REGENT UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTING & ALLIED SCIENCES

(FECAS)
DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING

PROGRAMME: ENGINEERING & COMPUTER ENGINEERING

SESSION: MAIN STREAM
SEMESTER I
COURSE TITLE: ANALOGUE CIRCUITS & SYSTEMS DESIGN
COURSE CODE: SIEL 3843

ASSIGNMENT 2

INSTRUCTIONS:
a) ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS
b) Each Question Carries 20 Marks
c) All Answers Must Be In Hand-written Form (No Computerized / Typed Answers)
d) Online Submission Deadline: Friday 27th Oct. 2023 at 23:59 GMT

QN 1:
Given that a two-stage transistor amplifier, shown below, has a gain of 123.45 and an output
voltage of 67.89V.

a) State the mathematical expression for the voltage gain for this amplifier
b) Determine the input voltage of this amplifier.
Answers
a) AV=AV1×AV2=V2V1×V0V2=V0V1AV=AV1×AV2=V2V1×V0V2=V0V1
Where AV = Overall gain, AV1 = Voltage gain of 1st stage, and AV2 = Voltage
gain of 2nd stage

b) Gain = (Vout / Vin) = (Gain1 * Gain2)

Vin = Vout / Gain = 67.89V / 123.45 = 0.5499V
QN 2:
a) The term “Coupling” refers to what, as used in multi-stage amplifiers?
b) What is the purpose of coupling devices”
c) Outline the different types of coupling of amplifier stages, and show diagrams to drive
home your outlines.
Answers
a) In multi-stage amplifiers, coupling refers to the process of connecting the output of
one stage to the input of the next stage using a coupling device. The coupling device
is used to transfer the AC output of one stage to the input of the next stage and block
the DC from passing from one stage to the next stage, i.e., to isolate the DC
conditions ¹²³. The coupling device can be a capacitor or a transformer ³.
b) The purpose of coupling devices in multi-stage amplifiers is to transfer the AC output
of one stage to the input of the next stage while blocking the DC from passing from
one stage to the next stage, i.e., to isolate the DC conditions ¹²³. The coupling device
can be a capacitor or a transformer ³.
c) There are several types of coupling used in multi-stage amplifiers. The most common
types of coupling are:
 Direct Coupling: In direct coupling, the output of one stage is connected
directly to the input of the following stage. Direct coupling provides a good
frequency response since no frequency-sensitive components (inductors and
capacitors) are used. However, it has several disadvantages, including power
supply requirements, impedance matching difficulties, and low efficiency 1.
Here is a diagram of two direct-coupled transistor amplifiers:

 RC Coupling: In RC coupling, a resistor-capacitor network is used to couple

the output of one stage to the input of the next stage. The capacitor blocks the
DC component and allows only the AC component to pass through. RC
coupling is the most commonly used coupling in amplifiers because it
 provides good frequency response and is easy to implement 1. Here is a
diagram of an RC-coupled transistor amplifier:

 Transformer Coupling: In transformer coupling, a transformer is used to

couple the output of one stage to the input of the next stage. The transformer
blocks DC and allows only AC to pass through. Transformer coupling
provides good frequency response and high efficiency but is expensive and
bulky 2. Here is a diagram of a transformer-coupled amplifier:
QN 3:
a) Design, label and describe a 3-stage BJT amplifier
b) Describe how RC amplifiers function
c) Draw, label & describe freq response characteristics of an RC-coupled amplifier.
Answers
a)

Input Stage:
The input stage is responsible for providing high input impedance and moderate voltage
gain. It is usually implemented using a MOSFET or a BJT operating in common-source or
common-emitter configuration, respectively.
Intermediate Stage: The intermediate stage provides high gain and is usually implemented
using a BJT operating in common-emitter configuration.
Output Stage: The output stage provides low output resistance and buffers the high gain
stage from the relatively low value of load resistance. It is usually implemented using an
emitter-follower configuration.
b) RC amplifiers functions:
Signal Input: The AC input signal is applied to the amplifier circuit. This input
signal can be a small AC voltage or current representing the information you
want to amplify, such as an audio signal.
Blocking DC Component: The input signal may contain a DC offset (a constant
voltage component). The capacitor (C) in the RC amplifier blocks this DC
component while allowing only the AC signal to pass through. This is achieved
because capacitors have a high impedance to DC signals, effectively acting as an
open circuit, while they have a low impedance to AC signals.
 Amplification: The AC signal then enters the amplification stage, which typically
involves an active component such as a transistor (BJT or FET). The active
component amplifies the AC signal. The resistor (R) in the circuit is often used to
set the biasing and gain of the amplifier.
Output: The amplified AC signal is obtained at the output of the amplifier. It is
still AC-coupled because the DC component was blocked at the input stage.

