Processing & Analysis of Data

After the collection of data from primary or secondary sources,

arrangement is done so that the same may be analyzed & interpreted
with the help of statistical tools.
Software packages used: MS Excel, SPSS (Software Packages for
Social Sciences), Google Docs etc.

Data editing
Data editing is a process by which collected data is examined to detect
any errors or omissions and further these are corrected as much as
possible before proceeding further.
Editing is of two types:- 1. Field Editing ; 2. Central Editing
FIELD EDITING:- This is a type of editing that relates to abbreviated or
illegible written form of gathered data. Such editing is more effective
when done on same day or the very next day after the interview. The
investigator must not jump to conclusion while doing field editing.
CENTRAL EDITING:- Such type of editing relates to the time when all
data collection process has been completed. Here a single or common
editor corrects the errors like entry in the wrong place, entry in wrong
unit etc. As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the
final results.
Benefits of data editing
• The data obtained is complete in all respects.
• It is accurate in terms of information recorded and responses
sought.
• The response format is in the form that was instructed.
• The data is structured in a manner that entering the information
will not be a problem.

Classification of data
Classification of the data implies that the collected raw data is
categorized into common group having common feature.
Data having common characteristics are placed in a common group.
The entire data collected is categorized into various groups or classes,
which convey a meaning to the researcher.
Classification is done in two ways:- 1. Classification according to
attributes ; 2. Classification according to the class intervals.
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING THE ATTRIBUTES
Here the data is classified on the basis of common characteristics that
can be descriptive Ese literacy. sex, honesty, marital status etc.
Descriptive features are qualitative in nature and cannot be measured
quantitatively but are kindly considered while making an analysis.

CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF INTERVAL

The numerical feature of data can be measured quantitatively and
analyzed with the help of some statistical unit like the data relating to
income, production, age, weight etc. come under this category. This type
of data is known as statistics of variables and the data is classified by
way of intervals.
TABULATION of data
Tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in rows and columns.
Tabulation summarizes the raw data and displays data in form of some
statistical tables.

Uni-Variate Analysis
Univariate analysis refers to the analysis of one variable at a time. The
commonest approaches are as follows: time.
1. Frequency tables
2. Measures of central tendency:
• Arithmetic mean
• Median
• Mode
3. Diagrams:
• Bar charts
• Pie charts
• Histograms
 4. Measures of dispersion:
• Range
• Mean deviation
• Standard deviation

Bivariate Analysis
Bivariate analysis is concerned with the analysis of two variables at a
time in order to uncover whether the two variables are related
Main types:- 1. Simple Correlation ; 2. Simple Regression ; 3. Two-Way
ANOVA

Multi-Variate Analysis
Mutivariate analysis entails the simultaneous analysis of three or more
variables
Main Types:- 1. Multiple Correlation ; 2. Multiple Regression ; 3. Multi-
ANOVA

Causal Analysis
Causal analysis is concerned with the study of how one or more
variables affect changes in another variables.
Inferential Analysis
Inferential analysis is concerned with the testing the hypothesis and
estimating the population values based on the sample values.

PARAMETRIC TESTS :- These tests depends upon assumptions typically

that the population(s) from which data are randomly sampled have a
normal distribution. Types of parametric tests are:
1. 1-test ; 2. z-test ; 3. F-test ; 4. x2-test
Non parametric Test:- Do Not Involve Population Parameters
Example: Probability Distributions, Independence
Data Measured on Any Scale:- Ratio or Interval, Ordinal or Nominal

DATA COLLECTION:-

What is Data Collection?

>It is the process by which the researcher collects the information
needed to answer the research problem
>The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been
defined and research design chalked out.
In collecting the data, the researcher must decide:
>Which data to collect? >How to collect the Data? >Who will collect the
Data? >When to collect the Data?

The selection of a method for collecting information depends upon the :-

>Resources available
➤Credibility
> Analysis and reporting >Resources
And the skill of the evaluator

Methods of Data Collection

Essentialy Two Types:
>Primary Data
Primary data are those which are collected for the first time and are
original in character.
Secondary Data
Secondary data are those which have already been collected by
someone else and which have through some statistical analysis.

Collection of Primary Data

Primary Data may be collected through:
> Experiments
➤ Surveys (sample surveys or census surveys)
> Interviews
Observation
> Questionnaires ; Schedule

Collection of Primary Data

Of the above, the important ones are:
1. Observation Method 2. Interview Method 3. Questionnaires
4. Schedules
 1. Observation Method
Observation method is a method under which data from the field is
collected with the help of observation by the observer or by personally
going to the field.
In the words of P.V Young "Observation may be defined as systematic
viewing, coupled with consideration of seen phenomenon."

Steps For An Effective Observation

1.Determine what needs to be observed ; 2.Select participants ;
3.Random/Selected ; 4.Conduct the observation (venue, duration,
recording materials, take photographs) ;
5.Compile data collected ; 6.Analyze and interpret data collected

Classification-1:-
>Structured Observation:-
When the observation is characterized by a careful definition of the
units to be observed, the style of recording the observed information,
standardized conditions of observation and the selection of related data
of observation.

