. The extraction
time and concentration of NaOH influenced the production yield
of the dyes. Increased dye yield was observed as the concentration
of NaOH increased. However, the extraction process could not be
prolonged >4 min because the dye extract started to burn and des-
iccate. The colour value (L*) of dyed cotton fabrics decreased in the
pre-mordanting process using tannic acid in the order of 2.5% > 5.
0% > 7.5% for both dyes. The lower the L* value, the darker the fab-
rics’s colour. The technique of pre-mordanting gave a deeper hue
to the dyed cotton fabric compared to unmordanted fabric. In this
study, 7.5% of tannic acid is the best mordant to improve fabric col-
our and wash fastness. Pre-mordanted dyed fabrics using the
mesocarp dye displayed fair to good fastness properties. It is sug-
gested that different types of mordant should be used to assess
the dyeability of C. nucifera dye such as aluminium, copper sul-
phate, ferrous sulphate, potassium dichromate, and stannous chlo-
ride. The utilisation of C. nucifera mesocarp dye as alternatives to
synthetic dyes and auxiliaries in textile processing has a remark-
able environmental benefit.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The financial support of Geran Industri Semesta MBI (Grant
code: I/SEM-MBI/ST/2020/11) is gratefully acknowledged.
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