AIR1828C

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AIR1828™ REV. C
AEROSPACE
INFORMATION REPORT Issued 1984-03
Reaffirmed 2014-05
Revised 2018-04
Superseding AIR1828B
(R) Guide to Engine Lubrication System Monitoring
RATIONALE
This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) was developed to provide information and guidance for the selection and
use of technologies and methods for lubrication system monitoring of gas turbine aircraft engines. Benefits of effective
engine lubrication system monitoring include increased reliability, reduced cost of ownership, improved product assurance,
and enhanced safety of the equipment. The guidance within this report will support developers, operators, and maintainers
to improve the effectiveness of lubrication system monitoring in existing and future applications. This edition updates
content, formatting, and incorporates new content on oil quality monitoring and off-aircraft oil debris monitoring.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. SCOPE .......................................................................................................................................................... 3
2. REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................................. 3
2.1 SAE Publications........................................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Other Publications ......................................................................................................................................... 3
2.3 Related Publications ..................................................................................................................................... 5
2.4 Glossary of Acronyms ................................................................................................................................... 6
3. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................................... 7
4. OVERVIEW ................................................................................................................................................. 10
4.1 Oil System Performance Monitoring ........................................................................................................... 10
4.2 Oil Debris Monitoring................................................................................................................................... 10
4.3 Oil Condition Monitoring .............................................................................................................................. 10
4.4 Off-Line, On-Line, In-Line, and At-Line ....................................................................................................... 11
5. BENEFITS ................................................................................................................................................... 11
5.1 General ....................................................................................................................................................... 11
5.1.1 Reliability ..................................................................................................................................................... 11
5.1.2 Reduced Cost of Ownership ....................................................................................................................... 11
5.1.3 Product Assurance and Verification ............................................................................................................ 11
5.1.4 Safety .......................................................................................................................................................... 12
5.2 Benefits of Oil System Performance Monitoring ......................................................................................... 12
5.3 Benefits of Oil Debris Monitoring ................................................................................................................ 12
5.4 Benefits of Oil Condition Monitoring............................................................................................................ 12
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR1828™C Page 2 of 57
6. OIL SYSTEM PERFORMANCE MONITORING ......................................................................................... 13

6.1 General Considerations .............................................................................................................................. 13
6.2 Failure Modes/Monitored Parameters......................................................................................................... 13
6.2.1 Oil Pressure ................................................................................................................................................ 13
6.2.2 Oil Temperature .......................................................................................................................................... 14
6.2.3 Oil Quantity and Consumption .................................................................................................................... 15
6.2.4 Filter Bypass Indicator................................................................................................................................. 15
6.2.5 Filter Pressure Drop Monitoring .................................................................................................................. 16
7. OIL DEBRIS MONITORING ....................................................................................................................... 20

7.2 Failure Modes/Monitored Parameters......................................................................................................... 21
7.2.1 Filtration Considerations for Oil Debris Monitoring ..................................................................................... 26
7.3 Monitoring Technologies ............................................................................................................................. 27
7.3.1 On-Line Debris Monitoring .......................................................................................................................... 27
7.3.2 System Performance Verification................................................................................................................ 38
7.3.3 Off-Line Debris Monitoring .......................................................................................................................... 38
8. OIL CONDITION MONITORING ................................................................................................................. 48

8.2 Function, Failure Modes, and System Considerations ............................................................................... 49
8.3 Correlating Online Sensor Based Methods and Offline Laboratory Measurements ................................... 50
8.4 Offline Oil Condition Monitoring Methods/Devices ..................................................................................... 51
8.4.1 Acid Number (AN) Kit .................................................................................................................................. 51
8.4.2 Remaining-Useful-Life Detection ................................................................................................................ 51
8.4.3 Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectrometer (FT-IR) ...................................................................................... 51
8.5 Online Oil Condition Monitoring Methods/Devices ..................................................................................... 51
8.5.1 Impedance Spectroscopy ........................................................................................................................... 52
8.5.2 Conductivity or Permittivity Sensing............................................................................................................ 53
8.5.3 Infrared Spectroscopy ................................................................................................................................. 53
8.5.4 Moisture Sensing ........................................................................................................................................ 53
8.5.5 Viscosity ...................................................................................................................................................... 54
8.5.6 Installation Considerations .......................................................................................................................... 55
8.6 Trade Summary of Online Monitoring Techniques/Devices ....................................................................... 55
9. NOTES ........................................................................................................................................................ 57
9.1 Revision Indicator........................................................................................................................................ 57
1. SCOPE
This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) provides information and guidance for the selection and use of technologies
and methods for lubrication system monitoring of gas turbine aircraft engines. This AIR describes technologies and methods
covering oil system performance monitoring, oil debris monitoring, and oil condition monitoring. Both on-aircraft and off-
aircraft applications are presented. A higher-level view of lubrication system monitoring as part of an overall engine
monitoring system (EMS), is discussed in ARP1587.
The scope of this document is limited to those lubrication system monitoring, inspection and analysis methods and devices
that can be considered appropriate for health monitoring and routine maintenance.
This AIR is intended to be used as a technical guide. It is not intended to be used as a legal document or standard.
2. REFERENCES
These references contain useful information that may have been used in this report or may be beneficial in understanding
the subject. The documents referred to hereafter are all current at the time of writing of this AIR. It is likely that they will
continue to be relevant should they be revised in future.
2.1 SAE Publications
Available from SAE International, 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001, Tel: 877-606-7323 (inside USA
and Canada) or +1 724-776-4970 (outside USA), www.sae.org.
AIR5433 Lubricating Characteristics and Typical Properties of Lubricants Used in Aviation Propulsion and
Drive Systems
ARP1587 Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine Monitoring System Guide
ARP4176 Determination of Costs and Benefits from Implementing an Engine Health Management System
AS5780 Core Requirement Specification for Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine Lubricants
SAE Paper 720303 Lotan, D., “Spectrometric Oil Analysis - Use and Interpretation of Data,” SAE Technical Paper 72030,
1972, https://doi.org/10.4271/720303.
2.2 Other Publications
2.2.1 R. C. Hunter: Engine Failure Prediction Techniques, Aircraft Engineering, March 1975.
2.2.2 P. Cooper: Wear Debris Monitoring of Rolling Bearings, The British Journal of Non-Destructive Testing, Volume 25,
Number 2, March 1983.
2.2.3 T. Tauber: Full-Flow Oil Debris Monitoring in Gas Turbine Engines, ASME Paper No. 81-GT-60, March 1981.
2.2.4 T. Tauber, S. D'Ambrosia, F. Rudbarg: A Lube System Diagnostic Monitor with Deaeration Capability, ASME Paper
No. 82-GT-79, April 1982.
2.2.5 Proceedings of the 2000 Joint Oil Analysis Program Conference, Mobile, AL, April 2000, JOAP-TSC, Pensacola, FL.
2.2.6 Lotan, D., “Spectrometric Oil Analysis - Use and Interpretation of Data,” SAE Technical Paper 72030, 1972,
https://doi.org/10.4271/720303.
2.2.7 Oil System Debris Assessment. Rolls Royce Publication TSD 7001, Derby, U.K.
2.2.8 J. A. Alcorta, L. L. Packer, J. H. Mohn: Bearing Wear Detection Using Radioactive Iron - 55 Tagging, ASLE Preprint
81-AM-GA-3; Presented at the 36th Annual ASLE Meeting, Pittsburgh, PA, May 1981.
2.2.9 H. A. Smith: Complete Oil Breakdown Rate Analyzer (COBRA) For Identifying Abnormal Operating Turbine
Engines; International Oil Analysis Workshop, Pensacola, FL, May 1983.
2.2.10 S. H. Loewenthal, D. W. Moyer: Filtration Effects on Ball Bearing Life and Condition in a Contaminated Lubricant,
ASME Paper No. 78-Lub-34, June 1978.
2.2.11 S. H. Loewenthal, D. W. Moyer, W. M. Needelman: Effects of Ultra-Clean and Centrifugal Filtration on Rolling-
Element Bearing Life, ASME Paper No. 81-Lub-35, March 1981.
2.2.12 T. P. Sperring, J. Tucker, J. Reintjes, A. Schultz, C. Lu and B. J. Roylance,“ Wear Particle Imaging and Analysis –
a contribution towards monitoring the health of military ships and aircraft,” International Conference on Condition
Monitoring, pp. 539-546, University of Wales, Swansea, UK, April 1999.
2.2.13 B. J. Roylance and S. Raadnui, "The morphological attributes of wear particles - their role in identifying wear
mechanisms,” Wear 175, 115 (1994).
2.2.14 J. E. Tucker, A. Schultz, C. Lu, T. Sebok, C. Holloway, L. L. Tankersley, T. McClelland, P. L. Howard and J. Reintjes,
“
LaserNet Fines Optical Wear Debris Monitor,” International Conference on Condition Monitoring, pp. 445-452,
University of Wales, Swansea, UK, April 1999.
2.2.15 Schaeffler Group Report, “Lubrication of Rolling Bearings- Principles, Lubrication methods, Lubricant selection
and testing, Storage and handling”, TPI 176 J
(http://www.schaeffler.com/remotemedien/media/_shared_media/08_media_library/01_publications/schaeffler_2/t
pi/downloads_8/tpi_176_de_en.pdf)
2.2.16 Toms, L. and A. M. Toms, “Machinery Oil Analysis - Methods, Automation & Benefits”, 3rd Edition, STLE, Park
Ridge, IL 2008, ISBN: 978-0-9817512-0-7.
2.2.17 Toms, A. M., E. Jordan, and G. R. Humphrey, “The Success of Filter Debris Analysis for J52 Engine Condition
Based Maintenance”, Proc. 41st AIAA, AIAA-2005-4338, Tucson, AZ, July 2005.
2.2.18 Toms, A. M. and K. Cassidy, “Filter Debris Analysis for Aircraft Engine and Gearbox Health Management”, J. Fail
Anal. Prev., Vol. 8, Iss 2, Apr., pp. 183-187, 2008.
2.2.19 Lastinger, W. R. Overman, and L. Yates, “Finding bearing failures through filter debris analysis”, Reliability and
Information and Analysis Center (RIAC) Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1st qtr, p. 8-12, 2006.
2.2.20 Madhavan P. and Steves M., Rosenberg G., and Schindler J., "Condition Monitoring of Aerospace Hydraulic and
Lubrication Systems via Filter Debris Analysis", Proceedings of the Joint Oil Analysis Program (JOAP) International
Condition Monitoring Conference 2004, April 18-22, 2004, Pensacola, FL; ibid, "Lubricant Condition Monitoring
Using Debris Analysis", Practicing Oil Analysis, July-August, 2004.
2.2.21 Madhavan P., "The Filter Element as a Diagnostic Tool for Condition Monitoring in Aerospace Power and Propulsion
Lubrication Systems", STLE; 58th Annual Meeting, April 28 – May 01, 2003, New York, NY.
2.2.22 Miller, J.L. and D. Kitaljevich, “In-line Oil Debris Monitor for Aircraft Engine Condition Assessment”, IEEE, “0-7803-
5846-5, 2000.
2.2.23 Muir, D. and B. Howe, "In-line oil debris monitor," Aerospace Engineering Mag., Oct 1996.
2.2.24 Madhavan P., "Monitoring Fluid System Debris Via Diagnostic Filters', Proceedings of Technology Showcase -
Integrated Monitoring, Diagnostics and Failure prevention, April 22-26, Mobile, AL, 1996.
2.2.25 Byington, C, et al. “Application of Symbolic Regression to Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy Data for
Lubricating Oil Health Evaluation”.
2.2.26 Neale, M.J., “Component Failures: Maintenance and Repair,” (Warrendale, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.,
1995), ISBN 978-1-5609-1451-8.
2.2.27 Toms, Larry A., Machinery Oil Analysis: Methods, Automation and Benefits, 1995.
2.2.28 Byington, C., Brewer, R., Meyer, T., and Amin, S., “Gearbox Corrosion Prediction via Oil Condition Sensing and
Model Fusion,” DSTO HUMS2007, Melbourne, AU, March 20-22, 2007.
2.2.29 Byington, C., Brewer, R, Nair, V., and Mott, A., “Experiences and Testing of an Autonomous On-line Oil Quality
Monitor for Diesel Engines,” STLE 62nd Annual Meeting and Exhibition, Philadelphia, PA, May 6-10, 2007.
2.2.30 Byington, Orsagh, Sheldon, Kallappa, DeChristopher, Amin, “Verification and Validation of Incipient Fault Detection
Techniques for Engines and Drivetrains”, 60th Meeting of MFPT, April 2006.
2.2.31 Kallappa, P., Byington, C., and Donovan, B., “Fault Detection and Lubricant Health Monitoring for Slow Bearings in
Extreme Operating Conditions,” World Tribology Conference III, Sept. 12-16, 2005.
2.2.32 Byington, “Advances in Real-Time Oil Analysis and Smart Sensor Developments,” Invited Speaker to Practicing Oil
Analysis International Conference and Exposition, October 24-26, 2000.
2.2.33 Byington, Merdes, Kozlowski, “Fusion Techniques for Vibration and Oil Debris/Quality in Gearbox Failure Testing”,
International Conference on Condition Monitoring at Swansea, April 12-15, 1999.
2.2.34 Byington, “Model-Based Diagnostics of Gas Turbine Engine Lubrication Systems”, Joint Oil Analysis Program
International Condition Monitoring Program, April 20-24, 1998.
2.2.35 Moffatt, J., Byington, C.S., Minnella, C. M., “Lubricant Condition Assessment System (LUCAS), an Enabler for
Condition Based Maintenance Best Practice”, American Helicopter Society Annual Forum, Fort Worth, TX, May
2012.
2.2.36 UH-1H/UH-1V Maintenance Decision Removal Criteria Guide for use with ODDS Equipped Aircraft, U S Army, Ft.
Eustis, 1989.
2.3 Related Publications
The following publications are provided for information purposes only and are not a required part of this SAE Technical
Report.
2.3.1 ASTM D7685-11 Standard Practice for In-Line, Full Flow, Inductive Sensor for Ferromagnetic and Non-
ferromagnetic Wear Debris Determination and Diagnostics for Aero-Derivative and Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine
Bearings.
2.3.2 ASTM D664-11A Standard Test Method for Acid Number of Petroleum Products by Potentiometric Titration.
2.3.3 ASTM D974-11 Standard Test Method for Acid and Base Number by Color-Indicator Titration.
2.3.4 ASTM D6971 Standard Test Method for Measurement of Hindered Phenolic and Aromatic Amine Antioxidant
Content in Non-zinc Turbine Oils by Linear Sweep Voltammetry.
2.3.5 ASTM D7596 Standard Test Method for Automatic Particle Counting and Particle Shape Classification of Oils Using
a Direct Imaging Integrated Tester.
2.3.6 ASTM E2412-10 Standard Practice for Condition Monitoring of In-Service Lubricants by Trend Analysis Using
Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) Spectrometry.
2.3.7 ISO 12103 Road Vehicles – Test Dust for Filter Evaluation.
2.3.8 National Bureau of Standards Publication NBSIR 73-252 (Proceedings of the 18th Meeting of the Mechanical
Failures Prevention Group, Gaithersburg, Maryland, 1972).
2.3.9 National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 436 (Proceedings of the 22nd Meeting of the Mechanical Failures
Prevention Group, Anaheim, California, 1975).
2.3.10 National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 494 (Proceedings of the 26th Meeting of the Mechanical Failures
Prevention Group, Chicago, Illinois, 1977).
2.3.11 National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 547 (Proceedings of the 28th Meeting of the Mechanical Failures
Prevention Group, San Antonio, Texas, 1978).
2.3.12 National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 622 (Proceedings of the 32nd Meeting of the Mechanical Failures
Prevention Group, Santa Monica, California, 1980).
2.3.13 Sawyer's Turbomachinery Maintenance Handbook, Volume III: Support Services & Equipment, Turbomachinery
International Publications, Norwalk, Connecticut, 1980.
2.3.14 Tribology 1978-Materials Performance and Conservation. Proceedings University College of Swansea Conference,
3-4 April 1978. Institution of Mechanical Engineers, London, 1978.
2.3.15 R. A. Collacott: Mechanical Fault-Diagnosis and Condition Monitoring. Chapman & Hall, London; John Wiley &
Sons, New York.
2.3.16 Ferrography. Proceedings - Symposium Organized by the Condition Monitoring R&D Group of The British Institute
of Non-Destructive Testing, October 1979.
2.3.17 Wear Particle Atlas. Naval Air Engineering Center Report NAEC-92-163, June 1982.
2.3.18 Proceedings of the 1998 Joint Oil Analysis Program Conference, Mobile, AL, April 1998, JOAP-TSC, Pensacola, FL.
2.3.19 B. J. Roylance, T. M. Hunt, “Wear Debris Analysis”, Coxmoor Publishing, 1999.
2.3.20 Proceedings of the 2002 JOAP International Condition Monitoring Conference, Mobile, AL, April 7-11, 2002.
2.3.21 AC 120-42B FAA Advisory Circular related to ETOPS (ExTended OperationS).
2.3.22 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 14 - Aeronautics and Space.
2.4 Glossary of Acronyms
AN Acid Number
ANN Artificial Neural Net
AIR Aerospace Information Report
BIT(E) Built In Test (Equipment)
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
DRF Direct Reader Ferrograph
EDAX Energy-Dispersive X-ray Analysis
EHL Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication
EMI Electromagnetic Interference
EMS Engine Monitoring System