c) An RC-coupled amplifier is a multi-stage amplifier that uses a resistor-capacitor

(RC) network to couple the output of one stage to the input of the next stage. The
capacitor blocks the DC component and allows only the AC component to pass
through. The RC coupling is the most commonly used coupling in amplifiers
because it provides good frequency response and is easy to implement.
QN. 4:
a) Outline the advantages & disadvantages of RC-Coupling amplifiers
b) Identify and discuss the applications of RC-coupled amplifiers
Answers
a) **Advantages of RC-Coupling Amplifiers:**

1. **DC Isolation:** RC-coupling provides effective DC isolation between amplifier

stages. It blocks any DC voltage at the output of one stage from affecting the biasing of
the next stage. This is essential for preserving the DC operating points and preventing DC
offsets from being amplified.

2. **Wide Frequency Response:** RC-coupling allows for a wide frequency response.

Since capacitors pass AC signals while blocking DC, it is suitable for applications where
a broad range of frequencies needs to be amplified, such as in audio amplifiers.

3. **Simplicity:** RC-coupling is a straightforward and cost-effective method of

coupling amplifier stages. It requires minimal components, making it an attractive choice
for simple amplifier designs.

4. **Ease of Design:** Designing RC-coupled amplifiers is relatively straightforward,

and it allows for easy adjustment of gain and bandwidth by selecting appropriate resistor
and capacitor values.

5. **Improved Linearity:** In multi-stage amplifiers, RC-coupling can help maintain

linearity by isolating the individual stages. This can be especially important when high
levels of distortion need to be avoided.

Disadvantages of RC-Coupling Amplifiers:

 1. **Cutoff Frequency:** The RC network imposes a cutoff frequency, which limits the
bandwidth of the amplifier. Above this frequency, the gain decreases, and phase shifts
occur. This can be a limitation in applications that require amplification of higher-
frequency signals.

2. **Phase Shift:** RC-coupled amplifiers introduce phase shifts, especially at higher

frequencies. This can affect the phase accuracy of the amplified signal, which is critical
in some applications, such as communication systems.

3. **Signal Attenuation:** The RC network can introduce signal attenuation, particularly

at lower frequencies. This can reduce the low-frequency response of the amplifier,
affecting the fidelity of audio signals.

4. **Component Tolerances:** The performance of RC-coupled amplifiers is sensitive to

component tolerances, particularly for capacitors and resistors. Small variations in
component values can lead to variations in amplifier characteristics.

5. **Signal Distortion:** In some cases, the introduction of phase shifts and signal
attenuation can lead to signal distortion, especially when dealing with complex
waveforms.

b) RC-coupled amplifiers are widely used in a variety of applications where amplifying AC

signals while providing DC isolation is essential. The advantages and characteristics of RC-
coupled amplifiers make them suitable for specific use cases. Here are some common
applications of RC-coupled amplifiers:

1. **Audio Amplification:** RC-coupled amplifiers are commonly used in audio amplifiers.

They can amplify audio signals, such as those from microphones, musical instruments, or audio
sources, while blocking any DC offset present in the signal. This is crucial for preserving audio
quality and preventing speaker damage due to DC voltage.

2. **Public Address (PA) Systems:** In PA systems used for public announcements and large-
scale sound distribution, RC-coupled amplifiers are employed to amplify the audio signals from
microphones, instruments, or preamplifiers. The DC isolation prevents audio distortion and
damage to speakers.

3. **Radio Frequency (RF) Amplification:** In RF circuits, RC-coupled amplifiers can be used

for amplifying RF signals within a certain frequency range. The RC network can be designed to
provide appropriate bandwidth for RF applications, while also providing the necessary isolation
from DC biasing.

