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Content:
Topic 2: • Policy Making / Decision Making Theories
1. Elite Theory
2. Group Theory
Theoretical Perspective of Policy 3. Political System Theory
4. Neo-Institutional Theory
5. Rational-Choice Theory
6. Incremental Theory
• Differences and similarities between the theories
Theoretical Perspective of Public
Policy Making

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Lesson Outcome References

At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
• Hogwood B.W & Gunn, L.A. (1984): Chapter 4
1. Describes policy-making and decision-making process, • Cochran, C. L. & Malone, E. F. (2005)
policy implementation, and policy change according to • Aderson, J. E. (2011)
theories
2. Identify the difference theories of policy-making and
decision-making, their strengths and weaknessess
3. Know the agencies, actors, and their roles in policy-
making

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Introduction Elite Theory / Pluralist Model

• Political & Social Science Scholars developed many
theories / models to describes policy-making / decision- This theory describes
making policy making in the
context of US pluralist
• These theories explained the reality of policy-making in a society.
simplified and generalize form by making assumptions (society is grouped base
and hypothesis. on socio-economic
stratification)
• Thus, a theory has its own strengths and weaknesses in
explaining the reality of policy decision making of a state

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Basic assumption of Elite Theory Policy making process / procedures

Society comprises of 3 main groups:
Elite
§Small group that belong to
the upper class of society
§ They composed of people
with wealth, intelligence, and
skills.
§ They have political power.
§They make policy
§They have their own values
which is different from the
massess
according to Elite theory
The Elites make policy decision as follows:
Masses Administrators
• By making small changes to the earlier decisions/policy. Why?
§Powerless group in a They implement
society, policy
Constraints of resources, expertise & time.
§Largest group in the § By shaping massess opinion. How? and why?
society. (refer basic assumtion)
§They are passive,
apathetic, ill-informed,
§ by making decision base on their preferences, priorities,
§ They have no power and values (nilai) and interests towards some problem instead of
easily manipulated. the massess. Why?
§They follow and obey (refer basic assumtion)
decision made by the
elites

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Strengths and weakness of

Elite theory in explaining policy making
• Theory clearly describe who policy maker are and how they
make decision, but not explaining policy making of the new
policy
• Public policy not reflective of public demand, but rather a
product of the elites values
Reflection – class activity 1
• Who make policy according to Elite theory? why? &
How?
• Compared to reality and in the context of Malaysia,
states two strengths and weaknesses of Elite theory
in explaining policy making

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Group Theory (Equilibrium Model) Basic assumption of Group Theory:

The theory assumed there are many groups in the society known as interest
groups that fights to preserved their interest:
Similar to elite
theory, this • Each group comprises of individuals who shared same interest and
theory also attitude
describes policy • Group make claims upon other groups to preserve / fights to improve its
interest (public problem of its concern).
making in the
• Fights among groups causes inequiliubrium in the society
context of US • Government resolve this inequiliumbrium by making policy decision
pluralist society • The administrator (executive) implement this policy decision.
• The judiciary makes sure this policy decision is implemented according to
rules / procedures made by the legislative.
• This policy decision is actually a public policy

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Policy making process according to Group Theory Strengths and weakness of

• Groups influences government decision makers to shape
decisions that would protect / preserved interest of the group.
• Some groups able to influence decision makers more; some
able to influence less and some are not able to influence at all.
This process of influencing is known as group struggle.
• Group struggle causes inequilibrium in a society
• Government will act as a referee toward group struggle by
making decisions that could accomodate interest of all group.
• The decision made will resolve conflict / struggle between
group. The decision is known as policy decision
Group Theory in explaining policy-making
§ The theory not clearly described how government reacted
towards group struggle and make policy decision.
§ How groups influence decision makers also not clearly
described
§ The theory assumed members of society are represented by
their own group. However, in reality many people in the
society are not represented / poorly represented.
§ Group is not the only influencing factor in policy making as
the theory assumed. Other factors such as idea and the
institution also influence policy decision-making significantly.

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Political System Theory

Reflection – class activity 2
• Who make policy according to group theory? why? &
How?
• Compared to reality and in the context of Malaysia,
states two strengths and weaknesses of group theory
in explaining policy-making

This theory assumed public policy is the output /

outcome from political system responses to the
demand arising from its environment

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Basic assumption of System Theory Policy making process according to System Theory
No Assumptions
Elements Explanations • Policy is formulated within the political system (black
1 Input come from the environment , comprises of demand / box) but no description given on how political system
support (example: when people pay tax, obey makes decision
regulations/decisions made by government)
2 Political government institutions and political process • Policy making is influence by political system responses
system (black to its environmet (refer diagram – Easton)
box)
3 Output decisions / laws / rules) = policy

4 Environment anything outside political system that influence input and

output. Example: changes in IT, social, demography,
economy)
5 Feedback public responses towards output

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Strengths and weaknesses of
System theory in explaining policy making
• The theory suggest policy decision is made by the
political system, but its roles and functions is not clearly
described
• The theory not focusing on the process and procedure of
making policy, rather on factors that influence policy
making / policy decision-making.
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Incremental Theory
Policy is made by making small modification
to the existing / previous policy. The
modification made is known as policy
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Policy making process according to Incremental
Theory
• Policy is made by modifying existing / previous policy through a
muddling through decision-making process. i.e.
• decision maker revise previous policy and make new decision
by making small modification to the existing policy.
• Why?
o Constraints of time, expertise, cost, information
o Political constraints - policy decision must ensure stability
and continuity of government
o To achieve political goal (policy objective vs political goal)
• The muddling process is done continiously
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Reflection – class activity 3
• Who make policy according to system theory? why?
& How?
• Compared to reality and in the context of Malaysia,
states two strengths and weaknesses of system
theory in explaining policy-making
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Basic assumption of Incremental Theory:
• Existence of plularist society
• Policy is made by policy maker (the administrators /
legislators).
• Policy maker makes decision to achieve policy goal /
objective
• Policy is made through a ‘muddling through
‘ decision-making process.
• Policy making is a continous improvement process
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The muddling through process?
o without considering / knowing alternative, their effects
and without knowing society’s goal.
o Administrator who acted as the third party applying a
‘give and take’ approach and have ‘mutual
understanding’ with the politician and the various groups
in the society (muddling through) before making changes
o Administrator accomodating the various groups needs in
the society & politician interest / demand
o Purpose of making decision through muddling through is
to achieve policy goals and objectives
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Strengths and weakness of

Incremental Theory in explaining policy-making
§ Decision making is clearly explained i. e. through a muddling
through process.
§ Indicates that policy making is a remedial and serial proces
• Indicates a conservative policy making – good - if government
wants to maintain status qou. Not good if government wants
to introduce major changes/innovation
• Policy is formulated by administrators by ‘playing give and
take’ game is not reflective of the general practice of policy-
making
Reflection – class activity 6
• Who make policy according to Incremental theory, How,
and Why?
• Compared to reality and in the context of Malaysia,
states two strengths and weaknesses of Incremental
theory in explaining policy making

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Differences Between Theories The end

Reflection / Formative Test: Refer the six theories, states the Thank you
differences between them in the following aspects of policy
decision making:
• Who make policy?
• What / Which policy making agencies / institutions involved
in making policy
• How to make policy decision?
• What factors influence policy-making process / decision /
policy maker in making decision
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of the theories
in explaining public policy-making