ETOPS Extended Operations
FAR Federal Airworthiness Regulation
FDA Filter Debris Analysis
ICP Inductively Coupled Plasma
JOAP Joint Oil Analysis Program
LCC Life Cycle Cost
LVDT Linear Variable Displacement Transducer
OCM Oil Condition Monitor
ODM Oil Debris Monitor
RCF Rolling Contact Fatigue
RDE Rotating Disc Electrode
ROI Return on Investment
RUL Remaining Useful Life
SEM Scanning Electron Microscope
SOA(P) Spectrographic Oil Analysis (Program)
TAN Total Acid Number
XRF X-ray Fluorescence
NOTE: In agreement with industry usage, wear particle size ranges are given in micrometers, also known as microns
(1 μm = 10-3 mm = 10-6 m and 0.001 inch = 25.4 μm).
3. INTRODUCTION
Lubrication system monitoring for gas turbine engines can be classified into three different aspects:
a. Oil System Performance Monitoring (monitoring the oil system’s performance)
b. Oil Debris Monitoring (monitoring the condition of oil-wetted engine components via the oil system)
c. Oil Condition Monitoring (monitoring the condition of the oil itself)
Figure 1 shows schematically the techniques and hardware used for these three types of activities.
Further classifications are useful with respect to whether these techniques involve on-aircraft equipment or whether they
are based primarily on off-aircraft equipment or facilities. Figure 1 also indicates this classification.
Lubrication system monitoring is a part of an overall engine monitoring system (EMS), as discussed in ARP1587. Frequently,
lubrication system monitoring data are complementary to information obtained from other components of the engine
monitoring system, e.g., vibration monitoring.
(SECONDARY)
(PRIMARY)
Figure 1 - Lubrication system monitoring in aircraft gas turbine engines

Oil system performance monitoring by means of pressure, temperature, and oil quantity constitutes the earliest form of oil
system monitoring in aircraft engines. Later, filter bypass indicators were added to alert maintenance crews to clogged
filters.
Oil debris monitoring originated with the periodic checking of filters, pump inlet screens, and magnetic drain plugs in
reciprocating engines. By the early 1950s some airlines had developed successful systems for monitoring piston, piston
ring, and main journal bearing condition on radial aircraft engines using such methods.
The introduction of gas turbine engines with their high-speed ball and roller bearings brought new failure modes with high
secondary damage potential. The airlines successfully applied the earlier techniques to these engines by developing a
method to regularly remove the screen-type oil filters, back flush the filters and analyze their content visually in terms of
debris quantity, size, shape, color, and material (refer to ARP1587). Experience obtained from previous cases was used to
estimate the likelihood and severity of failures and to aid in the decision to remove the engine from the aircraft. Even today,
regular filter inspection is used in some applications and is a valuable source of additional information when other methods
provide ambiguous indications of incipient failures.
The second generation of gas turbine engines was already equipped with magnetic chip collectors with automatic shutoff
valves to retain the oil and simplify routine inspection. Effective oil debris monitoring methods have since been built around
this principle. In the early 1960s, electric chip detectors began to replace the magnetic chip collectors in U.S. military
engines. In Europe, however, magnetic chip collectors are still in wide use today in military, as well as commercial aircraft.
When employed, a single master electric chip detector is typically located in the combined scavenge line, with individual
magnetic chip collectors located within each individual scavenge line of the pump. The magnetic chip collectors are used to
diagnose the scavenge line source of debris upon annunciation by the master detector. The wear debris monitor indicated
in Figure 1 can either be a passive device that is inspected periodically or an active sensor that interfaces to the engine
monitoring system. Figure 2 illustrates the ranges of debris particle sizes detectable with various technologies, and provides
an indication of which stages of fault progression each technology is suited for.
Figure 2 - Detectable debris particle sizes

Filter checks, magnetic chip collectors, and electric chip detectors are effective in detecting debris larger than about 50 μm.
For the quantitative assessment of finer debris (smaller than 10 μm), spectrometric oil analysis (SOA) was applied to aircraft
gas turbine engines in the early 1960s. The origins of this technique go back to condition monitoring efforts on railroad
diesel engines in the 1940s. Today, SOA is in wide use by most military services and many airlines throughout the world.
The growing emphasis on reduced cost of ownership, increased dispatch reliability, condition-based maintenance, and
automated engine monitoring has stimulated the development of new oil debris monitoring and assessment technologies.
These technologies include a new generation of electronic on-aircraft debris monitors that are already in service or are
being developed. Furthermore, technologies that previously were available only in the laboratory are being investigated for
possible development into on-aircraft debris monitors (e.g., optical and X-ray fluorescence technologies) or at least routine
oil quality or debris assessment off-aircraft.
The trend toward on-aircraft monitoring can also be seen in oil condition monitoring. While there are few of these systems
in service on aviation applications today, there are more examples on ground vehicles. Due to the ability of oil condition
monitoring to improve engine reliability by detecting deficiencies in the oil before a mechanical fault develops (as compared
to oil debris monitoring which detects the fault after it develops), interest in the aviation industry for on-board oil condition
monitoring capability has grown.
4. OVERVIEW
4.1 Oil System Performance Monitoring
Oil system performance monitoring involves continuous, real-time monitoring of the oil system’s ability to properly lubricate
the engine’s oil-wetted components. The high speed and high temperature operating environment of a gas turbine engine
drives the need for lubricating oil within specified pressure and temperature ranges. These parameters are monitored in
flight by Engine Monitoring Systems and/or flight crews and require immediate action if they deviate from the required
ranges. To ensure that a clogged filter does not impede the flow of oil, modern lubrication systems incorporate mechanical
or electronic means of alerting the maintainer when the filter backpressure causes the filter bypass to be activated. In those
systems that measure the pressure drop across the filter, insight can be developed into the current and future state of the
filter (amount of dirt, filter utilization rate, etc.) by monitoring this pressure drop over time.
4.2 Oil Debris Monitoring
Oil Debris Monitoring (ODM) involves the detection and identification of debris particles within the engine lube oil in order
to provide an indication of the condition of the oil wetted components. In addition to its function as a lubricating and cooling
fluid, the oil serves as a transport medium for any debris generated by the rolling and sliding surfaces, which are subject to
wear. Normal wear, accelerated wear, and incipient failure involve the removal of material, although at different rates, and
often in different particle size ranges. The debris generated in these processes contains valuable and detailed information
about the condition of wear surfaces and the type of wear or incipient failure in progress.
4.3 Oil Condition Monitoring
Oil Condition Monitoring (OCM) is a general term used to describe analyses of in-service lubricants to provide an indication
of the quality of a particular fluid to perform its intended function. These analyses, when performed by a laboratory, might
include measurements of oil viscosity, total acid number (TAN), total base number (TBN), moisture (H2O), soot, nitration,
sulfation, glycol contamination, oxidation, additive depletion, diesel or gasoline contamination, etc. These vary in different
applications and by machine type. This information is correlated with different threshold warning levels, which are driven by
certain additives being depleted, contaminants being present, or indicators of other loss of lubricant functionality. These
limits are based on extensive tribological experience and often coded in expert systems that link thresholds with equipment
type and incorporate some understanding of effects that might substantially increase risk of engine component failure.
Online Oil Condition Monitoring devices typically measure physical and electrochemical properties of the fluid that are also
sensitive to these oil condition changes as well, but usually do not produce the same outputs or fidelity as offline laboratory
methods. The benefit of the online OCM is the near-real time monitoring and associated operational safety benefits over
traditional sampling and offline testing.
4.4 Off-Line, On-Line, In-Line, and At-Line
A key aspect of any monitoring approach is where and when the monitoring is done. Historically oil debris and oil condition
monitoring has been done off-line by sending samples to a lab for analysis. With evolving technology, more of the monitoring
is being done with sensors installed on the aircraft. On-line monitors continuously sample and analyze a portion of the flow.
In-line monitors measure the full flow continuously. At-line systems are similar to off-line monitoring in that they require
periodic samples to be taken, but they are more automated and portable, allowing analysis to be done near the aircraft,
rather than sending samples to a lab.
5. BENEFITS
5.1 General
The benefits that can result from engine lubrication system monitoring include increased reliability, reduced cost of
ownership, improved product assurance, and enhanced safety of the equipment.
As with any engine health monitoring capability, the potential benefits should be weighed against potential drawbacks.
Potential drawbacks include added development and procurement cost, weight, and potential detriment to overall reliability,
maintenance cost, and flight disruptions. Often the monitors are less reliable than the system components they are
monitoring, leading to false detections that could impact vehicle availability and result in lower credibility, which could
ultimately lead to the capability being ignored or disabled. Building in enough capability without extreme complexity,
thoroughly maturing it in development, and balancing the system benefits against other metrics are important.
5.1.1 Reliability
Lubrication system monitoring methods can improve various types of reliability. First, ensuring proper condition of the
lubricant can decrease the likelihood of mechanical faults occurring, thus improving product reliability. Second,
diagnostic/prognostic capabilities can improve operational readiness, removal scheduling and engine management, and
enhance mission reliability.
5.1.2 Reduced Cost of Ownership
Reliable lubrication system monitoring methods can reduce occurrence of in-flight shutdowns, engine change-outs or repairs
away from main overhaul facilities, unnecessary removals, and secondary damage of progressive failure modes by
identifying appropriate maintenance action.
An implemented lubrication monitoring system with fault isolation and identification capability can often give an indication of
the location and type of defect that might otherwise lead to engine removal.
A cost/benefit evaluation criterion for oil system monitoring is life cycle cost (LCC). An objective of LCC trade-off analyses
is to maximize return on investment (ROI) by addressing projected cost benefit. The acquisition costs of many lubrication
system monitoring devices are relatively low compared to the engine components they are intended to protect. The
cost/benefit ratio is, therefore, generally favorable. However, maintenance, added weight, inspection, logistics, training and
support personnel requirements can be dominant contributors to LCC and must be taken into account. Refer to ARP4176
for guidance on performing a cost/benefit analysis.
5.1.3 Product Assurance and Verification
Lubrication system monitoring provides product assurance by being an integral part of engine maintenance and inspection
procedures and policies.
Bearings misaligned during assembly and similar build defects resulting in early abnormal wear can be detected during
engine acceptance test, run-in, or initial operation by proper oil system monitoring. Lubrication system monitoring also plays
an important role during engine development for verification of proper bearing and lubrication system components design.
5.1.4 Safety
Bearing or gear malfunctions and impeded lubrication can lead to loss of engine power. Effective lubrication system
monitoring can contribute to flight safety. Extended Operation (ETOPS) criteria do take oil consumption into account. The
airworthiness status determination must include a process for determining engine and auxiliary power unit (APU) oil
quantities and consumption rates prior to ETOPS dispatch.
5.2 Benefits of Oil System Performance Monitoring
Of the four categories of benefits previously discussed, oil system performance monitoring primarily contributes to Product
Assurance and Verification, and Safety. It can also contribute to Reduced Cost of Ownership through early detection of
conditions that could eventually lead to faults in the oil wetted components that can impact operations and repair costs. Oil
system performance monitoring can affect mission reliability, and can affect product reliability if monitored in such a manner
that problems can be detected and addressed before they lead to mechanical faults.
Oil system performance monitoring is one of the primary mechanisms for ensuring proper, safe engine operation.
Maintaining oil temperature and pressure is necessary, and accordingly are monitored in flight and require immediate action
if they deviate from the required ranges.
5.3 Benefits of Oil Debris Monitoring
Oil debris monitoring does not prevent wear or damage to oil wetted components, but rather provides information on the
condition of these components such that damage events can be managed effectively. Early indication of damage allows
maintenance actions to be taken before severe damage or even catastrophic failure occurs, which translates into reduced
cost of ownership, and enhanced safety. Some technologies allow for the trending of detected debris over time thus
providing a prognostics capability that contributes to improved operational readiness and mission reliability. Debris
monitoring is also quite beneficial in product assurance and verification activities as it is very effective in providing advanced
warning of bearing damage, allowing appropriate action to be taken and minimizing secondary damage to key engine
assests during development and acceptance test activities.
The cost/benefit ratio of oil debris monitoring methods can vary greatly from engine to engine, even within the same
performance class. This is due to the fact that the mean time between oil wetted component failures depends on loads,
speeds, lubrication conditions, and number of components, all of which can vary from design to design. In a given engine,
oil wetted component defects may be a relatively frequent occurrence and an effective debris monitoring system can
contribute significant cost savings, which may be especially true in the early years after service introduction. In engines
where this is not the case, an expensive oil debris monitoring system or program may not be justified. Nevertheless, the
general trend towards higher oil wetted component loads and operating temperatures, lower weight, and condition-based
maintenance continues to drive the development of debris monitoring methods with improved failure detection, prognostic,
and diagnostic capability.
5.4 Benefits of Oil Condition Monitoring
Per the Schaeffler Group Report (see Reference 2.2.15), it is estimated that over 60% of mechanical equipment failures are
tribological and lubricant effectiveness related (more so than bending fatigue or load driven). Oil-wetted components (gears,
bearings, etc.) are typically designed such that stresses are limited to the point that component lives exceed the specified
engine life. Failures of these components are typically caused by improper lubrication, contamination, or assembly errors.
By ensuring that the proper oil is used and is in good condition, a major cause of failures in oil-wetted components can be
nearly eliminated. Thus, effective lubrication maintains safe, high performance operation and enables longer engine and
gearbox operation. Through effective lubricant monitoring and servicing, the effective reliability is also improved. This
enhanced engine and gearbox reliability makes it possible to operate longer on wing and extend service lives without adding
additional risk. Oil condition monitoring may be accomplished using sampling and offline laboratory analysis or a range of
different sensing devices that are currently being evaluated in aircraft and other domains.
There are some benefits to moving from relying on traditional offline laboratory-based analysis to more online, real-time
OCM capability. Namely, online OCM:
 possesses much less (near zero) lag time between sampling and analysis results. Offline analysis results are more
typically days or weeks in delay.
 does not require man-in-the-loop nor produce sampling/transmission/testing errors. There have been many documented
instances of contamination occurring outside of the sampling process. In addition, sampling is another opportunity to
introduce contamination and increase the risk of maintenance induced failures.
 is often more repeatable than lab analysis which may be conducted by different labs using different methods. The online
measurements are being collected and trended directly by the device in the system. (It is important to note though that
as with any device it may need calibration checks from time to time. These are typically much longer intervals than
sampling intervals for offline analysis, and many devices have self-calibration and built-in-test capability. Online OCM
does not necessarily replicate all the outputs of a bank of laboratory test instruments, that would not be cost effective
or practical. Online OCM devices are typically focused on trending specific parameters known to be sensitive to the oil
degradations of interest for the equipment and application.)
 has less recurring cost in both labor and downtime associated with sampling and offline testing.
 can be directly integrated to the overall engine or vehicle health management system, health and usage monitoring
system, or digital engine controller.
 can more effectively drive oil system servicing and oil change intervals as part of an overall CBM approach and can
also complement oil usage based algorithms that may incorporate time and temperature.
One very significant concern with traditional schedule-based sampling and offline testing is that these methods will miss
sudden changes in oil condition that can lead higher risk of equipment failure. The sudden change may be due to a
significant contamination event, incorrect oil addition, or other significant degradation occurring between these intervals that
may be months apart. Thus, online monitoring of oil condition has substantial operational safety, condition-based
maintenance, and reliability benefits by ensuring healthy oil for the system in question. Some of these devices can also be
used to indicate oil level, overaeration, and confirm loss of oil conditions, which is useful to minimize these risks.
6. OIL SYSTEM PERFORMANCE MONITORING
6.1 General Considerations
The selection and placement of sensors to monitor oil system performance is a critical and well-established part of engine
design. Design considerations include sensor reliability, robustness of fault detection, timeliness of fault detection, etc.
6.2 Failure Modes/Monitored Parameters
6.2.1 Oil Pressure
Monitoring engine oil pressure provides indication of proper oil system operation and is used to detect abnormal conditions.
High oil pressure can be caused by clogged oil jets. Low oil pressure can be the result of leaks, broken lines, pump failure
(partial or complete), low oil level, or pressure relief valve malfunction.
In a pressure-regulated lube system each pump has excess capacity, with a pressure regulator consisting of a ball in an
orifice backed by a spring, and often an adjustment screw. Within the balance of the regulatory system and sump capacity,
oil pressure will remain constant. Therefore, oil pressure measurements from a pressure-regulated lube system contain
usable monitoring information only when extreme changes occur in the oil system flow areas. In a full flow lube system, the
pressure is not regulated so the pressure will vary with different engine speeds. Once the variation in speed is accounted
for, smaller changes in the lube system can be detected as compared to a pressure-regulated system.
Oil pressure is monitored continuously by means of pressure transducers installed on the high-pressure side of the
lubrication system, which measures the pressure across the oil jets relative to a reference pressure. These transducers are
connected to cockpit instruments and interfaced with on-aircraft engine monitoring systems.
Transducer selection should address environment, linearity, repeatability, hysteresis, resolution, temperature errors, calibration
errors, reliability, and mechanical/electrical interface requirements. The environmental parameters include temperature,
contamination, vibration, shock, acoustic noise, and conducted and radiated EMI (electromagnetic interference).
There are a variety of pressure transducer technologies available on the market. These include strain gage, capacitive,
inductive, potentiometric, piezoresistive, and LVDT.
In addition to pressure transducers for continuous oil pressure indication, most older aircraft gas turbine engines are also
provided with a low-pressure switch to alert the crew to a critical engine condition. Modern engines incorporate oil pressure
transducer redundancy. A low limit is set in the software that alerts the cockpit of low pressure conditions.
Federal airworthiness requirements (reference FAA CFR Title 14 §23.1305, §25.1305, §27.1305 and §29.1307) require a
low oil pressure warning and/or an oil pressure indicator, depending on the type of aircraft. An oil pressure indicator is also
required by applicable specifications for U.S. military engines.
In order to reduce data scatter for oil pressure monitoring, it may be beneficial to measure differential pressure as a
“normalized” parameter that is independent of the accessory gearbox drive shaft speed.
6.2.2 Oil Temperature
Oil temperature must be monitored to assure that it does not exceed the operating temperature limitations of the oil. In
conjunction with other oil system parameters, high oil temperature may also indicate and help isolate engine subsystem
malfunction. If oil temperature is sensed at the scavenge side, extreme bearing distress or hot section seal leakage may be
detected or it could be caused by over servicing (overfilling the system). If the sensor is located downstream of the oil cooler,
its clogging may lead to an over-temperature indication. However, it may not be feasible to detect slow or small changes in
advance of a real problem. This is due to the wide range of independent variables that affect system temperature levels.
These variables include engine revolutions per minute, fuel temperature and flow rate to the cooler (if used for oil system
heat sink), ambient air temperature (if air/oil cooling is used), altitude, and Mach number. No simple diagnostic set of limits
can be derived for multiple sensing or single sensing locations. Sensing multiple temperatures (at individual scavenge lines,
for example) and monitoring them with the aid of an EMS could provide excellent diagnostics but might not be cost-effective.
In general, oil temperature is sensed by thermal resistance sensors that produce a change in electrical resistance with
respect to temperature (Figure 3). Resistance temperature sensors are generally of the metallic type. Due to nonlinearity
and lower accuracy, thermistor temperature sensors are generally not used for oil system monitoring.
Figure 3 - Thermal resistance sensor

