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 Geophysical Monograph 247

Iceland
Tectonics, Volcanics,
and Glacial Features
Tamie J. Jovanelly

This Work is a co‐publication of the American Geophysical Union and John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
This Work is a co‐publication between the American Geophysical Union and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
This book would have never been imagined if it were not for my wonderful husband,
Joe(y) Cook, whose dreams and love are as far reaching as an Askja ash cloud.
And believe me, that is really far.
CONTENTS

Preface...................................................................................................................................................ix

Introduction1
1. The Geologic Framework of Iceland������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 3

Part I Tectonics 5
2. Overview of Tectonics in Iceland............................................................................................................ 7

3. Tectonics of the Reykjanes Peninsula and Southwestern Region........................................................... 15

4. Tectonics of the South and Southeastern Regions................................................................................. 27

5. Tectonics of the Northeastern Region.................................................................................................. 31

6. Tectonics of the Western Region.......................................................................................................... 39

Part II Volcanics 43
7. Overview of Volcanics in Iceland......................................................................................................... 45

8. Volcanics of the Reykjanes Peninsula and Southwestern Region.......................................................... 61

9. Volcanics of the South and Southeastern Regions................................................................................ 65

10. Volcanics of the North and Northeastern Regions................................................................................ 87

11. Volcanics of the Western Region........................................................................................................ 107

Part III Glacial Features 115

12. Overview of Glacial Features in Iceland............................................................................................. 117

13. Glacial Features of the Reykjanes Peninsula and Southwestern Region.............................................. 137

14. Glacial Features of the South and Southeastern Regions.................................................................... 145

15. Glacial Features of the Northern and Western Regions...................................................................... 159

