II.
Network Introduction
⇒ Network - is a combination or group of computers and
devices connected together which can “communicate” to
each other.
- They can “see” and “speak” to each other by the
help of "network connections, standards and
protocols". This means that they can share data,
resources and services to each other.
Origin of Network
⇒ The story of the internet largely starts during the 1960’s
which the United States government created ARPA-net.
⇒ This was a program designed to combat the
communism.
⇒ According to Stephen J. Lukasik, one of the leading
figure in the development of Advanced Research Projects
Agency Network (ARPANET): “The goal of ARPANET was
to exploit new computer technologies to meet the needs of
military command and control against nuclear threats,
achieve survivable control of US nuclear forces, and
improve military tactical and management decision
making.”
● Network Types
- It is a group of computers linked to each other that
enables the computer to communicate with
another computer and share their resources, data,
and applications.
⇒ A computer network can be categorized by their size.
● A computer network is mainly of four types:
⇒ Local Area Network (LAN)- is the most common
network type. It allows users to connect within a short
distance in a common area. Once they connect, users
have access to the same resources.
⇒ Personal area network (PAN)- is a small-scale network
that revolves around one person or device. A PAN
connects just a few devices in a small localized area.
PANs usually operate from one or two main devices.
⇒ Wide area network (WAN) - is an extensive network
that's not confined to geographical space. Corporations
and international companies may use WANs to provide a
common network with far-reaching connectivity.
⇒ Metropolitan area network (MAN) - is a medium-sized
network that's larger than a CAN. While a MAN is a costly
network, it provides efficient connectivity between devices
across a wide geographical range.
● Other Network Types:
⇒ Wireless local area network (WLAN)
⇒ Campus area network (CAN)
⇒ Storage area network (SAN)
⇒ Enterprise private network (EPN)
⇒ Virtual private network (VPN)
● Network Protocol
- It is the rules that govern network
communications. These rules, or protocols are
specific to the characteristics of the conversation.
Network communication follows protocols similar
to those used in human communication.
⇒ There are thousands of different network protocols, but
they all perform one of three primary actions:
● Communication
● Network management
● Security
Communication protocols - allow different network
devices to communicate with each other. They are used in
both analog and digital communications and can be used
for important processes, ranging from transferring files
between devices to accessing the internet.
● Common types of communication protocols include
the following:
● Automation: It is used to automate different
processes in both commercial and personal
settings, such as in smart buildings, cloud
technology or self-driving vehicles.
● Instant messaging: Instantaneous, text-based
communications on smartphones and computers
occur because of a number of different instant
messaging network protocols.
● Routing: Routing protocols permit communication
between routers and other network devices. There
are also routing protocols specifically for ad hoc
networks.
● Bluetooth: Ever-popular Bluetooth devices —
including headsets, smartphones and computers
— work due to a variety of different Bluetooth
protocols.
● File transfer: If you have ever moved files from
one device to another, either via a physical or
digital medium, you’ve used file transfer protocols
(FTP).
● Internet Protocol: It allows data to be sent
between devices via the internet. The internet
could not operate as it currently does without IP.
⇒ Network Management Protocol - define and describe
the various procedures needed to effectively operate a
computer network. These protocols affect various devices
on a single network including computers, routers and
servers to ensure each one, and the network as a whole,
perform optimally.
**The functions of network management protocols
include the following:
● Connection: These protocols establish and
maintain stable connections between different
devices on the same network.
● Link aggregation: It allows you to combine
multiple network connections into one link
between two devices. This works to increase the
strength of the connection and helps sustain the
connection should one of the links fail.
● Troubleshooting: It allows network
administrators to identify errors affecting the
network, evaluate the quality of the network
connection, and determine how administrators can
fix any issues.
⇒ Security protocols - also called cryptographic
protocols, work to ensure that the network and the data
sent over it are protected from unauthorized users.
⇒ Common functions of security network protocols
include the following:
● Encryption: It protects data and secure areas by
requiring users to input a secret key or password
in order to access that information.
● Entity Authentication: It creates a system that
requires different devices or users on a network to
verify their identity before accessing secure areas.
● Transportation: It protects data while it is
transported from one network device to another.
● Network Topology
⇒ Star Topology - the most common network topology, is
laid out so every node in the network is directly connected
to one central hub via coaxial, twisted-pair, or fiber-optic
cable. Acting as a server, this central node manages data
transmission as information sent from any node on the
network has to pass through the central one to reach its
destination and functions as a repeater which helps
prevent data loss.