6.2.3 Oil Quantity and Consumption
Monitoring oil quantity and oil added can provide information about excessive oil consumption, oil system leakage, fuel
contamination from defective fuel/oil heat exchangers, or over filling. Most engine oil tanks are equipped with sight gauges
or simple dipsticks for pre or postflight oil level checking. Many commercial and military engines also have oil quantity
transducers. These transducers are usually of the mechanical float/reed-switch, capacitance, or thermistor types, which can
operate in this high-temperature environment. Non-contact fluid level sensing technologies such as guided wave radar have
also been successfully applied in aircraft applications. There are single point (low level) switches (Figure 4) as well as
multilevel transducers for in-flight cockpit or maintenance panel readout. If a detailed oil report is available, the oil
consumption for each flight can be calculated by utilizing change in oil quantity between "Taxi-out" and "Taxi-in" phases. It
may also be beneficial to monitor the consumption during the Cruise phase, particularly if this is the longest part of the flight.
The ETOPS Certificate holder must develop an engine oil consumption monitoring program to ascertain that there is enough
oil to complete the scheduled ETOPS flight. The certificate holder’s consumption limit must not exceed the manufacturers
recommendations, and the consumption monitoring program must be able to provide a trend of oil consumption based on
Taxi-out to Taxi-in or oil replenished post flight with engine shutdown.
Figure 4 - Oil quantity sensor

(© Eaton Aerospace LLC 2017. All Rights Reserved)
6.2.4 Filter Bypass Indicator
In-system filters are universally applied to gas turbine engine lubrication systems to maintain the appropriate lubricant
cleanliness level during operation. Typically, the main engine lubrication filter is incorporated either in the pressure line after
the main lubricant pump or on the scavenge line prior to the lubricant tank. The filter element is a full-flow element that
provides a coherent surface for capturing solid contamination in the lubricant. The filter is not restricted in terms of the
chemical nature of the particulate contamination (e.g., magnetic/metallic vs. ceramic), and the porosity of the filtration
medium can be optimized for filtration efficiency, subject to the desired filter element service life. The contaminant loading
characteristics of this full flow lube filter element are impacted by abnormally high contaminant loading due to accelerated
lube system component wear and/or impending failure, abnormal ingression of contamination into the lube system during
operation or maintenance activities, and contamination generated from thermo-oxidative or hydrolytic breakdown of the
lubricant.
Since a clogged oil filter would otherwise lead to oil starvation, gas turbine engine filters have bypass valves, which open
under increased differential pressure. Most filter assemblies have provisions to indicate this condition externally by means
of a mechanical or electrical bypass indicator. An impending bypass indicator is required by the FAA CFR Title 14 (reference
items §23.1019, §25.1019, §27.1019, §29.1019, and §33.71) and is also required by the U.S. military (MIL-E-8593). The
impending bypass indicator is set below the bypass cracking pressure, since the oil wetted components can be damaged
by recirculating debris if the engine is operated with a bypassing filter. A thermal lockout prevents indication of filter
blockage/bypass due to cold oil as the higher viscosity of cold oil is sufficient to trigger thresholds for even a clean filter.
The mechanical indicators are pop-up buttons and can often only be inspected by removing cowlings, etc. The electrical
bypass switch permits cockpit or maintenance panel indication.
6.2.5 Filter Pressure Drop Monitoring
An alternative to the filter bypass indicators discussed in the previous section is to monitor the filter element pressure drop
using differential pressure transducers to indicate when a filter element requires replacement. Trending the pressure drop
across a filter element can also be utilized to indicate accelerated component wear, impending failure, poor maintenance,
oil breakdown or to provide a prediction of how much life remains on the filter element. In this case, a continuous signal is
output to the engine monitoring system allowing for operational limits to be established within the application’s software
without the need to change hardware. The thermal lockout function is now accomplished through the monitoring of the oil
temperature. Continuous monitoring of the pressure build-up across the filter element provides the operator the ability to
service the filter on-condition. In addition, the transducer provides the ability to identify some lubrication system failure
modes by using trending techniques.
The filter element differential pressure is a function of flow rate, fluid viscosity (which is affected by temperature), and
contaminant loading. Typically, the flow through the macro-porous filtration medium is considered to be laminar under
normal operating temperatures so that the filter element differential pressure varies linearly, to a good approximation, with
flow and viscosity for the design flow range and for low to moderate viscosities, typical of engine lubrication systems, as
illustrated in Figure 5. Note that if the filter element is within the scavenge system the resultant oil and air mixture will result
in a higher pressure drop than if the filter element is downstream of the air/oil separator.
Figure 5 - Filter element differential pressure as a function of flow rate and viscosity
As the filtration medium of the filter element loads up with solid contamination, the fluid flow paths through the filtration are
reduced resulting in increased filter element differential pressure. Figure 6 shows typical differential pressure build-up plots
as a function of contaminant loading for several different flow rates and viscosities. Each differential pressure build-up curve
was determined at a fixed flow rate and viscosity as indicated. AC Fine Test Dust contaminant was used to load the filter
elements for each fluid viscosity and flow rate (refer to ISO 12103 Road Vehicles - Test Dust for Filter Evaluation).
Filter Bypass
Figure 6 - Filter element differential pressure as a function of contaminant loading
As can be seen, the rate of increase of differential pressure (i.e., first derivative of the differential pressure build-up curve)
increases with increased loading of the filter element, resulting in a flat curve at lower contaminant loading and increasing
rapidly (exponentially) at higher contaminant loading.
6.2.5.1 Change in Pressure Drop to Detect Abnormal Debris
The origin of solid contamination in engine lubrication systems may be categorized as follows:
a. Built-in debris (new engines): This includes debris from manufacturing and assembly processes (polishing compounds,
machining debris such as metal chips, elastomer particles, etc.) as well as contamination in the lubricant fluid. Most
manufacturers have processes for removing built-in debris, including finer filtration during start-up/'Green Run'.
b. Debris ingressed/generated during engine operation: During 'normal' operation environmental contamination such as
silica (sand) and other mineral compounds can be ingressed into the engine lube system via seals and vents. Wear
debris generated from 'normal' component and elastomers/seal wear will be entrained in the lubricant.
c. Debris introduced during maintenance: Debris can also be introduced during maintenance in the form of contaminated
lubricant and contamination in replacement components, residual debris/chips from machining and other maintenance
activities.
d. Abnormal debris ingression/generation: External contamination can be ingressed into the lubrication system due to
abnormal operating conditions, such as excessive seal wear or excessively contaminated environment. Wear debris
generated during fault mode progression also accumulates in the lubrication system filter element. The rate of debris
generation is based on the fault mode and load and speed of the component.
Figure 7 shows effective filter element load rates for the same engine model, operated by four different operators. The load
rate is expressed in g/100 hours of AC Fine Test Dust (ACFTD) contaminant, a standard reference test contaminant utilized
in laboratory evaluation of filter elements. The load rates were determined by evaluating the residual contaminant capacity
of serviced filter elements, removed after the 'normal' service interval, utilizing ACFTD contaminant per a standard laboratory
procedure. The load rates range from 0.8 g/100 hour to ~3 g/100 hour, implying a variation in filter element service interval
of a factor of ~4 among the operators.
Figure 7 - Filter element load rates by operator
From the discussion above it may be concluded that under 'normal' operating conditions, an average contaminant load rate
may be established for specific applications and hence, a baseline differential pressure build-up profile and filter element
service interval. Deviations from normal operating conditions related to excessive contaminant ingression/generation in the
lubrication system will result in a higher contaminant load rate for the filter element and hence, more rapid differential
pressure build-up and reduced filter element service life. Typically in engine lubrication systems, abnormally high
contaminant load rates are associated with: (1) lube system component wear and impending failure, such as wear of
bearings and seals, (2) thermal break down products of the lubricant, typically carbonaceous material such as coke, and
(3) ingression of environmental debris such as siliceous material.
As previously discussed, a key necessity in differential pressure monitoring for fluid system diagnostics/prognostics is the
availability of real-time information on the flow rate and fluid viscosity at the filter element, in conjunction with the filter
element differential pressure.
Fluid viscosity may be estimated for a specific engine lubricant by determining the fluid temperature at the filter element,
accomplished by incorporating a thermocouple with the differential pressure transducer, and then using a temperature-
viscosity relationship for the specific fluid. A potential drawback is the fact that many operators change lubricants, usually
by topping off the lubrication system, resulting in a mixture of several lubricants having potentially different viscosities. Thus,
on-line viscosity measuring devices that would satisfy requirements for aircraft engine applications would be preferable.
Flow rate information is usually obtained from engine speed, pump speed, or oil pressure. Variations in flow rate are most
significant in the flight cycle when engine speeds change from the 'idle' to the 'take-off' or 'cruise' segments. The flow rate
during the 'cruise' portion of a flight cycle does not vary significantly. Care should be taken to ensure that the flow rate at
the filter element is consistent with the measured parameter from which it is derived since the design of the lube system
may result in the flow rate at the filter element differing from the flow rate expected from the measured parameter.
6.2.5.2 Change in Pressure Drop to Predict Filter Life
In addition to detection of mechanical faults in oil-wetted components, monitoring filter element differential pressure (filter
delta-p) enables prediction of Remaining Useful Life (RUL) of the filter element itself. Many operators prefer to change out
filter elements on a 'hard time' basis (scheduled) rather than on-condition (differential pressure indication) due to the logistics
of maintaining spare filters and necessary maintenance facilities at all operational locations. The filter element service
interval is set conservatively to ensure that the filter element is replaced prior to differential pressure indicator actuation.
Knowing the RUL of the filter element enables the filter change maintenance task to transition from a time-based scheduled
or unscheduled activity to an on-condition planned maintenance task. This provides the operator the flexibility to perform
planned maintenance at a time convenient to them while minimizing the number of filters that must be stocked in multiple
locations, thus reducing how often the filter must be changed, and reducing the number of filters that get removed with
useful life remaining.
As previously discussed, the first step in determining the RUL of the filter is to correct the delta-p measurements to a
standard oil temperature and pressure so that measurements taken at different operating conditions can be compared to
one another. Once the measured data is corrected, there are two primary elements needed to predict when a filter will need
to be replaced. The first is the characteristic curve for the filter element and the second is the rate at which the filter is being
utilized. The characteristic curve shows, for a given oil temp and flow rate, how the pressure drop across the filter changes
as the amount of debris (referred to as ‘dirt’) increases. This curve can be approximated with a mathematical model that
allows the future progression of delta-p to be estimated, given the current utilization rate (see Figure 8). Care should be
taken to ensure that the Actual characteristic curve includes data up to the bypass value to avoid inaccuracies associated
with extrapolating the model beyond measured data.
Dirt Capacity at Constant Flow and Pressure