Glossary���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 173

References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 177

Index��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 199

vii
PREFACE
My first venture to Iceland was in 2006 when it was
still off the radar of most tourists. With the keys to a
Toyota Yaris and a series of paper road maps, my older
brother Jim and I circled the island in 11 days. Although
we were perpetually lost, we had found a pristine
landscape with amazing views, incredible geology, and
no road signs. I was hooked. Over the course of the
next decade I would visit nearly every summer, bring-
ing with me fortunate undergraduate students who
could keep up with the hiking, as well as my desire to
explore everything about the island—including the
sampling of the dreadful rotten shark cuisine. My
preparation for teaching Physical Geology and
Advanced Geological Field Studies courses in Iceland
became the inspiration to write this book.
As a geologist, I hope to not only capture the island’s
natural beauty, but also to enhance it through detailed
descriptions that link the relationships between
­structure, process, and time to the island’s evolution.
I reviewed innumerable peer‐reviewed scientific papers
in order to deliver the reader with the most up‐to‐
date research on interesting, and sometimes debated,
geological theories regarding an island being split in
half due to plate tectonic motion. This text is not just
intended for academics, but also for novice geologists
who want to understand the magnificent scenery at a
deeper level. To encourage this, I provide background
introductions and figures that offer information on
foundational geological concepts. Additionally, the
book has been intentionally organized for travelers to
use, by highlighting Iceland’s most popular destina-
tions and putting each region into a contextual per-
spective. More specifically, the book is organized into
three main sections: tectonics (Chapters 2–6), volca-
nics (Chapters 7–11), and glacial features (Chapters
12–15). The book can be read from cover to cover, or it
can be utilized as a travel guide by traversing the island
from the capital city Reykjavik counter clockwise. For
the latter use, the reader can refer to the introductions
to each Part (Chapters 2, 7, 12) followed by chapters
organized into four cardinal quadrants describing the
southwest (Chapters 3, 8, 13), southeast (Chapters 4,
9, 14), northeast (Chapters 5 and 10), and northwest
(Chapters 6, 11, 15). The book provides an index,
ix
glossary, and GPS coordinates for most locations for
easy reference.
The support I had in writing this book was truly
endless. Encouragement came in the form of multiple
bouquets of flowers and sugar‐free Red Bulls delivered
to my office by husband (Joe Cook), positive reviewer
feedback (Dr. Kent Murray and Dr. Sheila Seaman),
and advice from colleagues (Dr. Ed Harvey and wife
Carol Rogers, and Dr. Mary Anne Holmes). Substantial
project contributions came from Nathan Mennen who
prepared all the figures for the book, Emily Larrimore
who wrote some of the interesting displayed boxes you
will find within the text, and Amanda Tomlinson who
formatted references and glossary terms. I also need to
thank the many Berry College Geology “Home Team”
students who traveled with me to Iceland: Mallory
Paulk, Maggie Midkiff‐Maddrey, Russell Maddrey,
Matthew Bentley, Emma Cook, Emily Larrimore,
Carley Carder, Amanda Tomlinson, JT Keiffer,
Timothy Wooley, and Andrew Elgin. Undoubtedly,
they were the guinea pigs for this book and provided
insight into the content it should contain.
I cannot believe how much fun I had writing this
book and I want to thank John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Publishers and the American Geophysical Union for
providing me with this opportunity. I enjoyed the
whole process: manuscript collecting, reading, learning,
and the solitude of the writing process. For me, every
day was a chance to study more about the country
and science that I love so dearly. With that stated,
I realize that I am standing on the shoulders of the
foundational Icelandic geologists that came before me:
Helgi Björnsson, Páll Einarsson, Agust Gudmundsson,
Guðrún Larsen, Kristjan Sæmundsson, Oddur
Sigurðsson, and Thor Thordarsen. Each of these life-
long explorers have written books and documents that
I encourage the reader to look at first hand for more
complete understanding. During the 15 months or so
that it took to write the manuscript I often reflected
back on my Advisor, Dr. Sheri Fritz, at the University
of Nebraska‐Lincoln who worked tirelessly on manu-
script writing out of a labor of love, or so it seemed.
Her commitment to science has always inspired me to
work harder.
Introduction
 1
The Geologic Framework of Iceland
The island of Iceland, with its northern tip just
61 km south of the Arctic Circle, has a long construc-
tive history that started 130 million years ago during
the last Pangea cycle. Spreading of new ocean floor at
mid‐ocean ridges to separate continents following this
breakup and the onset of a large mantle plume (radius
about 300 km) beneath Greenland are thought to have
led to excessive mantle upwelling [Wolfe et al., 1997;
Holbrook et al., 2001; Rickers et al., 2013]. These events
coincide with dates of continental flood basalts and
mid‐Cretaceous volcanism along the Arctic Mendelev
Ridge, Alpha Ridge, and Ellesmere Island [Lawver and
Müller, 1994; Johnston and Thorkelsen, 2000;
Sigmundsson, 2006]. Uplift accompanying igneous
intrusions in northwest Europe, Greenland, and
Canada between 64 and 52 million years ago immedi-
ately initiated passive volcanic margins, thereby setting
the stage for magmatic upwelling and island creation
[Saunders et al., 2007].
During the past 60 million years, the overall northwest
migration of the North American plate carrying
Greenland and the southeast migration of the Eurasia
Plate have determined the position of the Iceland hot
spot. The process of rifting has separated the two major
plates, Eurasia and North America (Figure 1.1), with the
Mid‐Atlantic Ridge forming a divergent plate boundary
between them. Seafloor spreading is occurring at approx-
imately 2 cm per year, or 20 km per million years [Sella
et al., 2002; Geirsson et al., 2006]. Two Icelandic
microplates (or blocks, i.e., Hreppar in the south and
Tjörnes in the north) have formed at the intersection
of (to the west) the Reykjanes and Kolbeinsey ridges
Iceland: Tectonics,Volcanics, and Glacial Features, Geophysical Monograph 247, First Edition. Tamie J. Jovanelly.
© 2020 American Geophysical Union. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
3
and perpendicular transform faults with a (to the east)
parallel offset ridge (Figure 1.1) [Einarsson, 2008].
Prior to the current tectonic setting, where the
Kolbeinsey and Reykjanes ridges form the spreading
centers, the extinct Aegir Ridge to the east, which ran
parallel to these systems [Kristjánsson, 1979; Weir
et al., 2001; Tronnes, 2002], was important in the
initiation of the North Atlantic Ocean during the
Eocene (about 56 to 34 million years ago) as rifting
and seafloor spreading began separation of Greenland
from Norway. At 24 million years ago (Late Oligocene
to Early Miocene), as the overall size and temperature
of the mantle plume continued to dissipate, the
Reykjanes–Kolbeinsey plate boundary was centered
over the hot spot (Figure 1.1) [Fitton et al., 1997;
Kodaira et al., 1998; Holbrook et al., 2001]. Since then,
the main Reykjanes and Kolbeinsey ridges have moved
240 km to the northwest so that the plume is now
located under Iceland’s largest ice cap, Vatnajökull.
Consequently, this is also where the crust is thickest
(~40 km; Sigmundsson, 2006]. The position of the hot
spot has been established through a combination of
earthquake data [Oskarsson et al., 1985; Einarsson,
1991; Weisenberger, 2010], seismic crustal structure
and tomography data [Flòvenz and Gunnarson, 1991;
Foulger et al., 2006], and seismic reflection and refrac-
tion data [Holbrook et al., 2001].
The plume‐origin hypothesis suggests that volcanism
was initiated by ascending mantle‐derived magma
from beneath thick continental lithosphere and sub-
sequently from beneath oceanic lithosphere as rifting
continued and the ocean basin grew [Sigvaldason, 1974a].
4 The Geologic Framework of Iceland