⇒ Bus Topology - orients all the devices on a network
along a single cable running in a single direction from one
end of the network to the other which is why it’s
sometimes called a “line topology” or “backbone topology.”
Data flow on the network also follows the route of the
cable, moving in one direction.
⇒ Ring topology - is where nodes are arranged in a circle
(or ring). The data can travel through the ring network in
either one direction or both directions, with each device
having exactly two neighbors.
⇒ Tree Topology - structure gets its name from how the
central node functions as a sort of trunk for the network,
with nodes extending outward in a branch-like fashion. A
tree topology has a parent-child hierarchy to how the
nodes are connected. Those connected to the central hub
are connected linearly to other nodes, so two connected
nodes only share one mutual connection. Because the
tree topology structure is both extremely flexible and
scalable, it’s often used for wide area networks to support
many spread-out devices.
⇒ Mesh Topology - is an intricate and elaborate structure
of point-to-point connections where the nodes are
interconnected. Mesh networks can be full or partial mesh.
Partial mesh topologies are mostly interconnected, with a
few nodes with only two or three connections, while full-
mesh topologies are fully interconnected.
⇒ Hybrid Topology - combine two or more different
topology structures the tree topology is a good example,
integrating the bus and star layouts. Hybrid structures are
most commonly found in larger companies where
individual departments have personalized network
topologies adapted to suit their needs and network usage.
III. TCP/IP and OSI Model
⇒ Data communication - is a process or act in which we
can send or receive data. For data communication two
models are available. We will discuss these two models in
this article and also see the differences between these two
common model or “set of standards” on our networks.
● OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
● TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet
Protocol).
❖ OSI MODEL
❖ OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection.
It has 7 layers Physical layer, Data Link layer,
Network layer, Transport layer, Session layer,
Presentation layer, and Application layer. Each
layer performs its task independently. It was
developed in 1984.
⇒ Advantages
● Both connection-oriented services and
connectionless services are supported.
● It is quite flexible.
● All the layers work independently.
⇒ Disadvantages
● Setting up a model is a challenging task.
● Sometimes, it becomes difficult to fit a new
protocol into this model.
● It is only used as a reference model.
❖ TCP/IP MODEL
⇒ TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol. It has 4 layers named as
Physical layer, Network layer, Transport layer, and
Application layer. It also can be used as a
communications protocol in a private computer network. It
was designed by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn in the 1970s.
⇒ Advantages
● Many Routing protocols are supported.
● It is highly scalable and uses a client-server
architecture.
● It is lightweight.
⇒ Disadvantages
● Little difficult to set up.
● Delivery of packets is not guaranteed by the
transport layer.
● Vulnerable to a synchronization attack
.
❖ THE DIFFERENCE OF 2 MODELS:
Here is a breakdown of what each layer in the TCP/IP
model does:
● Application layer - It is where data originates on
the sender’s side. Applications are used to create
the data. A web browser, for example, is used to
generate the data that gets sent through the rest
of the layers, assisted by the Domain Name
System (DNS), which associates web domain
names with their Internet Protocol (IP) addresses.
● Transport layer - The data gets encoded so it
can be transported through the internet using
either the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) or TCP.
● Network access layer - The data gets a header
and a trailer, and these tell the data where to go.
This information is then conveyed to the network
interface layer.
● Network interface layer - The packet of data
gets formatted and prepared to be transported
and routed through the network.
● Hardware layer - The data is turned into
something that can be sent to and read by a
computer or other device. For example, the IEEE
802.3 protocol is used to convert data into what is
used in an Ethernet connection.
*Here is a breakdown of what each layer in the OSI
model does:
⇒ Physical - This consists of a data connection between
a device generating data and the network.
⇒ Datalink - The datalink layer is the point-to-point
connection that transmits the data to the network layer.
⇒ Network - In the network layer, the data gets its
address and routing instructions in preparation for its
journey across the network.
⇒ Transport - In the transport layer, the data hops
between different points on the network on its way to its
destination.
⇒ Session - The session layer has a connection that
manages the sessions happening between applications.
⇒ Presentation - The presentation layer is where data
gets encrypted and decrypted and converted into a form
that is accessible by the application layer,
⇒ Application - In the application layer, an application,
such as an internet browser, gets the data and a user can
then interact with it.