45
40
35
Differential Pressure - PSI
30
Actual
25
Characteristic
Curve
20 Modeled
Characteristic
Curve
15
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Dirt - Grams
Figure 8 - Filter characteristic curve

(Reprinted with permission of Honeywell International Inc.)
The utilization rate represents an average of how much debris is being captured by the filter over time. It is important to note
that the utilization rate is different from the rate of increase in delta-p. The utilization rate is a measurement of the amount
of debris that is being captured by the filter, in grams/hour. The rate of increase of delta-p has the units psi/hour. By knowing
the current delta-p and how quickly it is changing, the current amount of dirt in the filter and the current filter utilization rate
can be estimated. The utilization rate will vary with changes in the oil flow rate and the amount of debris captured; using the
average utilization rate allows the progression of delta-p to be modeled and hence the objective of estimating the RUL of
the filter can be achieved, as illustrated in Figure 9.
50
45
40
R
Differential Pressure - PSI
35
30
Delta-P Rate
25
20
15
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Operating Hours
Figure 9 - Modeling progression of filter differential pressure

(Reprinted with permission of Honeywell International Inc.)
7. OIL DEBRIS MONITORING
The major objective of engine oil debris monitoring is the prompt detection of failure modes with rapid progression,
particularly those with short time to onset of significant secondary engine damage. Wear modes with slow progression rates
usually do not lead to engine failure by themselves. However, they can initiate secondary modes with faster progression
rates. For example, a bearing surface damaged by corrosion can begin to spall eventually. Detection of this secondary
mode, which progresses at a faster rate, then becomes essential if hazardous or catastrophic failure is to be avoided.
Sudden failures of oil wetted components caused by fatigue cracking, such as gear tooth or bearing race fracture, are not
normally detectable by any of the methods described in this AIR. These sudden failure modes produce little or no debris
prior to component disintegration. However, this type of failure is rare in a production engine and can be prevented by proper
design and quality assurance. Vibration/acoustic and electrostatic analysis techniques are being developed to try to identify
these types of defects.
In selecting the debris detection method(s) for the engine monitoring system, the following must be determined:
a. The types of potential failure modes
b. Their criticality versus their probability
c. The required detection point (timeliness)

d. Cost-effectiveness
e. Weight (for on-aircraft systems)
f. Logistics requirements
Most debris monitoring methods discussed in this AIR have at least some trending capability. Trending can provide essential
information in distinguishing correct from spurious indications of the debris monitoring system or method. Trending also aids
in determining the criticality of the wear or incipient failure mode under investigation.
The oil debris monitoring methods currently in use or under development can be divided into on-aircraft and off-aircraft
debris monitoring techniques. This classification is useful since the two categories have different hardware and logistics
requirements.
For on-aircraft debris monitoring methods, proper integration of the sensor(s) into the oil system is essential and can
determine their success or failure. Further, both on-aircraft and off-aircraft debris monitoring methods are affected by the
degree of oil filtration. This document, therefore, addresses both sensor integration where applicable and interaction of
debris monitoring and oil filtration.
Besides the hardware to detect the presence of debris in the oil system and the means to verify and diagnose the developing
failure, the debris monitoring system also needs to include effective criteria for the initiation of appropriate maintenance
actions. These criteria are as important as the hardware in ensuring that secondary damage is kept to a minimum, in-flight
shutdowns and engine removals away from base are avoided and serviceable engines are not grounded prematurely.
While some oil-wetted component failure modes are common to all engines (e.g., bearing rolling contact fatigue), others are
specific to certain engine models, usually because of the design and loading of their bearings, gears, or splines. It is often
impossible during engine development to anticipate all failure modes that may occur. As a result, failure modes, detection
algorithms, and removal criteria are often established with the aid of the oil debris monitoring system itself. Ideally, this
should occur during engine development, but frequently requires in-service experience because of the rarity of oil-wetted
component failures.
7.2 Failure Modes/Monitored Parameters
Wear and failure mechanisms are a result of lubrication and load conditions, and of the mechanical design characteristics
of engine components, including materials. Under full-film elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) conditions, where the film
thickness is large compared to the average surface roughness, the predominant failure mode of rolling-contact bearings is
spalling or macropitting induced by surface fatigue (see Reference 2.2.2 and ARP5433). This process produces mostly
large debris particles with a typical size range from 100 to 1000 μm. In the boundary lubricated and mixed-mode (partial
EHL) regimes, where asperity contact occurs, the debris particles are of smaller size (<100 μm). Under such lubrication
conditions, abrasive and adhesive-type accelerated wear modes such as fretting, bearing skidding, cage rubbing, gear
scuffing, spline wear and bearing race (fixed) rotation are more common. Bearing skidding can occur when bearing loads
are light. It produces very fine debris particles (<25 μm) and can progress rapidly to loss of rolling element tracking when
bearing surface speeds are high. Certain cage wear modes also produce only small particles, until cage failure occurs. The
rate of fatigue wear accelerates in the presence of water contamination.
While each engine model may generate its own debris profile in terms of type, material, quantity, shape, rate of production,
color, and size distribution, classification of particles can be useful for determining cause and action required for other
engine models and types. Figure 10 shows an oil debris classification chart for troubleshooting military helicopter gas turbine
engines and gearboxes. The figure displays debris type, description, quantity, and size of particles and illustrates how oil
debris monitoring can be used in determining the probable cause and required action. Figures 10A and 10B show
photographs of the type of debris that has been classified while Figure 10C illustrates how to use the data in determining
the condition of a component.
Computers make it possible to develop more comprehensive and accessible databases (see Reference 2.2.5). These types
of data can assist maintenance personnel to more accurately make decisions concerning component condition.
Figure 10 - Oil debris classification chart (Reference 2.2.36)

Figure 10A - Oil debris photographs Type A-D

Figure 10B - Oil debris photographs Type E-L

Figure 10C - Example engine oil contamination troubleshooting chart

The various debris monitoring methods generally differ with respect to the parameters that are observed, and the range in
which they are measured. Depending on the failure mode, debris production may increase dramatically in one size range
but not in another. As a result, the timeliness of detection of a given incipient failure mode can vary from method to method.
Rolling contact fatigue (RCF) is an example of a wear mode that cannot be eliminated by design or readily controlled by
other procedures such as hard time overhaul, and is primarily reliant on oil debris monitoring. If left undetected, RCF can
initiate rapid fracture modes in gears and in bearings. It is, therefore, essential for the selected monitoring method or
combination of methods to be able to provide adequate warning and, if possible, follow the degradation pattern of RCF and
other critical modes through their serious condition/failure stages.
In gas turbine engines, main shaft bearings are among the most critical oil wetted components. In turboshaft and turboprop
engines, reduction gear components are also critical. Today, main shaft bearings are generally made from double vacuum-
remelted steel with high amounts of chromium and molybdenum. Cages are also generally made from steel and silver
plated. Gearbox bearings may contain bronze cages, as do main shaft bearings of older engines. Ceramic materials are
being used in bearings in some engines currently in development.
An effective oil debris monitoring system should, therefore, as a minimum, respond to the presence of bearing-type (ferrous)
particles in the oil system. There have been further developments in inductive flow-through monitors that can also detect
larger size ranges of nonferrous particles.
The most widely used debris monitoring methods and the respective particle size ranges in which they are most effective
are:
a. Magnetic chip collectors: 50 to >1000 μm
b. Electric chip detectors: 50 to >1000 μm
c. Ferrography: 1 to 100 μm
d. SOA: <10 μm
For failure modes that produce debris in more than one of these size ranges, corroborating information from two or three
different techniques may help significantly in making the decision to remove the engine or engine module for repair.
There are, however, failure modes that produce only large or only small particles or in which small particles are generated
much later than large particles and vice-versa. The engine manufacturer, in collaboration with the end-user, must decide
how to complement the on-aircraft debris monitoring devices usually found on the engine as standard equipment with other
techniques to suit the users' special operational requirements and capabilities.
Debris particle “size” or “size range” are ambiguous classifications. A “large” particle collected on a chip collector may be
1000 µm in length, while a “large” particle collected in an oil sample is likely to be less than 100 µm long. While size is often
referenced by the largest dimension of the particle, the volume of the particle, which includes the other two dimensions,
determines the mass. Particles with the same length can have a great range of masses.
The emerging generation of electronic debris sensors (see 7.3.1.6) requires a better definition of their sensitivity than
“particle size”. When their operating principle is inductive their indication sensitivity is less a function of particle size than of
mass, shape, and magnetic properties of the debris material. Oil flow velocity and viscosity may also play a role. Therefore,
the performance of such a system should be defined in accordance with the operating principle of the device.
7.2.1 Filtration Considerations for Oil Debris Monitoring
The benefits of improved filtration for longer bearing life are well established and widely accepted. For this reason, there is
an increasing trend to use finer filters on aircraft gas turbine engines. Currently, several modern engines incorporate filter
elements with a rating of 3 μm absolute while many others have gone to 7 and 10 μm absolute. Field experience with fine
filtration has demonstrated that spectrographic oil analysis (SOA) becomes ineffective or unnecessary.
The trend towards finer filtration is expected to increase the number of engines in the field for which traditional off-aircraft
debris monitoring methods will be of limited effectiveness. This trend has stimulated the development of more sensitive
spectrometric techniques, such as plasma spectrometers.
Fine filtration enhances the effectiveness of magnetic chip collectors, electric chip detectors and debris-capturing inductive
sensors since it reduces recirculating, non-significant debris generated by normal wear.
7.3 Monitoring Technologies
7.3.1 On-Line Debris Monitoring
On-line debris monitoring techniques are based on sensors or debris collectors that are permanently installed in the engine
lubrication system. Some collect the debris for later inspection while others do not. On-aircraft debris monitoring techniques
can be augmented by off-aircraft analysis of collected debris. Sensors may further require signal conditioners, software,
cockpit readouts, maintenance-crew alert devices and/or interface hardware or software with engine monitoring systems.
The main advantages of on-aircraft debris monitoring methods are to provide diagnostic capability either on aircraft or at
line maintenance.
All on-line debris monitors rely on the debris transport characteristics of the oil system. All respond to debris in a size range
considerably larger than the separation capability of the oil filter and are, therefore, installed upstream of the filter. The
proper understanding of the capabilities and limitations of the debris sensor is essential to its effective operation.
The probability of detecting an incipient failure increases with the amount of debris available to the sensor. Figure 11 shows
a section of a typical engine oil system schematic with a debris generating site, pump screen, scavenge pump, and debris
sensor to illustrate this relationship. The debris available for detection at the sensor site depends on the transport efficiency
of the oil system.
As Figure 11 illustrates, the debris transport efficiency nT determines what fraction of the debris generated by the source
arrives at the sensor location. Transport efficiency depends on oil system layout, fluid velocity, and particle size. For
example, the scavenge system shown in Figure 11 traps all particles larger than the openings of the pump screen. The nT
for this size range is, therefore, equal to zero. Additionally, in an actual lubrication system, particles can stick to cavity walls,
be trapped in corners, or sedimented in bearing compartments, sumps, and reservoirs. They can also be mangled.
The debris capture efficiency nC applies to sensors that capture the debris for failure detection (e.g., magnetic chip collectors,
electric chip detectors, particle-capturing electronic debris sensors). Capture efficiency is a function of sensor
characteristics, particle size and material, fluid velocity, and, most important, the design of the cavity or pocket in which the
sensor is located. Debris capture efficiency is enhanced by passing the entire oil flow through the debris monitor (full flow
debris monitoring) and by including positive means to separate the debris from the oil. Figure 12 illustrates how widely nC
can vary as a result of cavity design, everything else being equal. There are means to greatly increase capture efficiency
such as centrifugal debris separators (see 7.3.1.5). The screen shown at the bottom of Figure 12 is used for debris capture
(see 7.3.1.4).
The debris indication efficiency nI represents the sensitivity of the sensor and system to a particle of given size or mass,
shape and material.
The overall debris detection probability is given by Equation 1 (see Figure 11 for definition of symbols):
d = t C i (Eq. 1)
and corresponds to the fraction of particles indicated versus those that are generated at the failure site.
Effective diagnostic capability requires optimizing these quantities during oil system design and development and, if
possible, measuring them through oil system rig testing. If the debris transport and/or capture efficiencies are low, as is the
case in many older engines, the sensitivity nI of the sensor must be high to compensate for it. This, in turn, makes the
system more susceptible to false alarms. Even then, incipient failures that release only a few large particles may not be
detected in time to avoid secondary damage or loss of functionality.
(SEE PARAGRAPH 7.3.1.4)
Figure 11 - Factors influencing debris detection

(SEE PARAGRAPH 7.3.1.4)
Figure 12 - Sensor capture efficiency for debris particles

The requirement to detect more failure modes with greater reliability increases sensor and system cost. At the same time,
the requirement for fault isolation to an engine module or bearing set requires multiple sensor locations. In an advanced
system, the functions of failure detection (requiring one sophisticated sensor and in-flight signal processing capability) and
isolation (requiring several sensors for ground checkout only) can be separated for increased cost-effectiveness. Such a
"primary/secondary" system is incorporated in Figure 1. A high-performance (“primary”) full-flow debris monitor is installed
in the main scavenge line. For the purpose of failure isolation, additional (“secondary”) probes are located in each of the
main shaft bearing return lines and in the accessory and reduction gearboxes, if applicable. These can consist of simple
magnetic chip collectors whose capture efficiency is kept low so as not to interfere with the operation of the master detector.
To put debris indication efficiency in perspective, typical sizes of some common items relevant to debris monitoring are
shown for reference purposes in Table 1.
Table 1 - Typical dimensions relevant to debris monitoring
Size in microns Size in inches

Typical filter mesh size 3 0.0001
Particle suspended in oil 10 0.0004
Typical minimum particle size
detectable by human eye 50 0.002
Typical minimum particle size
detectable by inline debris sensor 100 0.004
Smallest particle considered
significant in chip detector
analysis 650 0.026
Very large particle from bearing
fatigue fault 1500 0.060
Typical mesh size in last chance
screen 2000 0.080
The category of on-aircraft debris monitoring devices includes the following:
a. Magnetic chip collector
b. Electric chip detector
c. Pulsed electric chip detector
d. Screen-type full-flow debris monitor
e. Centrifugal debris separator
f. Inductive particle counter/collector (quantitative debris monitor)
g. Inductive flow-through oil debris monitor
h. Inductive ferrous particle sensor/collector
i. Electrostatic oil debris monitor
Items a through d are well-established and widely used. Item e is a high-efficiency device used to separate debris from the
oil and deposit it on a debris collector or sensor. Items f, g, h, and i belong to a new generation of electronic debris sensors,
which are in service or are being developed.
With the recent advancements in flow-through monitors, particle retention must not be forgotten. Recovering debris from
the sensor that generates the indication gives additional diagnostic and prognostic information. If flow-through sensors are
used, a high efficiency debris capturing device downstream of the sensor should be incorporated. Additionally, it establishes
the credibility of the monitoring system to allow verification of signal by inspection of the debris.
7.3.1.1 Magnetic Chip Collector
Also referred to as magnetic plugs or magnetic chip detectors, these devices have been used in gas turbine engines since
the mid-1950s. They are usually installed in main or individual scavenge lines and accessory or reduction gearboxes. If
located below the oil reservoir level, they should have self-closing valves, which permit the inspection of the magnetic probe
without the need to drain the oil. Figure 13 shows an example. Most units manufactured today have high-reliability quick-
disconnect locks, which eliminate the need for tools or lock wiring. Rare-earth magnets are used increasingly to enhance
magnetic strength and chip capture efficiency.
Figure 13 - Magnetic chip collector with self-closing valve