Figure 1.1 Tectonic context of Iceland. At present Iceland is divided by the Kolbeinsey Ridge in the north
and the Rekjanes Ridge in the south. The yellow circles show the position of the mantle plume from
50 million years ago to present. [Modified from Fitton et al. [1997]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]

Alternative hypotheses that consider mechanisms for
large magma generation include excess magmatism
from melting of mantle and/or recycled ocean‐crust
material [Foulger, 2006] and a rift model whereby the
development of a North Atlantic spreading center is
solely reliant on plate‐tectonic mechanisms and not hot‐
spot development [Ellis and Stoker, 2014].
Most of the 350,000 km2 basaltic plateau making up
Iceland lies below sea level, with about 30% of the
island being above sea level, up to a maximum relief of
2110 m above the ocean surface [Gudmundsson, 2000].
The submarine shelf surrounding the island ranges
50–200 km wide and gently slopes to depths of 400 m
[Thordarson and Larsen, 2007].
Part I: Tectonics
 2
Overview of Tectonics in Iceland
2.1. PRESENT TECTONIC SETTING
The present tectonic setting of Iceland is driven by the
continued spreading of the Mid‐Atlantic Ridge (MAR);
specifically, the Kolberinsey Ridge (KR) in the north and
the Reykjanes Ridge (RR) in the south (Figure 1.1). These
subaerial expressions of the MAR in Iceland are charac-
terized by various seismically and volcanically active
centers often referred to as neovolcanic zones [Einarsson,
1991]. Three major neovolcanic zones are recognized
where the main processes are normal faulting and volcanic
fissuring: North Volcanic Zone, West Volcanic Zone, and
East Volcanic Zone (Figure 2.1). These neovolcanic zones
are bounded by perpendicular transform faults that
connect the RR and KR with a parallel offset ridge axis,
with the Mid‐Iceland Belt (MIB) forming a triple junction
beneath Vatnajökull [Sigmundsson, 2006].
The island has undergone dynamic change through a
series of rift jumps that first began 24 million years ago
(Ma) in northern Iceland, which initiated the first rift
zone [Harðarson et al., 1997; Hjartarson et al., 2017].
Magmatic upwelling through rift jumping is a prominent
process in the evolution of Iceland [Hjartarson et al.,
2017]. As described by Mittelstaedt et al. [2008) rift
jumps are induced by magmatic heating from an off‐axis
hot spot (at present, under Vatnajökull), which results in
a change in the location of the ridge axis. The magma
produced by the hot spot thins the lithospheric crust
thereby initiating new rifting to form a new ridge axis. In
Iceland, this process is combined with east and west diver-
gence of two continental plates, resulting in the rift axes
becoming less active as they move away (e.g., relocate)
from the hot spot intensity. Denk et al. [2011] recognizes
unconformities that accompany rift jumps in Iceland
Iceland: Tectonics,Volcanics, and Glacial Features, Geophysical Monograph 247, First Edition. Tamie J. Jovanelly.
© 2020 American Geophysical Union. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
7
by identifying distinct sedimentary horizons containing
plant remains between lava formations.
Of these zones, that in the east has been the most active
during the past 2–3 million years (Myr). The Eastern
Volcanic Zone, and numerous other past rift‐jump struc-
tures, were mapped using subaerial lava‐flow bodies (e.g.,
dipping of Tertiary basalt strata) that could be identified
on surface geologic maps through various aged folded
basalts (Figure 2.1; Böðvarsson and Walker, 1964;
Jóhannesson and Sæmundsson, 2009; Hjartarson et al.,
2017]. The South Iceland Seismic Zone, an area charac-
terized by high earthquake activity, accommodates
the offset between the East and West Volcanic Zones
[Stefánsson et al., 2006; Einarsson, 1991]. The East
Volcanic Zone intersects the North Volcanic Zone at the
triple junction beneath Vatnajökull, formed by the MIB
(Figure 2.1). The North Volcanic Zone connects to the
(KR) via the Tjörnes Fracture Zone. Here, the term
“fracture zone” describes the zone that connects the
parallel off‐set ridge axis to the KR segment of the MAR.
Transform plate movement along the Tjörnes Fracture
Zone has resulted in another major center of seismicity
and deformation. The Snæfellsnes Volcanic Belt reacti-
vated at 2 Ma and is moving to the southeast, whereas the
southern part of the East Volcanic Zone is currently
propagating to the southwest. The Reykjanes Volcanic
Belt in southwest Iceland is the subaerial expression of
the RR and connects to the West Volcanic Zone.
2.2. BACKGROUND GEOLOGY
Effusive volcanism during the Tertiary from seafloor
spreading in the North Atlantic region began to build
up a massive basalt plateau (estimated 350,000 km2)
8 TECTONICS