● Data Encapsulation and De-encapsulation
⇒ Data Encapsulation - is the process in which some
extra information is added to the data item to add some
features to it. We use either the OSI or the TCP/IP model
in our network, and the data transmission takes place
through various layers in these models. Data
encapsulation adds the protocol information to the data so
that data transmission can take place in a proper way.
This information can either be added in the header or the
footer of the data. The data is encapsulated on the
sender’s side, starting from the application layer to the
physical layer.
⇒ Data De-encapsulation - is the reverse process of data
encapsulation. The encapsulated information is removed
from the received data to obtain the original data. This
process takes place at the receiver’s end. The data is de-
encapsulated at the same layer at the receiver’s end to the
encapsulated layer at the sender’s end. The added header
and trailer information are removed from the data in this
process.
● Encapsulation Process
Step 1: The Application, Presentation, and Session layer
in the OSI model , or the Application layer in the TCP/IP
model takes the user data in the form of data streams,
encapsulates it and forwards the data to the Transport
layer. It does not necessarily add any header or footer to
the data. But it is application-specific and can add the
header if needed.
Step 2: The Transport layer (in the OSI or TCP/IP model )
takes the data stream from the upper layers, and divide it
into multiple pieces. The Transport layer encapsulates the
data by adding the appropriate header to each piece.
These data pieces are now called as data segments. The
header contains the sequencing information so that the
data segments can be reassembled at the receiver’s end.
Step 3: The Network layer (in the OSI model) or the
Internet layer (in the TCP/IP model) takes the data
segments from the Transport layer and encapsulate it by
adding an additional header to the data segment. This
data header contains all the routing information for the
proper delivery of the data. Here, the encapsulated data is
termed as a data packet or datagram.
Step 4: The Data-Link layer (in the OSI or TCP/IP model)
takes the data packet or datagram from the Network layer
and encapsulate it by adding an additional header and
footer to the data packet or datagram. The header
contains all the switching information for the proper
delivery of the data to the appropriate hardware
components, and the trailer contains all the information
related to error detection and control. Here, the
encapsulated data is termed as a data frame.
Step 5: The Physical layer (in the OSI or TCP/IP model)
takes the data frames from the Data-Link layer and
encapsulate it by converting it to appropriate data signals
or bits (corresponding to the physical medium).
● De-Encapsulation Process
Step 1: The Physical layer (in the OSI or TCP/IP model )
takes the encapsulated data signals or bits from the
sender, and de-encapsulate it in the form of a data frame
to be forwarded to the upper layer, i.e., the Data-Link
layer.
Step 2: The Data-Link layer (in the OSI or TCP/IP model)
takes the data frames from the Physical layer. It de-
encapsulates the data frames and checks the frame
header whether the data frame is switched to the correct
hardware or not. If the frame is switched to the incorrect
destination, it is discarded, else it checks the trailer
information. If there is any error in the data, data
retransmission is requested, else it is de-encapsulated
and the data packet is forwarded to the upper layer.
Step 3: The Network layer (in the OSI model) or the
Internet layer (in the TCP/IP model) takes the data packet
or datagram from the Data-Link layer. It de-encapsulates
the data packets and checks the packet header whether
the packet is routed to the correct destination or not. If the
packet is routed to the incorrect destination, the packet is
discarded, else it is de-encapsulated and the data
segment is forwarded to the upper layer.
Step 4: The Transport layer (in the OSI or TCP/IP model)
takes the data segments from the network layer and de-
encapsulate it. It first checks the segment header and then
reassembles the data segments to form data streams, and
these data streams are then forwarded to the upper
layers.
Step 5: The Application, Presentation, and Session layer
in the OSI model , or the Application layer in the TCP/IP
model takes encapsulated data from the Transport layer,
de-encapsulate it, and the application-specific data is
forwarded to the applications.
IV. Module 1: Networking Today
1.2 Network Components
⇒ Host Roles - Every computer on a network is called a
host or end device.
⇒ Servers - are computers that provide information to
end devices:
• email servers
• web servers
• file server
⇒ Clients - are computers that send requests to the
servers to retrieve information:
• web page from a web server
• email from an email server
⇒ Server Type:
● Email - Email server runs email server software.
Clients use client software to access email.
● Web - Web server runs web server software.
Clients use browser software to access web
pages.
● File - File server stored corporate and user files.
The client devices access these files
⇒ Peer-to-Peer - It is possible to have a device be a client
and a server in a Peer-to-Peer Network. This type of
network design is only recommended for very small
networks.