The period between inspections of the magnetic chip collector(s) of an engine should be in relation to its known failure
modes and is the result of in-service experience and coordination between engine manufacturer and user. Intervals vary
widely but are generally 125 to 500 hours where chip collectors are used as primary failure detection devices. If a problem
exists, more frequent inspections (even daily or after each flight) may be justified for a short period of time. Inspection
intervals can be extended as experience is gained and the engine type matures.
An optimum location for at least the most critical unit(s) would be behind a separate access panel or near the oil filter or
pressure fill fitting so that they can be inspected without the need to open engine cowlings. Poor accessibility results in
checking of magnetic chip collectors at infrequent intervals or only when an incipient failure is suspected (for example, after
abnormal SOA readings).
The engine maintenance manual should include good illustrations of typical debris (see Figures 10A and 10B for an
example), together with guidelines relating debris particle size and quantity to likely failure mode and severity. This enhances
the effectiveness of magnetic chip collectors considerably, since maintenance personnel can compare appearance and
quantity of collected debris. However, removal decisions are more accurate if maintenance personnel are experienced in
debris interpretation (especially concerning the engine model in question and its predominant failure modes) or can get
support from a laboratory facility.
The proper location of magnetic chip collectors within the lubrication system is essential to high chip capture efficiency.
Magnetic chip collectors should, therefore, be located in well-designed "pockets" or inside full-flow debris separators (see
Figure 12 for examples). Since magnetic chip collectors are relatively inexpensive, they can be installed cost-effectively in
different parts of the engine, such as individual scavenge lines and accessory or reduction gearboxes. This placement
makes failure isolation possible.
Sophisticated and very effective oil debris monitoring methods have been developed around magnetic chip collectors (see
References 2.2.1 and 2.2.7). They involve transfer, retention, recording, and quantification of collected debris for trending
and analytical techniques for diagnosis and fault isolation. These techniques are more fully described in 7.3.3.2.
Magnetic chip collectors are most effective for the detection of failure modes involving the production of large magnetic
particles (100 μm and larger) such as surface fatigue spalling of bearings, gears, and pump elements. Where provisions
have been made by means of special "pockets" to reduce oil flow velocity and/or separate debris through centrifugal action
so that debris capture efficiency is very high, smaller debris particles will also be collected in sufficient quantity. This will
allow magnetic chip collectors to be effective for detection of failure modes that generate predominantly small particles,
such as bearing skidding, gear and pump scoring, spline wear, and rotating bearing races.
7.3.1.2 Electric Chip Detector
Electric chip detectors are essentially magnetic chip collectors with electric continuity indication capability. They are used in
many engines and are required for some military turbojet and turbofan engines by MIL-E-5007D and JSSG-2007, and for
turboshaft and turboprop engines by MIL-E-8593A.
Remotely indicating chip detectors are usually wired to cockpit or maintenance panel indicators. Their main advantages are
immediate response and absence of scheduled inspections. To simplify removal for visual inspection after a chip light
occurrence, self-closing oil shutoff valves are usually incorporated. This type of chip detector is used in some helicopter
engines, some propulsion engines for commercial aircraft, single-engine aircraft with gas turbine engines, and some military
long-range patrol aircraft.
Chip detectors for ground checkout, with simple touch-to-test terminals, are used in older U.S. military turboprop engines.
Continuity checks must be carried out at frequent intervals.
The chip sensitive area of an electric chip detector consists of two electrodes and a magnet to attract magnetic debris
(Figure 14). The electrodes are bridged if enough debris has accumulated, either in the form of a few large particles or many
smaller ones. The spacing between these electrodes is generally 1 to 4 mm (0.04 to 0.16 inch), depending on engine type
(shaft speed, load, and gear train characteristics), degree of oil filtration (finer filtration permits smaller gap spacing), and
criticality of failure mode.
Figure 14 - Electric chip detector

As in the case of magnetic chip collectors, provisions must be made in the lubrication system to ensure effective chip
detector installation.
To provide assistance in the decision to remove the engine for repair, engine maintenance manuals should contain
instructions for debris interpretation (see Figure 15 for an example).
Figure 15 - Maintenance manual excerpt for chip detector debris interpretation

A serious drawback of electric chip detectors is that they have a high false-alarm rate due to non-critical debris (normal
wear particles or debris left over from manufacturing or repair activities). They also have no trending capability since they
generate only an on/off signal (one bit of information), which restricts their usefulness as an input device for an EMS. False
alarms are mainly caused by background debris especially with newer engines. False alarms can be reduced by improving
oil filtration and cleanliness during engine buildup to reduce background contamination.
7.3.1.3 Pulsed Electric Chip Detector
In lubrication systems with conventional filtration levels, (coarser than 15 µm), false chip indications of electric chip detectors
are predominantly caused by buildup of fine, non-significant wear debris on the chip detector.
These false indications can be suppressed by delivering a current pulse to the chip detector, locally melting the fine debris
or the contacts between small debris particles. This current pulse does not affect significant, failure-related debris, which
has a larger cross section. The current pulse can be initiated automatically when the gap is bridged, or manually by the pilot
after chip light illumination.
Due to their simplicity and success in dealing with false indications of this type, these systems have found acceptance in
helicopter transmissions and some engines. Since production of fine debris at an increased rate, causing more frequent
indications, can signify bearing failure, a pilot-initiated system permits limited trending. For automatically initiated systems,
such trending is also possible if the current pulses are recorded by an EMS.
7.3.1.4 Screen-Type Full-Flow Debris Monitor
In engines of older design, the chip detectors are often installed in scavenge lines or accessory gearboxes with no provision
to capture the debris other than by magnetic attraction and sedimentation. In such installations, most of the debris can
bypass the chip detector and find its way into the oil filter, causing a delayed or unreliable failure detection.
A full-flow debris monitor is designed to screen the entire scavenge flow in order to increase failure detection efficiency (see
Reference 2.2.3). Figure 16 shows a screen-type full-flow debris monitor for a modern turboshaft engine. The screen can
be removed for cleaning. Located inside is an electric chip detector. The screen openings are on the order of 0.5 mm
(0.02 inch), giving the device a capture efficiency of 100% for particles above that size. The screen area should be sized
adequately for full-flow conditions. The screen is usually specified for a maximum pressure drop with a certain percentage
of screen blockage, for example 0.1 psi with 50% screen blockage. Such units are also in use with self-closing valves and
with separate housings for installation in external oil lines. They can function as scavenge pump inlet screens in which case
the screen openings should be smaller than the largest debris size that the pump can pass without damage, often around
0.08 inch (2000 microns).
Figure 16 - Screen-type full-flow debris monitor

Screens are available that can also indicate the presence of metallic debris. Indicating screens are based on a mesh woven
from conducting wire and insulating spacers with the minimum particle size threshold determined by the size of screen
openings. They indicate ferrous and non-ferrous conductive debris. Indicating screens are often used in conjunction with
electric chip detectors.
7.3.1.5 Centrifugal Debris Separator
Centrifugal debris separators have been developed to achieve a high level of capture efficiency. This is particularly useful
in systems that generate very small amounts of normal wear debris. The separator is placed in the full scavenge flow path
and is used in conjunction with some type of debris sensor.
An example is shown in Figure 17. Its tangential inlet nozzle creates an internal vortex, which separates the entrained debris
effectively down to about 100 μm with some pressure drop (see Reference 2.2.4). An additional feature is its ability to
efficiently de-aerate the oil by means of a separate air exit nozzle, thus combining two functions. This feature is optional
and does not affect debris separation.
Figure 17 - Centrifugal debris separator with oil system deaeration capability

Since the internal vortex is driven hydraulically, the unit must be installed on the pressure side of the scavenge pump. The
pressure drop must be taken into consideration in the oil system design. The debris sensor can consist of a magnetic chip
collector, electric chip detector, or other debris-sensing device.
7.3.1.6 Electronic Debris Sensors
Two of the most characteristic parameters for on-aircraft detection of an incipient failure are the rate of debris production
and particle size range. Trending these parameters permits detection with high reliability and can help in determining how
long the engine can be used safely.
An emerging category of electronic debris sensors uses electrical inductance as their operating principle. Particles are either
counted individually, or their total accumulation is measured. Both methods can provide information about rate of debris
production and particle size range.
A second category of sensors are those that detect the electrostatic charge associated with debris in the oil system.
There are two different types of devices: sensor/collectors that capture the particles, indicate them and retain them for later
inspection; and flow-through devices that do not collect the particles.
Unlike most chip detectors, electronic debris sensors can follow the failure in progress and can, therefore, provide data that
allow trending and prognosis. This requires the development of algorithms for maintenance crew (or even pilot) alert. Such
algorithms can be derived from experience gained during bearing tests, engine development, or early in-service experience.
For example, maintenance crews can be alerted as a result of a pre-determined number of particle counts per flight (debris
production rate), or as a result of a pre-determined total number of counts, regardless of elapsed time period (total quantity).
Also, procedures need to be developed and implemented for verifying that the alert is not caused by system malfunction but
by a real failure of oil-wetted components. These devices incorporate a BIT system to verify that the debris monitoring system
is fully functional.
Together with their associated signal conditioners, electronic debris sensors are ideally suited for interfacing with engine
monitoring systems. In developing sensors, electronics and software, the requirements for interfacing sensors with EMS
need to be taken into consideration (refer to ARP1587).
Electronic debris sensors can be affected by environmental factors, such as temperature, vibration, and EMI. In order to
minimize false indications under engine operating conditions, the sensitivity of the debris monitoring system may need to
be reduced significantly, compared to test stand experience. Therefore, in-service experience provides the ultimate
verification of on-aircraft debris monitoring system performance.
7.3.1.6.1 Inductive Particle Sensor/Collector
Figure 18 shows a quantitative debris monitoring system consisting of an inductive magnetic sensor, centrifugal debris
separator and a signal conditioner. This system provides real-time signals (counts) in response to the arrival of discrete
ferrous particles whose mass are in excess of a pre-set detection threshold. The sensor can be installed inside a centrifugal
debris separator as shown or in other high-efficiency scavenge system pockets to enhance debris capture efficiency. It
collects debris particles and makes them accessible for visual inspection and optional transfer to a laboratory for additional
analysis, like a magnetic chip collector. Established techniques can be applied to verify and diagnose failures in progress.
The sensor has a built-in test (BIT) feature that can be initiated by the EMS to verify system operability in the absence of
debris signals.
7.3.1.6.2 Flow-Through Inductive Debris Monitors
Several types of flow-through inductive debris monitors are available. These devices are typically non-intrusive, consisting
of one or more inductive coils enclosing an oil line. A metal particle in the oil stream causes a change in the inductance of
the coil(s) as the particle passes through. This change is used to measure the volume and magnetic properties of the
particle. Since the density of most materials used in bearings, gears and other load bearing, oil wetted components is
similar, the devices effectively measure particle mass. For ferromagnetic particles, the mass, the magnetic susceptibility of
the material, and shape of the particle determine the magnitude of the signal. For non-ferromagnetic metallic particles, the
surface area and conductivity determine the magnitude of the signal. The signals for ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic
metallic particles can be differentiated because they are of opposite phase.
Particle detection thresholds are often stated in terms of particle “size”, although the mass of particles of the same linear
dimension can vary by orders of magnitude, depending on their shape. Therefore, a detection threshold can be stated in
terms of the size of an equivalent spherical particle of the same mass. Particle detection thresholds also depend on the
sensor diameter with smaller diameters being more sensitive.
Use of this device may also include a high efficiency debris capturing device downstream of the sensor for debris signal
verification.
Figure 18 - Quantitative debris monitor