>Unstructured Observation:-
When it takes place without the above characteristics.

Classification-2:-
>Participant Observation:-
When the observer is member of the group which he is observing then
it is Participant Observation.

>Non-Participant Observation:-
When observer is observing people without giving any information to
them then it is Non-Paricipant Observation.

Classification-3 :-
>Uncontrolled Observation:-
When the observation takes place in natural contition i.e., uncontrolled
observation.It is done to get spontaneous picture of life and persons.

> Controlled Observation:-

When observation takes place according to pre arranged plans, with
experimental procedure then it is controlled observation generally done
in laboratory under controlled condition.
Advantages of Observation:-
>Produces Large quantities of data.
> All data obtained from observations are usable.
>The observation technique can be stopped or begun at any time.
>Relative Inexpensive

Disadvantages of observation:-
>Interviewing selected subjects may provide more information,
economically, than waiting for the spontaneous occurance of the
situation.
>It is expensive method. >Limited information. >Extensive Training is
needed.

2.Interview Method
>The Interview Method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-
verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral- verbal responses.
>Interviewer asks questions (which are aimed to get information
required for study) to respondent.

Steps For An Effective Interview:-

• Prepare interview schedule
• Select subjects/ key Respondant
• Conduct the interview
• Analyze and interpret data collected from the interview

Classifications:-
>Structured Interviews:
In this case, a set of predecided questions are there.
>Unstructured Interviews:
In this case, we don't follow a system of pre-determined questions.
>Focused Interviews:
Attention is focused on the given experience of the respondent and its
possible effects.

>Clinical Interviews:
Concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the
course of an individual's life experience.
> Group Interviews:- A group of 6 to 8 individuals is interviewed.
Qualitative and quantitative Interviews:- Divided on the basis of subject
matter i.e., whether qualitative or quantitative.
>Individual Interviews:- Interviewer meets a single person and
interviews him.
>Selection Interviews:- Done for selection of people for certain Jobs.

Advantages:-
>More information at greater depth can be obtained
> Resistance may be overcome by a skilled interviewer
>Personal information can be obtained
Disadvantages:-
It is an expensive Method
> Interviewer bias. >Respondent bias. >Time consuming.

3.Questionnaires:-
➤ A Questionnaire is sent ( by post or by mail) to the persons
concerned with a request to answer the questions and return the
Questionnaire.
A Questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed in a definite
order on a form.

Steps For An Effective Questionnaire

1.Prepare questions (Formulate & choose types of questions, order
them, write instructions, make copies)
2.Select your respondents Random/Selected
3.Administer the questionnaire (date, venue, time)
4.Tabulate data collected
5.Analyze and interpret data collected

Classifications:-
>Open-ended questions:-
This gives the respondents the ability to respond in their own words.
➤Close-ended or fixed alternative questions:-
This allows the respondents to choose one of the given alternatives.
Types:- Dichotomous questions and Multiple Questions.

Essentials of Good Questionnaire:-

Should be short and simple
►Follow a sequence of questions from easy to difficult one
>Technical terms should be avoided
►Should provide adequate space for answers in questionnaire
>Directions regarding the filling of questionnaire should be given
Physical Appearance - Quality of paper, Color
>Sequence must be clear
Advantages:-
>Low cost -even when the universe is large and is widespread Free
from interviewer bias
> Responddents have adequate time to think through the answers.
> Respondents who are not easily approachable, can also be reached
convieniently.
>Large samples can be used.

Disadvantages:-
>Time consuming
>The respondents need to be educated and cooperative
>This method is slow
>Possibility of unclear replies

4.Schedules
>Very similar to Questionnaire method
>The main difference is that a schedule is filled by the enumerator who
is specially appointed for the purpose.
>Enumerator goes to the respondents, asks them the questions from
the Questionnaire in the order listed, and records the responses in the
space provided.
>Enumerator must be trained in administering the schedule.

Questionnaire Vs. Schedule

Questionnaire:
>Q generally send to through mail
and no further assistance from sender.
>Q is cheaper method.
>Non response is high
>Incomplete and wrong information is more.
>Depends on the quality of questionnaire

Schedule:-
>Schedule is filled by the enumerator or research worker.
>Costly requires field workers.
>Non response is low
➤Depends on Honesty of the enumerator.
>Relatively more correct and complete
The Research Problem and objectives:-
The Research Problem .5 factors to consider to determine that a
problem is researchable or not.
1. The problem existing in the locality or country but no known solution
to the problem.
2. The solution can be answered by using statistical methods and
techniques.
3. There are probable solutions but they are not yet tested.
4. The occurrence of phenomena requires scientific investigation to
arrive at precise solution.
5. Serious needs/problems of the people where it demands research.

Research objectives:-
Research objectives are a specification of the ultimate reason for
carrying out research in the first place. They help in developing a
specific list of information needs. Only when the researcher knows the
problem that management wants to solve can the research project be
designed to provide the pertinent information.

