Exercise Sheet 8

Exercise 1

𝑊𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑓 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑐 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠:

0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
⎛0 0 0 0 1 1 1⎞ ⎛1 1 0 0 1 0 1⎞ ⎛1 1 0 1 1 0 1⎞
1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜
⎜0 0 0 0 1 1 1⎟ 2 ⎜1 1 0 0 0 1 1⎟ 3 ⎜1 0 1 0 0 1 1⎟
⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜1 1 1 1 0 0 0⎟ ⎜0 1 1 0 0 1 1⎟ ⎜0 0 1 0 0 1 1⎟
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
⎝1 1 1 1 0 0 0⎠ ⎝1 0 1 1 1 0 0⎠ ⎝0 1 1 1 1 0 0⎠
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
⎛0 0 0 1 1 1 1⎞
4 ⎜
⎜1 1 1 0 0 0 0⎟
⎟
⎜1 1 1 0 0 0 0⎟
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
⎝1 1 1 0 0 0 0⎠
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 1 ℎ𝑎𝑠 4 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 3 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 4 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 2 ℎ𝑎𝑠 1 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 5 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠, 5 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 4 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 3 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 3 ℎ𝑎𝑠 1 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 5 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠, 5 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 4 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 3 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 4 ℎ𝑎𝑠 4 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 3 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 4 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠.
We can see, that graph1 and graph4 both have a bipartite structure, and both of them have similar
number of nodes and links between them: 3 nodes connected to 4 other nodes, which leads us to
isomorphism between graph1 and graph4.
graph1 and graph2 or graph3 are not isomorphic, because their nodes have different degrees, what
could be shown through degree sequences:
graph1 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4 ; graph2 5, 4, 4, 4, 4, 3, 4 ; graph3 4, 4, 5, 4, 3, 4, 4 .
And thus we already know, that graph1 and graph4 nodes have similar degrees and connections, nor are
graph2 and graph3 isomorphic to graph4.
Isomorphism of 1 and 4:
Adjacency:
0 → 4,5,6
𝐷 → 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶
1 → 4,5,6
𝑋 → 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶
2 → 4,5,6
𝑌 → 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶
3 → 4,5,6
𝑍 → 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶
4 → 0,1,2,3
𝐴 → 𝐷, 𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍
5 → 0,1,2,3
𝐵 → 𝐷, 𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍
6 → 0,1,2,3
𝐶 → 𝐷, 𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍
Isomorphism:
𝑓 0 𝐷
𝑓 1 𝑋
𝑓 2 𝑌
𝑓 3 𝑍
𝑓 4 𝐴
𝑓 5 𝐵
𝑓 6 𝐶
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
𝐷 𝑋 𝑌 𝑍 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Isomorphism of 2 and 3:
Adjacency:
1 → 2,3,4,5,6
𝑐 → 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑔
2 → 1,3,4,5
𝑑 → 𝑎, 𝑐, 𝑓, 𝑔
3 → 1,2,5,8
𝑎 → 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑓
4 → 1,2,7,8
𝑏 → 𝑎, 𝑐, 𝑓, 𝑔
5 → 2,3,7,8
𝑓 → 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑑, 𝑒
7 → 1,5,4
𝑒 → 𝑐, 𝑓, 𝑔
8 → 1,3,4,5
𝑔 → 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒
Isomorphism:
𝑓 1 𝑐
𝑓 2 𝑑
𝑓 3 𝑎
𝑓 4 𝑏
𝑓 5 𝑓
𝑓 7 𝑒
𝑓 8 𝑔
1 2 3 4 5 7 8
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 𝑔
Exercise 2:
1 8|𝐸 𝐺 | 1
𝜒 𝐺
2 2
First, we need to define the terms:
∗ 𝜒 𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝐺, 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝐺, 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑠.
∗ |𝐸 𝐺 | 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐺.
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝐺 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑. 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠:
1 8|𝐸 𝐺 | 1
𝜒 𝐺
2 2
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑘 𝜒 𝐺 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐺. 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑘 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑘 ⌊𝑘⌋, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑘 𝑘 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒:
1 8|𝐸 𝐺 | 1
𝑘 𝜒 𝐺
2 2
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡:
1 8|𝐸 𝐺 | 1
𝑘
2 2
𝑖𝑓 𝑤𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡:
1 8|𝐸 𝐺 | 1
𝑘
2 4
1 1
𝑘 2|𝐸 𝐺 |
2 4
𝑖𝑓 𝑤𝑒 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑦 4 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡:
1
4 𝑘 8|𝐸 𝐺 | 1
2
1
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, 𝑘 0 𝑠𝑜:
2
1
4 𝑘 0
2
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜:
1
4 𝑘 8|𝐸 𝐺 | 1
2
1 8|𝐸 𝐺 | 1
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝜒 𝐺 . 𝑆𝑜 𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒
2 2
𝑤𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑔. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝐺:
1 8|𝐸 𝐺 | 1
𝜒 𝐺 , 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡.
2 2
𝛼 𝐺 1,4,6,9 ; 𝜔 𝐺 0; 𝜒 𝐺 4; 𝛿 𝐺 4

Maximimal Indepen ndent Set 𝛼 𝐺 :