Figure 19 - Flow-through inductive debris monitor

(Reprinted with permission from Gastops Ltd.)
7.3.1.6.3 Inductive Small-Particle Sensor/Collector
As discussed previously, some failure modes in gas turbine engine bearings (e.g., skidding and cage wear) produce only
very fine, flour-like debris until the bearing is destroyed. The inductive small-particle sensor collects all magnetic particles
and provides a signal that increases with total collected mass. By recording the signal by means of associated electronics
and software, the system also indicates the arrival of discrete, large particles and is, therefore, capable of indicating all
failure modes that produce magnetic debris particles, regardless of size. A BIT feature is included. The effectiveness of this
sensor is greatly enhanced by installing it inside an efficient debris separator or “pocket” to provide the necessary high
debris capture efficiency for small particles.
7.3.1.6.4 Oil-Line Sensor
This device is a full-flow oil-line sensor, which needs to be installed in the oil-line where a representative sample of wear
debris particles will pass through the sensor. The sensor is passive and non-intrusive; it comprises dual ring elements,
which are sensitive to the electrostatic charge on the wear debris. The sensor system computes velocities associated with
the wear debris and its output may be broadly related to the size and quantity of wear debris present, although the system
does not currently provide specific particle sizing information.
7.3.2 System Performance Verification
System performance can be verified in three different ways:
a. Flow-stand testing using a simulated engine lubrication system. This requires the use of standardized, reproducible
test particles and a mechanism to inject them into the flow in a way that simulates a failure in progress as closely as
possible. The standard test particles should be made from a material that is identical to, or at least simulates, the
materials of engine components that are subject to failure. Furthermore, the test particles should have shapes and
sizes that are representative of actual debris particles.
b. Bearing rig testing. The performance of a debris monitoring system can be verified by installing it in a bearing test rig,
downstream from the bearing. Care must be taken that the oil system actually transports all debris particles to the
sensor. This is usually not the case with simple oil collecting pans scavenged by gravity. Preferably, the test rig should
resemble the engine installation. The bearing is artificially damaged to accelerate the test, and often operated at
higher-than-design loads, speeds or temperatures. The criterion of success for the debris monitoring system is
whether it indicates the failure in a timely manner, and whether its signal (output) is comparable to the actual number
or mass of those particles that arrived at the sensor location and that exceeded the sensitivity threshold of the sensor.
c. Engine development testing and in-service experience. Because failures can generally not be induced in engines
under development, and certainly not in in-service engines, final performance verification must await the inevitable
occasional in-service failures. Under engine operating conditions, during development or in-service, unanticipated
failure modes may occur. The criteria for the performance of the debris monitoring systems are:
 detection of failures in a timely manner, before the onset of secondary failures (hits and the absence of misses);
 absence or at least minimization of false indications, especially those that cannot be verified easily by other
means.
7.3.3 Off-Line Debris Monitoring
With the exception of filter and magnetic plug debris analysis, the off-aircraft debris monitoring techniques discussed in this
section rely on sampling of the oil. The sampling process is most useful when a representative and homogeneous dispersion
of debris particles is available for interrogation. This condition is most nearly met when fine wear particles are present in the
oil system, and when the sample has been obtained in accordance with prescribed procedures. These methods are,
therefore, most effective for accelerated wear modes which produce substantial quantities of fine particles, such as fretting,
bearing skidding, cage rubbing, gear scuffing, bearing race rotation, and other forms of abrasive and adhesive wear. They
are less effective for those modes that are induced by surface (i.e., rolling contact) fatigue, such as spalling and macro-
pitting. This is due to the fact that these modes produce fewer numbers of mostly larger particles, which may settle out prior
to sampling or, by virtue of their small number, may not be represented in the sample.
Off-aircraft debris monitoring techniques involve the regular removal of oil samples or collected debris from the engine and
their subsequent analysis in a laboratory or by means of some other ground service equipment. The advantage of these
techniques is generally that the more sophisticated instruments used, the more information provided. These techniques
include:
a. Spectrometric oil analysis (SOA)
b. Quantification and analysis of debris from magnetic chip collectors
c. Filter debris analysis
d. Ferrography
e. Laser particle shape classifier
f. X-ray spectrophotometer (X-ray fluorescence or XRF)
g. Scanning electron microscope (SEM/EDAX)
Off-aircraft debris monitoring techniques involving oil sampling are affected by the degree of oil filtration. These techniques
are more fully addressed in 7.2.1.
7.3.3.1 Spectrometric Oil Analysis (SOA)
SOA is the most widely used off-aircraft oil monitoring method. A small oil sample is taken from the engine and transported
to a laboratory where the suspended metal particle content is determined spectrometrically in parts per million or even parts
per billion. The results are automatically recorded by the computerized instrument and compared to pre-determined limits,
or are converted into other formats that can be used for determining required maintenance action, for instance a trend plot.
The technique relies on the fact that oil wetted components, under certain conditions of accelerated wear, produce larger-
than-normal quantities of fine wear particles, which are carried away by the oil. This leads to an increase in wear particle
concentration in the oil. In order to successfully identify an increase in fine wear particles due to component failure, a
baseline level of normal wear debris must be established for that specific engine.
The spectrometric analysis involves determination of the light spectrum generated by the oil sample as it is burned. Trace
element content is determined by the frequency and intensity of the resultant spectral lines. Two types of instruments are
commonly employed. Both are emission spectrometers. The first type is a rotating disc electrode (RDE) atomic emission
spectrometer conforming to ASTM D6595. The second type is an inductively coupled plasma (ICP) atomic emission
spectrometer conforming to ASTM D5185.
Atomic emission spectrometers vaporize a small portion of the oil sample and measure the resultant light intensity in specific
narrow frequency ranges utilizing a diffraction grating and photomultiplier tubes or solid-state light sensors. These
spectrometers are located at points where specific spectral lines of interest are projected.
There is a difference in the upper particle size detected by the two techniques. RDE spectrometers lose their ability to detect
particles above approximately 10 µm whereas ICP spectrometers are limited to approximately 5 µm or less due to sample
introduction methods and excitation temperatures.
A critical requirement for the successful application of spectrometric oil analysis to engine oil monitoring is careful and
consistent oil sampling methodology. Representative oil samples, taken with clean sampling equipment, must be taken
sufficiently often to allow meaningful data trending.
Sampling intervals may vary from as short as one sample per flight on some military applications to more than 50 flight
hours on some commercial aircraft programs. In general, the interval is established by economic, operational, and previous
failure history considerations for the engine being monitored. For example, a joint European airline consortium has
established and proven the effectiveness of an 80-flight hour sampling interval.
Oil samples taken must be representative of the circulated oil in order for the analysis to be valid. The most common method
used by airlines involves samples taken through a filler port with a sampling tube extended to the center of the oil tank
(Figure 20). Another method involves the use of special sampling valves (Figure 21). The U.S. military services, through
their Joint Oil Analysis Program (JOAP), have developed two standard sampling kits for all military equipment in the
program. They consist of a 17-mL glass bottle and polyethylene tubes in two different lengths. Sampling is performed from
the oil reservoir (Figure 22) or through chip detector valves. When samples must be taken through tank drain fittings,
procedures should be used to avoid unrepresentative sampling (e.g., flushing the fitting before sampling).
It is recommended that samples be taken no more than 15 to 30 minutes after engine shutdown. Oil samples should be
taken in roughly similar locations and at established times after shutdown to assure maximum consistency. Sample tube
and container cleanliness is also very important.
Contamination in the sampling equipment can produce erroneous analyses and lead to unnecessary maintenance actions.
Figure 20 - Airline SOA sampling method
Figure 21 - Oil sampling valve

Figure 22 - U.S. Military SOA sampling method
Modern spectrometers provide the capability of analyzing at least 20 different elements. The detection limit depends on the
element and the instrument being used for the analysis. For example, the detection limit for iron in an RDE spectrometer is
approximately 0.5 ppm, whereas the limit of detection for many wear metals using an ICP spectrometers is in the range of
10 to 100 ppb (0.01 to 0.1 ppm). Most commercial oil analysis laboratories report wear metal concentrations to the nearest
ppm.
The most commonly measured elements by SOA are those in Table 2. Less commonly measured elements are cadmium,
antimony, manganese, indium, and tungsten. Typically, spectrometers are calibrated for each element with commercially
available standards.
Table 2 - Common elements measured by SOA
Element Significance
Aluminum Possible wear of some gear cases, shims, and spacers
Barium
Boron
Calcium
Chromium
Copper Possible wear in alloyed components of bronze, for example,
bearing cages
Iron Possible wear in gears, splines, bearing races, and/or rolling
elements
Lead
Molybdenum Possible wear in bearing elements made from high
temperature, high strength steel such as M50
Nickel
Phosphorus
Potassium
Silicon
Silver Possible wear in plated parts such as bearing cages
Sodium
Tin
Titanium Possible wear in bearing hubs
Vanadium
Zinc
Depending on the result of the analysis in parts per million, further action is triggered either by excessive wear-metal
concentration or in rate-of-change in concentration. Thresholds are set on the basis of large sample populations from
engines, recommendations from the engine manufacturer, metallurgical information concerning engine components, from
other engine models of similar design, and from correlation with inspection results after removals. Rate-of change in
concentration is a more significant parameter than concentration itself since it relates directly to rate of wear-metal
production (see 2.2.6). For engines with significant oil consumption, taking oil replenishment into account yields better
results.
High concentration levels or high rate-of-change of concentration usually lead to re-sampling to confirm the sample was
taken properly. If readings are confirmed, additional maintenance actions such as inspection of chip detectors, screens, and
filters are usually recommended. Previous maintenance actions or special conditions affecting the engine also need to be
considered. The sample also can be filtered and the residue examined microscopically to determine if larger debris is
present to confirm an incipient failure.
Typical wear-metal patterns can be used for failure isolation if certain engine components have characteristic compositions.
Reference 2.2.6 describes a method to identify debris sources in terms of characteristic wear-metal concentration rates.
Spectrometric oil analysis programs have been applied widely to both military and commercial gas turbine engines.
Important advantages of the technique are the ability to quantify and trend data easily and to detect the presence of various
types of wear metals, including nonferrous, and of foreign contaminants in the lubrication system. The disadvantages of
SOA are initial equipment cost, the logistics of application (especially the time delay between sampling and maintenance
action), and the requirement for sample cleanliness and integrity.
7.3.3.1.1 Rotating Disc Electrode (RDE) Atomic Emission Spectrometer
The RDE spectrometer uses a rotating carbon electrode that dips into the sample and carries it to the spark gap where an
electric arc is struck between the top of the rotating disc and the tip of a carbon rod electrode. New electrodes are used for
each sample to eliminate cross-contamination. Results are obtained in parts-per-million (ppm). Samples need not be diluted
and can be processed quickly. This method is the most commonly used in the military. Field mobile RDE spectrometers are
used at military airfields and shipboard by the Navy.
Figure 23 - RDE illustration

(Reprinted with permission from the Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers (STLE),
a not-for-profit professional society headquartered in Park Ridge, IL, www.stle.org)
RDE does not require any sample preparation. The oil sample is transported into a high temperature arc by means of a
rotary carbon disc. The arc raises the energy state of the metal atoms in the oil causing them to emit their characteristic
emission lines that are measured by the optical system, Figure 23. RDE instruments measure particles from 0.1 microns
and up to 10 microns, depending on particle shape. Particles over 10 microns are only partially analyzed and the net
contribution to the results is minimal. RDE is popular with military oil laboratories because the instruments are transportable,
have no sample preparation and require only low-cost consumables (rod and disk).
7.3.3.1.1.1 Rotrode Filter Spectrometer (RFS)
Another variation of the RDE is referred to as the Rotrode filter spectrometer (RFS) that captures the wear particles onto
the carbon disk electrode by pulling the sample thorough the disk with a vacuum. The presence of more particles, larger
particle sizes and the absence of oil generate higher PPM values than possible with RDE. However, as with RDE, large
particles are only partially analyzed and significant variability in results occur because very few large particles are collected
in the oil sample bottle. Particles measured by RFS typically range up to 20 microns.
7.3.3.1.2 Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) Atomic Emission Spectrometer
ICP spectrometers are characterized by higher vaporization temperatures than RDE spectrometers. In the ICP, the plasma
is ignited with a radio-frequency source. It is the more sensitive of the two emission spectrometers, giving results in parts-
per-billion for some elements, e.g., copper. Most commercial labs use ICP.
Figure 24 - ICP illustration