Characteristics and source of a Research Problem:-

>Specific. The problem should be specifically tested
>Measurable. It is easy to measure by using research instruments,
apparatus or equipment.
>Achievable. The data are achievable using correct statistical tools to
arrive at precise results.
>Realistic. Real results are attained because they are gathered
scientifically and not manipulated or maneuvered.
>Time-bound. Time frame is required in every activity because the
shorter completion of the activity, the better.
Sources of Research Problem:-
1. Specialization of the researcher.
2. Current and past researches.
3. Recommendations from theses, dissertations, and research journals.
4. Original and creative ideas of the researcher based on the problems
met in the locality and country.
Identification of Research Problem:-
Identification of research problem is the first step in a scientific method
for conducting a research. To initiate a research, there should be pre-
occurred ideas that generated the necessity for the research to be
carried out. The ideas are developed while going though literatures,
discourses with experts and continuation of activities related to the
subject matter. These ideas develop into some specific topics that will
be interesting or rewarding if investigated. These topics generally called
problems.
Some guidelines for selecting problems. The problem should be such in
which the researcher may be deeply interested.
The problem should be related with the chain of thinking. Stray
problems can mislead the whole research project.
The problem selected should not necessarily be new one. It may be old
problem or one on which work has already been done i.e., verification of
old problem may be equally useful.
The problem should be within manageable limits i.e. it should not be too
comprehensive.
TYPES OF OBJECTIVES
A.Broad objective or general-States what is to be achieved by the study
in general terms.
Usually only one per study Related to core problem and topic of the
study Shows target population and place
Example. To determine the factors associated with increased number of
diarrhea cases among under fives in X village
B. Specific objective-it is short in term and small to focus general
objective can broken in small general objective completed by specific
objective and Describe the variables that are measured by the study
Several in one study
Use action verb
Example. To find out methods used for excreta disposal
To find out methods used for water treatment To determine the feeding
habits of the under fives
Determining of the objective:-
objective is clear concern and declarative sentence whichprovide
direction to investigate solution or variable
Characteristic of objective _The objectives of a project should be
"SMART." They should be.
Specific:- clear about what, where, when, and how the situation will be
changed;
Measurable:- able to quantify the targets and benefits;
Achievable:- able to attain the objectives (knowing the resources and
capacities at the disposal of the community);
Realistic:- able to obtain the level of change reflected in the objective;
and
Time bound:- stating the time period in which they will each be
accomplished.

MEAN MEDIAN AND MODE

What is Median?
Generally median represents the mid-value of the given set of data
when arranged in a particular order.
Median: Given that the data collection is arranged in ascending or
descending order, the following method is applied:
•If number of values or observations in the given data is odd, then the
median is given by [(n+1)/2]th observation.
•If in the given data set, the number of values or observations is even,
then the median is given by the average of (n/2)th and [(n/2) +1]th
observation.

The median for grouped data can be calculated using the formula:-
Median = l+((N/2-cf)/2)×h

What is Mode?
The most frequent number occurring in the data set is known as the
mode.
Mode=l+((f1-f0)/(2f1-f0-f1))*h

What is Mean?
Mean is the most commonly used measure of central tendency. It
actually represents the average of the given collection of data. It is
applicable for both continuous and discrete data.
It is equal to the sum of all the values in the collection of data divided by
the total number of values.
Suppose we have n values in a set of data namely as X1, X2, X3, ..., Xn,
then the mean of data is given by:-
X =( x1+x2+x3+x4...xn)/n
Criteria in the Selection of the Research Topic
1. Brainstorm for ideas.
2. Choose a topic that will enable you to read and understand the
Iiterature.
3. Ensure that the topic is manageable a available. and that material is
4. Make a list of the key words. ; 5. Be flexible
6. Define your topic as a focused research question. ; 7. Research and
read more about your topic. ; 8. Formulate a thesis statement
1. Brainstorm for ideas :-Choose a topic that interests you.
2. Read General Background Information:- Reading a broad summary
enables you to get an overview of the topic and see how your ideas
relate to broader, narrower and related issues.
3. Focus on your topic and keep it manageable
4. Make a List of Useful Keyword:- Keep track of the words that are
used to describe your topic.
5. Be Flexible:- It is common to modify your topic during the research
process.
6. Define your topic as a focused research question. You often begin with
a word. Develop a more focused interest relating to that Word.
Guidelines in the Selection of a Research Topic:-
1. It must be chosen by the researcher himself
2. It must be within the researcher's interest
3. It must be within the researcher's specialization
4. It must be within the researcher' competence
5. It must be within the researcher's financial capability
6. It must be researchable and manageable
7. It can be completed within reasonable period of time
8. It must be relevant, significant, and important to the present time
9. The results are practical and implementable
10. Requires original, critical, and reflective thinking
11. Can be delimited to suit researcher's resources
12. It must contribute to the national development
13. It must contribute to the human knowledge
14. It must pave a way for the solution of problems
15. It must not undermine moral and spiritual values
16. It must not advocate any change through violent means
17. There must be return of some kind to the researcher
18. There must be consideration of the hazards involved (physical,
social, or legal)