4. **Signal Processing in Analog Electronics:** RC-coupled amplifiers can be used in analog

electronic circuits for signal processing applications, such as filtering and signal conditioning.
The coupling technique ensures that the DC component is blocked, allowing for accurate signal
processing.

5. **Instrumentation Amplifiers:** RC-coupled amplifiers are employed in instrumentation

amplifiers for applications that require precise measurements, such as medical devices, industrial
sensors, and scientific instrumentation. The DC isolation helps maintain signal integrity and
accuracy.

QN. 5:
a) What is “Transformer Coupling” why the need for it in amplifiers?
b) Outline the advantages & disadvantages of transformer coupling
c) Draw, label, & describe the freq response of a transformer-coupled amplifier.
Answer
"Transformer coupling" refers to the use of a transformer in an amplifier circuit to
couple or connect the input and output of the amplifier stages. This technique is
commonly used in audio amplifiers and some radio-frequency (RF) amplifiers. The
primary purpose of transformer coupling in amplifiers is to perform several
important functions:

1. Impedance Matching: Transformers can be designed to match the input and

output impedance of different stages of an amplifier. Impedance matching is
important because it allows for maximum power transfer between the stages,
reducing signal loss and maximizing efficiency.

2. Voltage Step-Up or Step-Down: Transformers can step up (increase) or step down

(decrease) the voltage level of the signal. This can be useful for adapting signals
from one stage of the amplifier to another, especially when dealing with different
voltage levels between input and output.

3. Galvanic Isolation: Transformers provide galvanic isolation between the input

and output, which means there is no direct electrical connection between the two
sides. This can be important in applications where it's desirable to electrically
isolate two circuits to prevent ground loops, reduce interference, or enhance safety.

4. DC Blocking: Transformers inherently block direct current (DC) from passing

from the input to the output. This is useful in amplifiers where you want to pass
only the alternating current (AC) signal and avoid any DC component, which could
affect the biasing and operation of the amplifier stages.

5. Signal Coupling: Transformers efficiently transfer the AC signal from one coil
(primary) to another coil (secondary) without direct electrical contact. This ensures
that the input and output signals are coupled, allowing amplification while
maintaining electrical separation.

b) Transformer coupling is a method of coupling two circuits using a transformer.

Here are some advantages and disadvantages of transformer coupling:

**Advantages:**
- The transformer-coupled amplifier provides a higher voltage gain than that of
R.C. coupled amplifier ¹.
- It gives an excellent impedance matching between the stages ¹.
- There is loss of signal power in the collector or base resistors because the DC
resistance of the primary winding is very low ¹.

**Disadvantages:**
- It has poor frequency response ¹.
- It introduces frequency distortion when used at radio frequencies ¹.
- The coupling transformer is expensive, bulky and large when used at audio
frequencies ¹.
- The transformer introduces losses in the form of copper loss, eddy current loss
and hysteresis loss at high frequencies ¹.

c)

The potential divider network R1 and R2 and the resistor

Re together form the biasing and stabilization network. The
emitter by-pass capacitor Ce offers a low reactance path to the
signal. The resistor RL is used as a load impedance. The input
 capacitor Cin present at the initial stage of the amplifier couples
AC signal to the base of the transistor. The capacitor C C is the
coupling capacitor that connects two stages and prevents DC
interference between the stages and controls the shift of
operating point.

QN. 6:
a) Design, label, & describe a two-stage transformer-coupled amplifier
b) State how the output voltage of the amplifier in (a) above can be determined, explain
each parameter used, & indicate their SI Units.
Answer
a)

The potential divider network R1 and R2 and the resistor

Re together form the biasing and stabilization network. The
emitter by-pass capacitor Ce offers a low reactance path to the
signal. The resistor RL is used as a load impedance. The input
capacitor Cin present at the initial stage of the amplifier couples
AC signal to the base of the transistor. The capacitor C C is the
coupling capacitor that connects two stages and prevents DC
interference between the stages and controls the shift of
operating point.
c) To determine the output voltage of a two-stage transformer-
coupled amplifier, you need to consider the parameters
involved in the amplification process and the characteristics of
the amplifier stages. The output voltage can be calculated
using the following formula:

**V_out = (V_in * A1 * A2 * N1 * N2)**

Where:
- V_out is the output voltage of the amplifier (in volts, V).
- V_in is the input voltage to the amplifier (in volts, V).
- **A1** is the voltage gain of the first amplifier stage
(dimensionless).
- A2 is the voltage gain of the second amplifier stage
(dimensionless).
- N1 is the turns ratio of the transformer in the first stage
(dimensionless).
- N2 is the turns ratio of the transformer in the second stage
(dimensionless).