(Reprinted with permission from the Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers (STLE),
a not-for-profit professional society headquartered in Park Ridge, IL, www.stle.org)
ICP requires a laboratory environment and more highly skilled technicians for sample preparation and operation. Oil samples
are diluted with a low viscosity solvent such as kerosene or toluene. The sample is nebulized and borne by the argon gas
carrier into a plasma torch. The high energy of the plasma raises the energy state of the metal atoms in the oil causing them
to emit their characteristic emission lines that are measured by the optical system, Figure 24. The ICP has superior accuracy,
precision and repeatability over the RDE and has a larger linear dynamic range that allows measuring over a wide range of
concentration levels. ICPs provide part per billion (PPB) sensitivity and measure particles in the 0.1 to 3 micron range. Like
RDE, the emission line intensities for each element are integrated and converted to PPM or PPB by a preset calibration
curve. Unlike RDE, large particles are not integrated in the overall results. ICP spectroscopy is popular with commercial oil
laboratories since 400 to 800 samples can easily be analyzed in eight hours with the use of auto-dilution and auto samplers.
Another ICP dilution technique, acid dissolution, digests all particles sizes in the oil sample. This technique is rarely used in
oil laboratories as it involves more time, hazardous material, and an additional waste stream.
ICPs generate lower PPM readings than RDE instruments and thus generate lower limits. Measurements from RDE, RFS
and ICP should not be mixed when establishing limits because different size ranges are incorporated in the results for all
three. The popularity of sampled oil analysis is diminishing in some applications, particularly aircraft (rotary and fixed-wing)
due to the implementation of finer filter elements resulting in fewer particles in the oil stream.
7.3.3.2 Quantification and Analysis of Debris from Magnetic Chip Collectors
Some airlines and military services have developed effective failure detection, prognostication, and isolation systems based
on magnetic chip collectors (see References 2.2.1 and 2.2.7). The magnetic probes (such as the one shown in Figure 13)
are removed from the engine at regular intervals, typically every 25 to 150 hours. They may be inspected visually on the
flight line and any debris found collected and recorded.
In more effective systems, they are replaced with clean spares while the removed probes, protected with covers or in
customized boxes, are sent to a central maintenance facility. An initial assessment of the severity of contamination, if any,
is made on the flight line. The probes are then sent to a laboratory for washing, visual inspection under a 20X microscope
and classification, recording, and archiving of the collected debris. Archiving consists of transfer, by means of transparent
tape, onto index cards that can be stored in such a way that the debris production history of a particular engine can be
reviewed at a glance. The amount of debris can also be measured with an inductive instrument called a debris tester. The
reading can be trended and compared to predetermined rate-of-change thresholds. This comparison provides a more
objective basis than mere visual observation. The predominant failure modes of a given engine model are usually
recognizable to experienced personnel by shape, size, and quantity of debris. As an incipient failure develops, the inspection
interval can be reduced until the engine is removed with the certainty that a problem exists. If a scanning electron microscope
with energy dispersive capability (SEM/EDX) or an X-ray spectrophotometer is available, debris material can be identified
(see 7.3.3.7). This aids in diagnosis and fault isolation since different types of engine components are often made from
specific materials. For example, if main shaft bearing material is identified, the decision is usually made to remove the
engine immediately or at least the next time the aircraft rotates back to home base.
This system is particularly effective for engines with lubrication systems specifically designed for optimum oil debris
monitoring. This depends on number, location, and capture efficiency of the magnetic chip collectors (see 7.3.1).
7.3.3.3 Filter Debris Analysis
A powerful tool for root cause analysis (RCA) is the evaluation of the debris in the filter element, as the debris represents
the history of system contamination and component wear. The filter may be removed due to scheduled change out or due
to 'real time' fault detection or reduced filter element service life indication from filter element differential pressure monitoring.
Debris chemical composition, size distribution and morphology provide valuable information about the origin of the debris
as well as potential fluid system component failure modes.
Filter debris analysis (FDA) differs from traditional oil analysis in that the filter is sampled instead of the fluid. Debris from
the filter is removed for analysis. FDA is an effective means of monitoring equipment wear because the wear history is
efficiently captured in the filter matrix. Typically, more than 95% of all released metal particles larger than the filter pore size
are captured in the filter. In addition, all other types of particulate contamination, including seal wear material and
environmental contamination are also captured, which can also provide diagnostic information.
7.3.3.3.1 Manual Filter Cleaning
Manual debris removal from filters has been practiced for decades. Different means for removing the debris range from
picking large debris from the filter to immersing the entire filter or sections of the filter in solvent (such as terpene, polyol
ester) compatible with the component oil system, separating the debris removed from the solvent via a suction flask or
simple gravity drain through cellulose media such as a coffee filter, and then analyzing the debris by visual, microscopic or
elemental methods. Manual techniques are subjective, operator sensitive and not repeatable.
7.3.3.3.2 Filter Elements with Removable Diagnostic Layers
Some engine lubrication filter elements are fabricated with a removable ('pull-out',) 'diagnostic' layer, comprised of a porous
medium layer. Figure 25 depicts an engine lube filter element with a diagnostic layer. Typically, the porosity of the 'diagnostic'
layer allows for efficient retention of larger size debris (50+ m) of diagnostic interest in engine lubrication systems. Since
most porous media used in 'diagnostic' layers are comprised of random fiber matrices, the 'diagnostic' layer exhibits lower,
but significant, efficiencies in retaining contamination in the smaller size ranges.
Figure 25 - Filter element with removable diagnostic layer
A primary advantage of the 'diagnostic layer' is that it allows for a range of debris analysis from simple on-site visual or
microscopic examination to more extensive laboratory analysis for determining the chemical elemental composition of the
debris. Another advantage of the 'diagnostic' layer is that it can be directly subjected to techniques such as X-ray
fluorescence analysis (XRF) for debris chemical elemental analysis without any significant interference from the polymeric
material comprising the diagnostic layer. Where required, the debris can also be removed from the 'diagnostic' layer for
evaluation.
7.3.3.3.3 Automated Filter Debris Analysis
Particle recovery from filters can be performed automatically and efficiently using an automated filter-washing instrument.
This automated system counts, sizes and discriminates between ferrous and non-ferrous particles (see 7.3.1.8, on-line oil
debris monitor), and provides associated elemental and alloy data via its internal X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer.
The FDA instrument provides a repeatable process by incorporating an automated filter back-washing fluid circuit utilizing
a pulsed air/fluid mixture to remove up to 95% of retained debris from the filter. As the filter is backwashed, debris particles
flow through a wear debris sensor and are deposited on a membrane patch.
The patch is then analyzed by an internal XRF spectrometer for elemental and alloy determination. The patch may also be
analyzed by other means such as a microscopic analysis, SEM XRF, or individual particle analysis. Unlike oil samples, the
majority of wear debris released from a machine is captured in the filter. Analyzing this debris provides higher measurement
reliability. For filters from the same application (component) with same make/size filter, the difference between materials
removed from two filters is due to the time on filter and the wear mode when using the automated, repeatable process. The
time on filter can be normalized, therefore making it easy to set limits for wear modes based on size of particles, number of
particles and metallurgy of particles.
7.3.3.4 Ferrography
Ferrography is both a laboratory technique for the microscopic classification of wear debris suspended in oil samples, and
a method to quantify the data in a simple way for working use. As is the case with magnetic chip collectors, the visual
analysis of the debris requires skill and training, as with SOA, sample cleanliness and sampling method are critical.
The technique depends on magnetic precipitation of ferrous particles, and is most sensitive to particles in the range of 1 to
100 µm. This range overlaps that of SOA at the small end and of magnetic chip collectors at the large end.
There are two types of ferrograph: (1) the direct reader (DR) and (2) the analytical ferrograph.
In the DR ferrograph, the oil sample, diluted with a solvent, is passed through a sloping glass tube, which is positioned
above the poles of a magnet. The downward velocity of a ferrous particle in the magnetic field is approximately proportional
to the square of its size. Hence, there is a maximum distance that can be traveled by a particle of a given size. Particles
become deposited on the wall of the tube according to size. The amount of debris is measured optically at two positions,
namely at a "large" position (DL) and a "small" position (DS). These two readings are related to wear particle concentrations
and may be combined to give a severity-of-wear index. There are several different forms of this index, such as Equation 2:
DL
DL (DL - DS )
DL 2 - DS 2 (Eq. 2)
(DL - DS )
(DL + DS )
The user may determine the form that is most suitable to their needs.
In the analytical ferrograph, an oil sample is caused to flow over a glass substrate in the presence of a strong magnetic field
gradient, which pulls the particles to the substrate. The oil is then washed away with a solvent, leaving the particles clean,
aligned, and fixed to the substrate surface. The resulting particle display (ferrogram) is a permanent record. When
nonferrous metal particles are present in the oil, they are usually magnetic enough to separate, especially when they were
generated at a ferrous/nonferrous interface. Contamination particles, both organic and inorganic, can also be separated.
Therefore, the analytical ferrograph can be used for contamination studies in a variety of fluid systems.
The ferrous metals can be differentiated into broad alloy classes by their temper color. The shape and morphology of the
particles reveal the mode of wear, such as abrasive, severe sliding, rolling contact fatigue, corrosive, or lubrication
starvation. A special microscope/camera system called a ferroscope is available, which has a number of features to permit
rapid analysis of the ferrograms.
The DR and the analytical ferrograph satisfy different requirements in debris monitoring. It appears that the most satisfactory
method is to use the DR ferrograph to monitor the severity-of-wear index, and when this or its rate-of-increase becomes
large, the analytical ferrograph can be used to determine the type of wear.
The DR works best for dirty systems, e.g., diesel crankcase. Clean systems or those with fine filters generally do not
generate enough wear particles for meaningful results.
As is the case with SOA, special consideration must be given to sample integrity. Since the wear particles addressed by
ferrograph are larger than those for SOA, settling and the effect of filtration is an even more important consideration in
obtaining representative wear particle distributions.
7.3.3.5 Radioactive Tagging
Since the early 1960s, various radioactive techniques have been investigated and applied to test systems for measuring
bearing wear and the monitoring of wear debris in the lubrication system. These techniques were sufficiently sensitive and
yielded repeatable wear measurements but utilized radiation levels that are unacceptable for turbine engine monitoring.
The practical constraints of radioactive tagging include consideration of safety, handling, and maintenance procedures.
A safe, low level radiation technique for the detection of wear occurring with main shaft bearings has been developed and
demonstrated, using high speed cylindrical roller bearings in a test rig (see Reference 2.2.8). Iron-55 is employed as the
active tag and is obtained through the neutron irradiation of the bearing rollers. Iron-55 provides a low radiation level, long
half-life, and homogeneity of the isotope in the rollers. The low level of radiation in the tagged wear particles requires the
separation of the wear debris from the oil by filtration or some other means. Testing shows that the tagging method would
provide a means of identifying tagged roller wear at the +0.5 ppm level in a 5 gallon capacity test system. Radioactive
tagging techniques would be most suited for identifying abnormal wear occurring with a critical or problem related main
shaft bearing.
7.3.3.6 X-ray Spectrophotometer (X-ray Fluorescence - XRF)
This instrument, which may be available in materials laboratories of major airlines, in military services, in engine
manufacturers, and in commercial metallurgical and oil analysis laboratories, permits determination of material composition
of debris particles. In an evacuated chamber, debris particles are irradiated by an X-ray tube. Their atoms emit secondary
X-rays with characteristic energies. The intensity of individual spectral lines characteristic for specific elements is a function
of the amount of the element present in the sample. In this way, alloys can be identified precisely. However, if the sample
contains particles of different materials, the resulting spectrum is a mixture of the spectra of the individual particles and must
be interpreted. Furthermore, light elements such as aluminum and magnesium cannot be identified. The sample must be
carefully cleaned, since oil coatings can absorb X-rays. If XRF is used to quantify the entire sample, algorithms must be
used that take the shape of the particles into account. This is due to the fact that X-rays do not penetrate deeply into metals.
The total intensity of re-radiated X-rays is, therefore, more a function of total particle surface area than of total particle mass.
7.3.3.7 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM/EDX)
This instrument is mostly available in well-equipped materials laboratories but portable versions are now being offered. It
permits viewing of individual debris particles at great magnification. This can provide information about the process of their
generation and, therefore, about the failure or wear mode that produced them. Energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX)
provides spectra of secondary X-rays emitted by the SEM sample, which are characteristic for a given element. Individual
alloys can, therefore, be identified precisely. The advantage of the EDX over the X-ray spectrophotometer is that it can
determine the composition of individual debris particles because the electron beam can be focused precisely, while an X-ray
beam cannot.
7.3.3.8 Laser Particle Shape Classification
An advanced optically based oil debris detection and classification technology has been developed that can determine the
type and the severity of failure in machinery directly without reliance on human expertise and data interpretation (see
Reference 2.2.14). It uses a pulsed laser diode illumination through a flowing fluid column. The transmitted image is
magnified and imaged onto a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera. The CCD image is transferred to a computer for image
processing to identify particles. For each particle, shape features are identified and the largest dimension and equivalent
projected area calculated. The shape features are compared to features stored for debris from known types of failures
(rubbing, pitting, spalling, cutting, etc.) and a fault type assigned to each particle. Non-critical items such as bubbles are
classified and ignored in the analysis.
Since it is optically based, it can detect and classify nonmetallic particles (sand, filter breakdown fibers, etc.) as well as
metallic particles with equal accuracy. The technology has demonstrated the capability to detect and accurately quantify
water content in oil and hydraulic fluids.
The off-line fine-particle version is based on the same operating principle, with added image magnification. It measures the
size distribution of particles from 5 µm up to 100 µm. For particles greater than 20 µm, edge information is processed by an
artificial neural net (ANN) to determine the wear mechanism source of each debris particles. The instrument classifies wear
particles into fatigue, sliding and cutting wear modes, and also identifies and quantifies oxides, free water and fibers. The
instrument also measures fluid contamination levels and reports cleanliness in ISO standards and other military and
commercial formats on demand. Water content and fiber content are routinely measured and can also be reported if
required.
8. OIL CONDITION MONITORING
Most in-service oil condition and contamination monitoring is performed off-aircraft using distributed laboratory based
analysis. The technique involves the removal of an oil sample that is subjected to one or several of the techniques described
below to determine if the oil has been degraded or contaminated to the point where it no longer protects and lubricates wear
surfaces. Physical and chemical property analysis of in-service oil can provide information about the condition of the oil as
well as certain engine malfunctions.
The rate and degree of oil degradation in a turbine engine is dependent on aeration, temperature, oil consumption, oil
system capacity, and oil formulation. For normally operating engines, the rate of degree of oil degradation is low and is
compensated by oil consumption and replenishment. However, environmental considerations may require reducing engine
oil consumption in the future. This will put more emphasis on oil condition monitoring. A change in an engine operating
condition resulting in higher aeration (increased oxygen availability) or higher oil temperature such as seal wear can cause
a significant increase in the rate of oil degradation. Tests for oxidation, additive depletion, solids content, fuel dilution,
viscosity, and total acid number can be performed in the laboratory to determine lubricant serviceability. However, they are
rarely performed routinely in the field because they are equipment and labor intensive.
Unlike oil debris monitoring, whose purpose it is to detect a fault once it is present and track its progression, some faults
may be prevented from occurring by monitoring the condition of the oil. Oil condition monitoring can indicate when oil has
degraded to a point that increases the likelihood that a mechanical component fault will develop. Oil-wetted components
are typically designed such that stresses are limited to the point that component lives exceed the specified engine life.
Failures of these components are typically caused by improper lubrication, contamination, or assembly errors. By ensuring
that the proper oil is used and is in good condition, a major cause of failures in oil-wetted components can be eliminated.
The impact of proper oil usage is evident just by example inspection of multiple industry data summarized by the Schaeffler
Group on the causes of bearing related failures, many of which can be traced in root cause directly back to lubricant quality,
degradation/aging and contamination of various solids or liquids.
Figure 26 - Historical causes of failure for rolling bearings across a range of applications
(Courtesy of Noria Corporation and Machinery Lubrication Magazine)
8.2 Function, Failure Modes, and System Considerations
The primary function of a lubricant is to reduce friction through the formation of film coatings on loaded surfaces. The
lubricant also transports heat from the load site and prevents corrosion in engines and their accessory gearbox systems.
The lubricating oil, however, is affected by the introduction of wear particles, internal and external debris, foreign fluids, and
even internal component (additive and base oil) breakdowns. All of these contaminants affect the ability of the fluid to
accomplish its mission of producing a lubricity (hydrodynamic, elastohydrodynamic, boundary or mixed) layer between
mechanical parts with relative motion.
A lubricant is also dependent on a number of additives to improve its performance and provide benefits to gearbox and
engine component functioning. These may include improved wear and extreme pressure additives, anti-foaming and
corrosion inhibiting additives, acid neutralizing additives, demulsibility improving, and other proprietary packages that
improve lubricity and oil endurance from a thermal or oxidation stability perspective. Over time these additives are naturally
depleted or otherwise consumed and must be replenished to achieve the same high level of oil performance. In addition,
the additive effectiveness may be altered over time as the base oil changes or as contamination occurs.
Lubricant contamination can occur due to many mechanisms. Water ingestion through seals (common in marine
environments) or condensation will cause significant emulsion, viscosity effects, and corrosion. Fuel leakage through the
(turbine fuel-lube oil) heat exchanger will severely effect lubricity by decreasing viscosity and also increases the risk of fire.
Dirt and dust contamination decrease the oil penetration into the loaded surface of the gears or bearings. An often
overlooked contamination, but sometimes very significant, is the addition of incorrect or old oil to the system.
Water is one of the most detrimental contaminants within a lubricating system. Depending on its state, water can not only
reduce oil’s lubricating ability but also increase oxidation, leading eventually to surface corrosion and/or corrosion induced
fatigue. By itself, dissolved water poses a reduced threat to lubricant performance. However, emulsified and free water will
greatly reduce the operating life of the system. Emulsified water droplets can travel through the lubricating system, attaching
to steel surfaces and, in time, forming rust and/or embrittling those surfaces. It has been shown that 1% water in a lubricating
system can cause a 90% reduction in the life of a journal bearing and 0.1% water can reduce ball bearing life by 70%. Thus,
the value of even just real-time water monitoring in certain lower temperature or intermittent duty applications can be of
significant value to the life of the equipment.
System maintainers typically perform oil changes periodically on a time or usage basis. This is especially true of mobility
applications in which the regular sampling and test is burdensome. In high volume or cost-sensitive situations, oil may be
reclaimed through the addition of new additive packages several times prior to a complete oil change. In many legacy
engines, oil is consumed sufficiently to refresh through frequent top-offs with fresh oil. Newer gas turbine engines have
more stringent environmental limits and requirements for much lower oil consumption that results in more potential
degradation of the lubricant. In condition-based maintenance, oil assessment is generally accomplished using sampling and
offline analysis in a laboratory setting. Laboratory analysis, while it can be illuminating, is also time consuming, costly, and
does not provide a real-time assessment of fluid condition. In addition, results can be inconsistent and not as repeatable
between laboratories as one might like for predictive trending purposes, so sticking with a selected lab may be the best
approach but this presents logistic problems as well. Real-time monitoring and near real-time testing are vital tools that
allow lubricants to be used to their fullest potentials through condition-based change intervals, which minimize engine
downtime and reduce or eliminate excessive/ineffective sampling and analysis programs.
8.3 Correlating Online Sensor Based Methods and Offline Laboratory Measurements
As mentioned above, a significant amount of oil condition monitoring (OCM) is performed with oil sampling and offline
analysis at predetermined intervals (every 300 operational hours, every 3 or 6 months, etc.). In such traditional laboratory
oil analysis one or more chemical parameters (e.g., Acid Number (AN)) physical parameters (e.g., viscosity) and certain
contaminant levels (e.g., water, fuel, and wear metals) are measured using laboratory grade instruments. Some of these
analyses are not direct measurements, but rather indicators of lubricant performance and retained functionality. A lubricant
technician (or expert-based system) is needed to interpret the analytical results in order to infer or estimate lubricant
conditions. Hence, individual laboratory parameters are in general only relevant in how they are interpreted to qualify the
lubricant’s ability to perform.
Therefore, the design and theory of operation of online oil condition monitor devices should be founded on two fundamental
tenets:
1. Reproducing traditional oil analysis parameters (AN, viscosity, etc.) is not as relevant as the ability to reproduce the
same lubricant condition analysis results/recommendations that a lubricant expert, using appropriate laboratory results,
would make. Thus, specifying an online OCM to produce the same outputs of an offline laboratory instrument using a
totally different measurement/transduction method is often a flawed correlation approach.
2. The online OCM methods must be verified to be sensitive to a sufficient range of chemistries such that the ability of any
lubricant (with its additives package) to perform the full spectrum of its intended functions can be sufficiently evaluated.
Therefore, while the goal is not for the OCM to be designed to measure, infer, or output any particular laboratory oil analysis
parameter, the measurement technique should be able to provide an oil condition determination that is consistent with one
or more laboratory interpreted condition. Moreover, it should have the inherent benefits of providing these in near real-time,
which enables a more effective and predictive Condition-Based Maintenance solution.
8.4 Offline Oil Condition Monitoring Methods/Devices
Oftentimes, it may make sense to have local test kits available to verify or otherwise improve the performance of online
methods of detecting degradation of the oil. In this way, the online measurements can be used to provide continuous real-
time coverage of more drastic changes in the oil, and then a more sophisticated instrument can be used to help confirm or
diagnose specific causes of oil property changes. A few of the more common types are summarized below.
8.4.1 Acid Number (AN) Kit
There is a trend with certain industries towards characterizing an Acid Number (AN)_as representative of what has been more
typically referred to as Total Acid Number (TAN) in the past. The AN kit was developed as a field go/no-go determination of
the acidity of MIL-PRF-23699 lubricating oil. It is composed of a bottle of acetone solution neutralized to pH 7.0 and a vial of
aqueous sodium hydroxide, which reacts with a 5.0 mL volume of sample oil to produce a color change that indicates either a
"go" (<2.0 AN) or "no-go" (>2.0 AN) condition.
8.4.2 Remaining-Useful-Life Detection
This method is used to determine the remaining useful life of either hydrocarbon or synthetic oils with at least one additive
species. An oil sample is mixed with a solvent, a solid substrate, and in some cases an electrolyte to produce an analysis
sample. This sample is placed into an electrolytic cell and subjected to voltametric analysis, i.e., an increasing alternating-
current potential is applied to the cell to produce an oxidation reaction and a varying electric current. The current is measured
and recorded. Remaining useful life, which is related to the quantity of remaining additive, is then determined from the
oxidation current wave height. The method requires calibration with the exact oil in use for optimum results.
8.4.3 Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectrometer (FT-IR)
Infrared spectroscopy in the mid-infrared region (2.5 to 25 µm) has been traditionally used to obtain information about the
structural composition of molecules. In the 1990s, real-time fourier-transform computation capability and graphical user
interfaces made FTIRs faster, smaller and more user friendly. These instruments are now in wide-spread use in most oil
analysis laboratories. FTIR is particularly useful in identifying organic molecules and can, therefore, detect the presence of
water, fuel, anti-freeze, the depletion of organic additives and degradation/oxidation of the lubricant. Recently, real-time fourier-
transform computation capability and graphical user interfaces have made FTIRs faster, smaller and user friendlier. Particle
size limitations through FTIR windows though may make comprehensive analysis of all desired wear particles limited,
especially in online variants, and other offline techniques may still be required.
8.5 Online Oil Condition Monitoring Methods/Devices
A multitude of online oil condition sensors are available from several different manufacturers. The truck/automotive and
aeroderivative power generation industry have lead development of these technologies. While there may be significant
differences in the lubricants and additives used in these applications, the methods are generally applicable to all lubricants
including those in aerospace gas turbine engines. Oil condition monitoring systems suitable for on-aircraft use are currently
under development and testing but their use in aircraft applications to date is limited. The major engine manufacturers are
evaluating oil condition monitoring for future engine applications.
The sensing technologies used can be grouped into the following categories:
1. Impedance Spectroscopy
2. Conductivity or Permittivity Sensing
3. Infrared Spectroscopy
4. Moisture Sensing
5. Viscosity
The following sections describe the principles of operation of these devices and how they can be applied for engine and
gearbox oil condition monitoring. See Figure 31 for an overview of which failure modes each sensing technology can detect.
Operators are encouraged to seek specific equipment recommendation and instructions from their selected device
manufacturers.
8.5.1 Impedance Spectroscopy
Impedance Spectroscopy methods utilize a set of electrodes immersed in the lubricant to measure the fluid’s impedance
over a range of frequencies. Impedance measurements consist of a magnitude and phase angle and are frequency
dependent. Contaminants, additives, and oxidation byproducts influence portions of the impedance spectrum. Properties
such as anti-wear additive health, detergent/dispersant additive health, and dissolved/free water contamination can be
detected and trended using impedance spectroscopy based devices. Impedance based devices can be sensitive to
temperature changes and consideration of this effect should be accounted for in the application. Interpretation of this data
should include temperature of the oil at the time of the impedance measurement, whether accomplished in a single device
or through multiple sensors.
The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) approach involves injecting a complex alternating current signal over a
wide frequency spectrum through electrodes immersed in oil (Figure 27). The impedance of the system is determined by
analyzing the differences between the injection (excitation) and response signals. Injecting a broadband signal, rather than
a single tone, provides a significantly more robust measurement. The broadband approach therefore provides a
measurement that is rich with information and better reflects the actual impedance of the oil.
Figure 27 - EIS sensor principle – Using broadband impedance spectroscopy