● Advantages:
1. Easy to set up
2. Less complex
3. Lower cost
4. Used for simple task: Transferring files
and sharing printers
 ● Disadvantages:
1. No centralized administration
2. Not as secure
3. Not scalable
4. Slower Performance
⇒ End Devices - It is where a message originates from or
where it is received. Data originates with an end device,
flows through the network, and arrives at an end device.
❖ Intermediary Network Devices - An intermediary device
interconnects end devices. Examples include switches,
wireless access points, routers, and firewalls.
Management of data as it flows through a network is also
the role of an intermediary device, including:
• Regenerate and retransmit data signals.
• Maintain information about what pathways exist in the
network.
• Notify other devices of errors and communication
failures.
❖ Network Media - Communication across a network is
carried through a medium which allows a message to
travel from source to destination.
● Media Types:
⇒ Metal wires with cable (Copper) - uses electrical
impulses.
⇒ Glass or Plastic Fiber within Cables (Fiber-optic
cables) - Uses pulses of light.
⇒ Wireless Transmission (Wireless) - Uses
modulation of specific frequencies of
electromagnetic waves.
1.3 Network Representations and Topologies
❖ Network Representations - Network diagrams, often
called topology diagrams, use symbols to represent
devices within the network.
- Important terms to know include:
• Network Interface Card (NIC)
• Physical Port
• Interface
❖ Topology Diagrams
● Physical topology diagrams illustrate the
physical location of intermediary devices and
cable installation.
● Logical topology diagrams illustrate devices,
ports, and the addressing scheme of the network.
1.4 Common Types of Networks
⇒ Networks of Many Sizes
• Small Home Networks – connect a few computers to
each other and the Internet
• Small Office/Home Office – enables computer within a
home or remote office to connect to a corporate network
• Medium to Large Networks – many locations with
hundreds or thousands of interconnected computers.
• World Wide Networks – connects hundreds of millions
of computers world-wide – such as the internet.
⇒ LANs and WANs
- Network infrastructures vary greatly in terms of:
• Size of the area covered
• Number of users connected
• Number and types of services available
• Area of responsibility
⇒ Two most common types of networks:
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN).
● A LAN is a network infrastructure that spans a
small geographical area.
⇒ Interconnect end devices in a limited area.
⇒ Administered by a single organization or individual.
⇒ Provide high-speed bandwidth to internal devices.
● A WAN is a network infrastructure that spans a
wide geographical area.
⇒ Interconnect LANs over wide geographical areas.
⇒ Typically administered by one or more service
providers.
⇒ Typically provide slower speed links between LANs.
● The Internet
- The internet is a worldwide collection of
interconnected LANs and WANs.
• LANs are connected to each other using WANs.
• WANs may use copper wires, fiber optic cables, and
wireless transmissions. The internet is not owned by any
individual or group. The following groups were developed
to help maintain structure on the internet:
• IETF
• ICANN
• IAB
● Intranets and Extranets
⇒ An intranet is a private collection of LANs and WANs
internal to an organization that is meant to be accessible
only to the organizations members or others with
authorization.
⇒ An organization might use an extranet to provide
secure access to their network for individuals who work for
a different organization that need access to their data on
their network.
Module 2: Basic Switch and End Device Configuration
2.1 Cisco IOS Access
• Shell - The user interface that allows users to request
specific tasks from the computer. These requests can be
made either through the CLI or GUI interfaces.
• Kernel - Communicates between the hardware and
software of a computer and manages how hardware
resources are used to meet software requirements.
• Hardware - The physical part of a computer including
underlying Electronics.
⇒ GUI
• A GUI allows the user to interact with the system using
an environment of graphical icons, menus, and windows.
• A GUI is more user-friendly and requires less knowledge
of the underlying command structure that controls the
System.
⇒ Access Methods
● Console – A physical management port used to
access a device in order to provide maintenance,
such as performing the initial configurations.
● Secure Shell (SSH) – Establishes a secure
remote CLI connection to a device, through a
virtual interface, over a network.
● Telnet – Establishes an insecure remote CLI
connection to a device over the Network.
⇒ Terminal Emulation Programs
● Terminal emulation programs are used to connect
to a network device by either a console port or by
an SSH/Telnet connection.
 ● There are several terminal emulation programs to
chose from such as PuTTY, Tera Term, and
SecureCRT.
2.2 IOS Navigation
⇒ Primary Command Modes
- User EXEC Mode:
● Allows access to only a limited number of basic
monitoring commands.
● Identified by the CLI prompt that ends with the >
symbol.