Figure 2.1 Iceland’s volcanic zones, associated plate boundaries, and general geologic age of bedrock. KR,
Kolbeinsey Ridge; RR, Reykjanes Ridge; EVZ, East Volcanic Zone; WVZ, West Volcanic Zone; NVZ, North
Volcanic Zone; SISZ, South Iceland Seismic Zone; MIB, Mid‐Iceland Volcanic Belt; TFZ, Tjörnes Fracture
Zone; ÖVB, Öræfi Volcanic Flank; RVB, Reykjanes Volcanic Belt; SVB, Snæfellsnes Volcanic Belt. [Adapted
from Sæmundsson [1979]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]

[Sæmundsson, 1979]. Lavas of similar composition
have been found in northwest Britain, Faroe Islands,
and Greenland, which help confirm plate movement
and provide documentation of the scale of this depo-
sitional event [Roberts and Hunter, 1979]. The overall
age of the island exposed above sea level is geologi-
cally young, with the oldest rocks found to the east
and west (14–16 Ma; Moorbath et al., 1968;
McDougall et al., 1984), whereas rocks in the
northern region may be only 12 Ma [Sæmundsson,
1986]. Walker [1960] completed the first published
lithological account of the Tertiary units on Iceland.
Iceland is divided geologically into three main
groups: Tertiary Basalt Formation (Upper Tertiary),
Grey Basalt Formation (Upper Pliocene to Lower
Pleistocene), Mòberg Formation (Upper Pleistocene),
and the Upper Pleistocene and Holocene unconsolidated
or poorly lithified beds such as till, glaciofluvial
deposits, marine and fluvial sediments, as well as
soils (Table 2.1; Gardner, 1885; Walker, 1960;
Sæmundsson, 1979]. Due to its abundance (covering
about half the total area of Iceland) and its extensive
exposure in the east and west, there is even an
Icelandic term for the dark basalt, blágrýtismyndun
[Sæmundsson, 1979].
The Tertiary Basalt Formation is composed mainly
of basaltic lava flows (>83%) comprising tholeiite
petrology (typical of continental plateau basalts and
mid‐ocean ridges), olivine (typical of ocean basins),
and porphyritic basalts (representative of intrusive
and extrusive processes) (Thórarinsson et al., 1959;
Klein and Langmuir, 1987; Shorttle and Maclennan,
2011]. Although dominated by basalt, rhyolitic lavas
(8%), andesitic lavas (3%), and interbasaltic beds
 OVERVIEW OF TECTONICS IN ICELAND 9