(Reference 2.2.28, LMCO Sikorsky)
Oil quality changes are caused by the presence of detrimental contaminants and the degradation of the oil base stock and
additive package. The dielectric properties, conductivity, double layer capacitance, and other key properties of the oil are
affected by these changes. Electrochemical impedance models can represent the response of the lubricant, and model-
based parameter estimation methods can identify the model parameters that most closely reproduce the measured
response.
Impedance based devices can provide the following fluid condition monitoring benefits:
 Trend analysis – Monitor impedance measurements to detect abnormal levels or patterns indicative of contamination
or poor health.
 Contamination and remaining useful life estimation – Some manufacturers provide data interpretation algorithms
capable of providing remaining useful life estimates (estimate of time until oil properties reach unacceptable levels) and
alarms for specific contaminations.
 Additive depletion monitoring – Impedance-based devices are particularly sensitive to changes in additive levels in a
lubricant. Some devices can even distinguish between surface protection additive loss and detergent/dispersant loss.
Figure 28 - Example impedance spectroscopy devices adapted for aircraft engine and gearbox use
(LMCO Sikorsky Aircraft and Reference 2.2.34)
8.5.2 Conductivity or Permittivity Sensing
Conductivity-based devices operate on a similar measurement principle to impedance-based devices, using a set of
electrodes immersed in the lubricant and measuring the electrical properties of the fluid between the electrodes. Conductivity
measurements are performed at a fixed frequency and represent the inverse of the measured resistance at that frequency.
The measurement capabilities of a conductivity sensor are dependent upon the frequency at which conductivity is measured.
They provide value in trending and alarming, but are limited in their capability by only measuring a single property of the
fluid. Conductivity/permittivity sensors can also be sensitive to temperature changes and consideration of this effect should
be accounted for in the application.
8.5.3 Infrared Spectroscopy
Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy or Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) have been used for many years to provide
rapid, low cost, offline analyses of oil samples as was discussed above. The technology passes an infrared light source
through a lubricant sample to an infrared detector. The light passing through the oil is influenced by oil contaminants and
additives which absorb infrared radiation at specific frequencies. By comparing the frequency spectrum of new and used oil
samples, it is possible to determine the lubricant properties such as water, oxidation, glycol levels, and other breakdown
products.
Through advances in electronics manufacturing techniques, IR technology is beginning to make its way into online sensing
devices. While current hand-held technology does not have the refined measurement capabilities of laboratory devices,
they do offer multi-parameter trending capabilities similar to laboratory devices which can provide valuable, real-time insight
into fluid condition. The nature of optical measurement, precision, fouling concerns and significant expense to make such a
system robust of online use continue to challenge these developments for a fully online device.
8.5.4 Moisture Sensing
Water contamination has many detrimental effects on the performance of a lubricant, including accelerating oxidation,
promoting corrosion, decreasing film strength, and increasing foaming. Water is also a difficult contaminant to control,
particularly in gearbox applications which endure frequent temperature cycling, changes in atmospheric humidity, and do
not experience high enough temperatures to evaporate water contamination. Online moisture sensors, often referred to as
oil Relative Humidity (RH) or Water Activity sensors, can detect and trend water contamination in an oil lubrication system.
Nearly all online moisture sensors utilize a capacitive sensing element with a hydrophilic dielectric. As moisture is absorbed
and desorbed by the lubricant and sensor, the measured capacitance value will change. These devices track moisture while
it is present in its dissolved state however do not continue increasing as free water forms in a system.
Figure 29 - Example moisture sensing device (E+E Elektronik)
Benefits of this technology to engine and gearbox lubricant monitoring include:
 Real-time tracking of dissolved water contamination during temperature and humidity swings that are missed by periodic
offline analyses.
 Identifying engines that have faulty desiccants
 Identifying engines that show potential for free water formation to prompt corrective actions
8.5.5 Viscosity
Through monitoring the viscosity of the oil in a lubrication system, mechanical shear as well as contamination can be
indicated. Reduced viscosity results in reduced film strength and increases the likelihood of excessive friction, wear, and
heat generation. Elevated viscosity can result in reduced cold-start lubrication and oil filtration performance, and decreased
efficiency due to increased fluid friction.
There are several types of online viscosity sensing techniques including rotational, vibrational, and displacement based
sensors. Some newer sensors utilize acoustic wave technology to assess the fluid resistance to flow. Each method has its
own advantages and disadvantages which should be discussed with the respective monitoring equipment manufacturers.
Due to the very high temperature sensitivity of viscosity measurements and the temperature swings experienced by these
oils, devices capable of providing a temperature compensated output or trending measurements from a specific operating
temperature are recommended. Online viscosity devices require calibration and have been fairly costly devices. Depending
on the method of transduction, these devices may require periodic cleaning or similar maintenance.
Figure 30 - Method of acoustic wave based viscosity measurement and sensing device
(© 1997-2017 by Vectron International, Inc./Sengenuity. Reprinted with permission.)
8.5.6 Installation Considerations
Proper installation of an online oil sensing device is critical to ensuring reliable operation and expected sensor performance.
The following sections detail the considerations required when selecting an installation location and plumbing the unit into
the system. Always consult with the device manufacturer before installing a device.
8.5.6.1 Location Selection
The following considerations should be used to determine the optimal location for device:
1. The device should be placed in a section of the lubrication system with sufficient flow to ensure a representative fluid
sample is observed by the device.
2. Ensure the flow rate in the installation location does not exceed or limit manufacturer recommendations.
3. The device should not be placed at the bottom of a fluid reservoir or low point of a kidney loop as sludge and deposits
may prevent accurate readings.
4. For many online oil condition monitors, post filtration installation locations are preferred to prevent electrode shorting or
damage/fouling to the parts.
5. Ensure the device’s maximum ambient temperature will not be exceeded.
6. Orient the device and/or design the device manifold in a manner that avoids entrapment of air bubbles, debris or other
solid contaminants.
8.6 Trade Summary of Online Monitoring Techniques/Devices
Condition-based Maintenance (CBM) is a maintenance philosophy that involves monitoring the health of a component or
system and performing maintenance based upon the current health status and remaining useful life. This status is most
accurately interpreted by direct measurement on the system, and for lubricants, these real-time online monitoring devices
provide this critical piece of the information needed. Contamination and in-service degradation of hydraulic fluids, gear oils,
lubricants, and other in-service fluids, which are among the most common causes of aircraft systems mechanical failure,
are a prime focus for such technologies. An automated oil condition monitoring system can provide that continuous front
line contaminant sensing coverage and indicators of incipient fluid system degradation.
The figure below summarizes some of the positive attributes and limitations of each method. The major changes associated
with various degrations and contaminations are encapsulated in the first column of the table shown. The first row
summarizes the typical online methods that may be used to identify these failure modes. The relative sensitivities to each
degradation and effect are shown. Depending on the requirements of the application, this table may be used to guide
technology selection. One thing to note is that multi-parameter capable approaches such as impedance or infrared
spectroscopy will inherently have advantage over single parameter approaches such as permittivity or conductivity, for
example. Several measurements are more pointed in their sensitivity such as Moisture Sensors being excellent for water
below the saturation limit, but fairly poor for other degradations. Many viscosity measurement devices are similar in method
of operation, which attempt to measure shear or fluid resistance to flow. Viscosity, while a useful specification for lubricating
oil performance, is in practice affected both positively (increasing viscosity) and negatively (decreasing viscosity) by
contaminants and degradations. Thus, these oil condition changes may not be well represented by a viscosity measurement
alone, and for this reason it provides a lower value for root cause problem classification. It should be noted that the cost row
is based largely on commercial versions of these devices, which may need to be further adapted and qualified for some
aircraft applications.
Figure 31 - Trade table of various engineering parameters overlaid with OCM technologies
(Reprinted with permission of Poseidon Systems)
For comparison sake, the last column compares a virtual or oil degradation based model approach. This approach is
basically a lubricant life usage model that accommodates for the stresses placed on the oil based upon the operation of the
engine. While the model is fairly robust, it will rank fair to poor in actually detecting contaminations or specific degradations.
At best it represents the mean or averaged response to the speed, load, temperature and other conditions the engine oil
experiences.
Online condition monitoring enhances lubrication maintenance practices to help maintain healthy lubricant and ultimately
extend aircraft engine and gearbox life. Many online sensing devices are available in industrial applications, which offer
insight into a variety of oil condition parameters. The selection of an appropriate device depends on the monitoring objective,
historical lubrication issues, desired location, and budget. Regardless of the sensing method chosen, these technologies
provide significant enhancement to a standalone offline sampling and analysis program by providing continuous data
between the typical 6-month or other periodic sampling intervals.
While it is true that aircraft engine applications are limited to a few select examples, such as a limited capability on the Pratt
and Whitney F-135 engine, aero-derivative and other engine and gearbox applications have seen a greater proliferation of
such devices to better optimize oil change intervals and ensure proper lubricity to maximize life cycle performance of the
engine. Real-time oil condition monitoring provides the potential for further reduced life cycle maintenance costs, improved
safety, and increased operational readiness.
9. NOTES
9.1 Revision Indicator
A change bar (|) located in the left margin is for the convenience of the user in locating areas where technical revisions, not
editorial changes, have been made to the previous issue of this document. An (R) symbol to the left of the document title
indicates a complete revision of the document, including technical revisions. Change bars and (R) are not used in original
publications, nor in documents that contain editorial changes only.
PREPARED BY SAE COMMITTEE E-32, AEROSPACE PROPULSION SYSTEMS HEALTH MANAGEMENT

AIR1828C

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(R) Guide to Engine Lubrication System Monitoring

SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR1828™C Page 2 of 57

6. OIL SYSTEM PERFORMANCE MONITORING ......................................................................................... 13

7. OIL DEBRIS MONITORING ....................................................................................................................... 20

8. OIL CONDITION MONITORING ................................................................................................................. 48

SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR1828™C Page 3 of 57

2.1 SAE Publications

ARP1587 Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine Monitoring System Guide

2.2 Other Publications

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SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR1828™C Page 5 of 57

2.3 Related Publications

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2.3.19 B. J. Roylance, T. M. Hunt, “Wear Debris Analysis”, Coxmoor Publishing, 1999.

2.3.21 AC 120-42B FAA Advisory Circular related to ETOPS (ExTended OperationS).

2.3.22 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 14 - Aeronautics and Space.

2.4 Glossary of Acronyms

ANN Artificial Neural Net

AIR Aerospace Information Report

BIT(E) Built In Test (Equipment)

CFR Code of Federal Regulations

DRF Direct Reader Ferrograph

EDAX Energy-Dispersive X-ray Analysis

EHL Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication

EMI Electromagnetic Interference

EMS Engine Monitoring System

SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR1828™C Page 7 of 57

ETOPS Extended Operations

FAR Federal Airworthiness Regulation

FDA Filter Debris Analysis

ICP Inductively Coupled Plasma

JOAP Joint Oil Analysis Program

LCC Life Cycle Cost

LVDT Linear Variable Displacement Transducer

OCM Oil Condition Monitor

ODM Oil Debris Monitor

RCF Rolling Contact Fatigue

RDE Rotating Disc Electrode

ROI Return on Investment

RUL Remaining Useful Life

SEM Scanning Electron Microscope

SOA(P) Spectrographic Oil Analysis (Program)

TAN Total Acid Number

XRF X-ray Fluorescence

(1 μm = 10-3 mm = 10-6 m and 0.001 inch = 25.4 μm).

a. Oil System Performance Monitoring (monitoring the oil system’s performance)

c. Oil Condition Monitoring (monitoring the condition of the oil itself)

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Figure 1 - Lubrication system monitoring in aircraft gas turbine engines

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Figure 2 - Detectable debris particle sizes

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4.1 Oil System Performance Monitoring

4.2 Oil Debris Monitoring

4.3 Oil Condition Monitoring

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4.4 Off-Line, On-Line, In-Line, and At-Line

5.1.2 Reduced Cost of Ownership

5.1.3 Product Assurance and Verification

SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR1828™C Page 12 of 57

5.2 Benefits of Oil System Performance Monitoring

5.3 Benefits of Oil Debris Monitoring

5.4 Benefits of Oil Condition Monitoring