An inndependent set s in a graph h is a set of vertices
v wheere no two veertices are ad djacent. A maaximal
indep pendent set isi an indepen ndent set tha hat cannot bee enlarged byy adding morre vertices.
The ggiven set 1, 4, 6, 9 is a sets of verticees from the graph gr G. To prove
pr that it is
i a maximall independen nt
set, w
we need to sh how that no additional
a vertices
ve b added to it without vio
can be olating the coondition that
at
no twwo vertices are
a adjacent.
Let'ss check each vertex
v in thee set:
Verteex 1: It is nott adjacent to vertices 2, 3, 3 7, or 8.
Verteex 4: It is nott adjacent to vertices 3, 6, 6 9, or 10.
Verteex 6: It is nott adjacent to vertices 11 or o 12.
Verteex 9: It is nott adjacent to vertices 10 or o 11.
Nonee of the verticices in the set
et are adjacen ther or any otther verticess not includeed in the set.
nt to each oth
Thererefore, the set
et 1, 4, 6, 9 isi an indepen ndent set. Sin
ince we cannnot add any more
m vertices
es without
violat
ating the indeependence property,
p it iss a maximal independent
i t set. Hence, 𝛼 𝐺 1, 4,
4 6, 9 .

Numb
mber of Cliquees 𝜔 𝐺 :
A cliq
que is a subsset of vertices
es in a graph where
w everyy pair of verttices is adjace
cent.
In the
he given graph here every paair of verticees is adjacentt. Thus, theree
ph G, there is no subset off vertices wh
are no
n cliques in the
t graph. Therefore,
Th 𝜔 𝐺 0.

Chrom
omatic Numb ber 𝜒 𝐺 :
The cchromatic nu umber of a grgraph is the minimum
m num
umber of coloors required to t color its vertices
v such
h
that n
no adjacent vertices
v have
ve the same color.
co
To prrove that thee chromatic number
n of G is 4, we need
ed to show thhat it is not possible
p to coolor the vertiices
usingg fewer thann 4 colors, andd it is possib he vertices using
ble to color th u 4 colors
rs without vioolating the
adjaccency conditition.
In G, there are veertices that are
ar adjacent to t each otherr, and no two o adjacent veertices sharee the same co olor
when n the vertices
es in the set 1, 4, 6, 9 aree assigned th he same coloor. Therefore,e, we can coloor the vertice
ces
of G using
u 4 colorrs.
Sincee we cannot color
c han 4 colors without
the verrtices of G ussing fewer th w viola
lating the adjjacency
condi
dition, the chr
hromatic num mber of G is 4.
4 Hence, 𝜒 𝐺 4.

Minim mal Degree 𝛿 𝐺 :

The m minimal degr
gree of a grap ph is the mininimum numb ber of edges incident
i an vertex in the graph.
to any
To prrove that thee minimal deg 4 we need to show that no
egree of G is 4, n vertex in G has a degrree less than n4
and tthat there exxists at least one
o vertex withw a degreee of 4.
We cacan observe that
t for any vertex
v in G, the
t number of o adjacent vertices
v is at least 4. For example,
e verrtex
1 is adjacent
a to vertices
ve 2, 3, 7,
7 and 8. Simmilarly, otherr vertices in the
t graph hav ave at least 4 adjacent
vertic
ices. Addition
nally, vertex 7 is adjacent nt to exactly 4 vertices: 2, 4, 5, and 11.. Therefore, there
t exists at
leastt one vertex in
i G with a degree
de of 4. Since
Si tex in G has a degree less than 4 and there
no verte t exists at
a
leastt one vertex with
w a degree ee of 4, the minimal
mi degreee of G is 4. Hence,
H 𝛿 𝐺 4.
Exercise 4:
To prove that in a group of more than 5 people there are always three people who know each other or
three people who do not know each other, we can use Ramsey's theorem with n 3 and m 3.
According to Ramsey's theorem, there exists a least positive integer R 3, 3 such that in any group of R 3,
3 people, there will either be a group of 3 people who all know each other or a group of 3 people who
are all strangers to each other.
We want to show that R 3, 3 is less than or equal to 6. If R 3, 3 were greater than 6, then we would
need to find a group of 6 people where there are neither 3 people who all know each other nor 3 people
who are all strangers to each other.
Let's assume we have a group of 6 people. Select any person from the group and label that person as
Person A. The remaining 5 people can be divided into two groups: those who know Person A and those
who do not know Person A.

Case 1: If at least 3 people in the group of 5 know Person A, then we have found a group of 3 people who
all know each other Person A and the 3 people who know Person A . The statement holds true.

Case 2: If fewer than 3 people in the group of 5 know Person A, then there must be at least 3 people who
do not know Person A. In this case, we have found a group of 3 people who are all strangers to each
other the 3 people who do not know Person A . Again, the statement holds true.

Therefore, in both cases, we have demonstrated that in a group of 6 people, there will always be either a
group of 3 people who know each other or a group of 3 people who do not know each other.
Hence, R 3, 3 is less than or equal to 6, implying that in a group of more than 5 people, there are always
three people who know each other or three people who do not know each other, as proved by Ramsey's
theorem.