- Privileged EXEC Mode:
● Allows access to all commands and features
● Identified by the CLI prompt that ends with the #
symbol.
⇒ Configuration Mode and Subconfiguration Modes
- Global Configuration Mode:
● Used to access configuration options on the
device.
- Line Configuration Mode:
● Used to configure console, SSH, Telnet or AUX
access.
- Interface Configuration Mode:
● Used to configure a switch port or router interface.
⇒ Navigation Between IOS Modes
● Privileged EXEC Mode:
- To move from user EXEC mode to privilege EXEC
mode, use the enabled command.
● Global Configuration Mode:
- To move in and out of global configuration mode,
use the configure terminal command. To return to
privilege EXEC mode, use the exit command.
● Line Configuration Mode:
- To move in and out of line configuration mode,
use the line command followed by the
management line type. To return to global
configuration mode, use the exit Command.
⇒ Subconfiguration Modes:
• To move out of any subconfiguration mode to get back to
global configuration mode, use the exit command. To
return to privilege EXEC mode, use the end command or
key combination Ctrl +Z.
• To move directly from one subconfiguration mode to
another, type in the desired subconfiguration mode
command. In the example, the command prompt changes
from (config-line)# to (config-if)#.
• Keyword – This is a specific parameter defined in the
operating system (in the figure, ip protocols).
• Argument - This is not predefined; it is a value or
variable defined by the user (in the figure, 192.168.10.5).
⇒ IOS Command Syntax Check
- The command syntax provides the pattern, or
format, that must be used when entering a
command.
- The command is ping and the user-defined
argument is the ip-address of the destination
device. For example, ping 10.10.10.5.
- The command is traceroute and the user-defined
argument is the ip-address of the destination
device. For example, traceroute 192.168.254.254.
⇒ Hot Keys and Shortcuts
- When a command output produces more text than
can be displayed in a terminal window, the IOS
will display a “--More--” prompt.
● Enter Key - Displays the next line.
● Space Bar - Displays the next screen.
● Any other key - Ends the display string, returning
commands that can be used to exit out of an
operation. Ctrl-C , Ctrl-Z , Ctrl-Shift-6
2.4 Basic Device Configuration
⇒ Configure Passwords
Securing user EXEC mode access:
● First enter line console configuration mode using
the line console 0 command in global
configuration mode.
● Next, specify the user EXEC mode password
using the password password command.
● Finally, enable user EXEC access using the login
command.
Securing privileged EXEC mode access:
● First enter global configuration mode.
● Next, use the enable secret password
command.
Securing VTY line access:
● First enter line VTY configuration mode using the
line vty 0 15 command in global configuration
mode.
● Next, specify the VTY password using the
password password command.
● Finally, enable VTY access using the login
command.
⇒ Encrypt Passwords
- The startup-config and running-config files display
most passwords in plaintext.
- To encrypt all plaintext passwords, use the service
password-encryption global config command.
- Use the show running-config command to verify
that the passwords on the device are now
encrypted.
⇒ Banner Messages
- It is important to warn unauthorized personnel
from attempting to access the device.
- To create a banner message of the day on a
network device, use the banner motd # the
message of the day # global config command.
2.5 Save Configurations
⇒ There are two system files that store the device
configuration:
● startup-config - This is the saved configuration
file that is stored in NVRAM. It contains all the
commands that will be used by the device upon
startup or reboot. Flash does not lose its contents
when the device is powered off.
● running-config - This is stored in Random
Access Memory (RAM). It reflects the current
configuration. Modifying a running configuration
affects the operation of a Cisco device
immediately. RAM is volatile memory. It loses all
of its content when the device is powered off or
restarted.
 ● To save changes made to the running
configuration to the startup configuration file, use
the copy running-config startup-config privileged
EXEC mode command.
WEEK 5: NETWORK DEVICES
⇒ Network device - is a piece of hardware or software
integral to communication between a computer and an
internet network. Network devices play two roles. The first
is establishing a network connection, as a router or a
modem does. The second one is maintaining, protecting
and enhancing that connection, as with a hub, repeater,
switch or gateway.
Function of Network Devices
● Facilitate data transmission and communication
between devices
● Enable efficient and secure network connectivity
● Enhance network performance and optimize traffic
flow
● Provide network security by enforcing access
control and threat prevention
● Simplify network management and configuration
● Extend network coverage and overcome signal
limitations
Types of Network Devices:
1. ) A Hub is a basically multi-port repeater. A hub
connects multiple wires coming from different branches,
for example, the connector in star topology which
connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so
data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other
words, the collision domain of all hosts connected through
Hub remains one.