Let's explain each parameter and its SI units:

1. V_out (Output Voltage): This is the voltage level at the

output of the amplifier, which represents the amplified signal.
It is measured in volts (V).

2. V_in (Input Voltage): This is the voltage level at the input of

the amplifier, which is the signal you want to amplify. It is
measured in volts (V).

3. A1 (Voltage Gain of the First Stage): This is the

amplification factor of the first amplifier stage. It is
dimensionless, as it represents a ratio of output voltage to
input voltage without units.
 4. A2 (Voltage Gain of the Second Stage): This is the
amplification factor of the second amplifier stage, also
dimensionless.

5. N1 (Turns Ratio of the First Transformer): This is the ratio

of the number of turns in the primary coil of the first
transformer to the number of turns in the secondary coil. It is
dimensionless.

6. N2 (Turns Ratio of the Second Transformer): Similarly, this

is the ratio of the number of turns in the primary coil of the
second transformer to the number of turns in the secondary
coil, also dimensionless.

To calculate the output voltage, you multiply the input voltage

by the product of the voltage gains of the two amplifier stages
and the products of the turns ratios of the two transformers.

It's worth noting that this formula assumes ideal conditions,

and real-world amplifiers may have non-ideal characteristics,
losses, and other factors that can affect the actual output
voltage. However, this formula provides a simplified way to
estimate the output voltage of a two-stage transformer-
coupled amplifier.

QN 7:
a) What do you understand by the term “Direct-Coupling” in amplifiers?
b) When do we use the direct-coupling method in amplifiers? Give only 2 examples
c) Design, label, & describe a 3-stage direct-coupled amplifier
Answer
a) Direct coupling is a method of coupling two circuits using a direct connection
between the output of one stage and the input of the next stage, without any
intervening transformer or capacitor 12. It is the simplest and most common
form of coupling between successive stages in electronic amplifiers 2. The output
of one stage is connected directly to the input of the next stage, without any
 intervening transformer or capacitor 2. Direct coupling is usually the cheapest
and most reliable method of coupling between successive stages 2.
The advantages of direct-coupled amplifiers are:
 The circuit arrangement is simple because of minimum use of resistors.
 The circuit is of low cost because of the absence of expensive coupling
devices 32.
 The disadvantages of direct-coupled amplifiers are:
 It cannot be used for amplifying high frequencies 32.
 The operating point is shifted due to temperature variations 2.
b) Direct coupling is a simple and inexpensive method of coupling between
successive stages in electronic amplifiers 1. It is usually used when the load is
connected in series with the output terminal of the active circuit element 23.
Here are two examples of when direct coupling is used:
 Headphones: Direct-coupled amplifiers are used in headphone amplifiers
because they provide useful gain at zero frequency 1.
 Loudspeakers: Direct-coupled amplifiers are also used in loudspeaker
amplifiers because they provide useful gain at zero frequency and
minimize capacitance to ground at certain critical nodes, which is of
primary concern for high-frequency amplifiers 1.

c)

The output of first stage transistor T1 is connected to the input of

second stage transistor T2. The transistor in the first stage will be an
NPN transistor, while the transistor in the next stage will be a PNP
transistor and so on. This is because, the variations in one transistor
tend to cancel the variations in the other. The rise in the collector
current and the variation in β of one transistor gets cancelled by the
decrease in the other.

QN 8:
Prepare a table to compare the characteristics of the different types of coupling methods
Answer

Here is a table comparing the characteristics of different types of coupling methods:

Coupling
Advantages Disadvantages
Method

Direct
Simple and inexpensive Poor impedance matching
Coupling

Capacitive
No DC path between stages Low voltage gain
Coupling

Inductive
High voltage gain Poor frequency response
Coupling

Excellent impedance Poor frequency response, expensive

Transformer
matching, high voltage and bulky at audio frequencies,
Coupling
gain, low signal power loss introduces losses at high frequencies

GOOD LUCK