⇒ Types of Hub
● Active Hub - These are the hubs that have their
power supply and can clean, boost, and relay the
signal along with the network. It serves both as a
repeater as well as a wiring center. These are
used to extend the maximum distance between
nodes.
● Passive Hub - These are the hubs that collect
wiring from nodes and power supply from the
active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the
network without cleaning and boosting them and
can’t be used to extend the distance between
nodes.
● Intelligent Hub - It works like an active hub and
includes remote management capabilities. They
also provide flexible data rates to network devices.
It also enables an administrator to monitor the
traffic passing through the hub and to configure
each port in the hub.
2. ) A Bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a
repeater, with add on the functionality of filtering content
by reading the MAC addresses of the source and
destination. It is also used for interconnecting two LANs
working on the same protocol. It has a single input and
single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.
⇒ Types of Bridge
● Transparent Bridges - These are the bridge in
which the stations are completely unaware of the
bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is
added or deleted from the network,
reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary.
● Source Routing Bridges - In these bridges,
routing operation is performed by the source
station and the frame specifies which route to
follow. The host can discover the frame by
sending a special frame called the discovery
frame, which spreads through the entire network
using all possible paths to the destination.
3.) A Repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to
regenerate the signal over the same network before the
signal becomes too weak or corrupted to extend the length
to which the signal can be transmitted over the same
network. An important point to be noted about repeaters is
that they not only amplify the signal but also regenerate it.
When the signal becomes weak, they copy it bit by bit and
regenerate it at its star topology connectors connecting
following the original strength.
4.) A Switch is a multiport device that improves network
efficiency. Switches maintain limited routing information
about nodes in the internal network, allowing connections
to systems like hubs or routers. Strands of LANs are
usually connected using switches. Generally, switches
read the hardware addresses of incoming packets to
transmit them to the appropriate destination.
⇒ Types of Switch
● Modular switches allow systems to expand as
needed or if network requirements change.
● Fixed configuration switches have a set number
of ports and cannot be expanded. They are
cheaper but less flexible.
5.) A Router is a device like a switch that routes data
packets based on their IP addresses. The router is mainly
a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs
and WANs and have a dynamically updating routing table
based on which they make decisions on routing the data
packets. The router divides the broadcast domains of
hosts connected through it..
⇒ Router configure in two way:
- Routers act as your first line of defense. The
routers themselves are configured as static or
dynamic:
● Static routers can only be configured manually
and stay that way until changed.
● Dynamic routers use information about nearby
routers to build their routing tables.
6.) A Firewall restricts the internet traffic of a private
network, controlling what goes in and out. They analyze
and restrict data packets based on programmed
parameters, either whitelists or blacklists. Whitelists only
allow information that falls within a certain set of
parameters, while blacklists deny all information that falls
inside the parameters.
⇒ Types of firewall
● Packet filtering: Acts as a network layer
checkpoint, analyzing data packets by IP address,
packet type, port number or network protocols
● Stateful inspection: Analyzes data at network
and transport layers, inspecting source IP,
destination IP, source port and destination port
● Next-generation: Analyzes actual packet content
and all TCP handshake checks, checking for
malware, and detects advanced threats (see the
section on IDS and IPS below)
7.) Gateways connect networks operating on different
protocols so data can transfer between destinations.
These devices normally work at the Transport and
Session layers of the OSI model. At the Transport layer
and above, there are numerous protocols and standards
from different vendors, and gateways help deal with them.
8.) A Modem (modulator-demodulator) converts digital
signals into analog signals of different frequencies and
transmits them to a modem at the receiving location. The
receiving modem performs the reverse transformation and
provides a digital output to a device connected to a
modem, usually a computer.

⇒ Types of Modem
● A DSL modem uses telephone cables and is
considered the slowest connection.
● A cable modem transmits information over TV
lines and is faster than DSL.
● A wireless modem transfers information between
the local network and an internet service provider;
it is the fastest transmitter.
9.) An Access Point is a device that creates a wireless
local area network, or WLAN, usually in an office or large
building. An access point connects to a wired router,
switch, or hub via an Ethernet cable, and projects a Wi-Fi
signal to a designated area. For example, if you want to
enable Wi-Fi access in your company's reception area but
don’t have a router within range, you can install an access
point near the front desk and run an Ethernet cable
through the ceiling back to the server room.