Table 2.1 Geologic timescale and associated major climate events in Iceland

Era Period Epoch Age Stage Sub‐stage Formation Major events

0–2.5 ka Late
Bog Period (sub‐Atlantic)
2.5–5 ka Late
Holocene Birch Period (sub‐Boreal)
5–7.2 ka Early Bog Period (Atlantic)

Upper Pleistocene Formation

7.2–9.3 ka Early Birch Period (Boreal)
9.3–10 ka Pre‐Boreal Ice Age glaciers melt
10–11 ka Younger Cooling in northern
Dryas hemisphere; glaciers
grow
Late Pleistocene

11–12 ka Weichselian Allerød Warmer climate

Quaternary

12–20 ka Older Icelandic ice sheets

Dryas quickly retreat
20–110 ka Eurasian ice sheet at
maximum; last glacial
stage
115–130 ka Eemian Last interglacial stage
Pleistocene Pleistocene
Middle

130–300 ka Saale Glacial stage

CENOZOIC

300–700 ka

0.7–2.5 Ma Start of full‐scale

Plio‐Pleistocene
glaciations
Early

Formation

2.5–3.3 Ma Pacific Ocean fauna arrive

Pliocene

in Iceland. Bering Strait

opens
3.3–7 Ma Climate begins to cool
Warm, temperate climate
Miocene

Teriatery Basalt Formation

Late

7–12 Ma
Teriatery

Miocene

12–18 Ma
Middle

18–25 Ma Origination of Iceland

Miocene
Early

Note. ka, thousand years ago; Ma, million years ago. Modified from Thordarson and Höskuldsson [2014]; design credit Nathan
Mennen.
10 TECTONICS
c­omposed of tephra and sediment (6%) also can be
found [Einarsson, 1994]. Over time, vesicles and
fractures present in rock can become infilled post‐dep-
ositionally with minerals such as quartz, jasper, chalce-
dony, calcite, and zeolites. Large calcite crystals
sometimes found are referred to as “Iceland spar”
[Einarsson, 1960]. Other than interbasaltic red‐bed
clays, sedimentary rocks (<10% of the Tertiary
succession) and fossils are rare (Box 2.1). For example,
only 50 genera or species of plants have been docu-
mented on the Tjörnes Peninsula [Einarsson, 1994;
Thordarson and Höskuldsson, 2014].
Most of the Tertiary landscape‐altering events
resulted from fissure eruptions, although the presence
of central or shield volcanoes can be spectulated
through the numerous feeder dikes that cross cut the
Box 2.1 The Miocene and Pliocene fossils of the Tjörnes Peninsula
Iceland’s oldest rocks date back to 14–16 Ma
­(during the Middle Miocene), some of which in
northern Iceland host a fossil record [Grímsson and
Símonarson, 2008]. Iceland is not a particularly
fossiliferous locality because only approximately
5% of its bedrock comprises sedimentary rock
[Ólafsdóttir and Dowling, 2014]. The majority of
sedimentary bedrock is found on the Tjörnes
Peninsula, which subsequently has the most exten­
sive fossil record of Iceland. Documenting the fos­
sils of Iceland is important because Iceland’s
position between the Arctic and Boreal regions,
and its position between North America, Greenland,
and Europe/Asia provides insight into the biogeo­
graphic and evolutionary history of the fossilized
organisms found there, and the climatic history of
the region [Grímsson and Símonarson, 2008;
Wappler et al., 2014]. The fossiliferous strata have
a relative abundance of invertebrates and vegeta­
tion, but occurrences of vertebrates are uncommon.
The Tjörnes Formation in northeast Iceland dates
back to the Early Pliocene, is 1200 m in thickness,
and comprises four lithological units: Kaldakvisl
lavas, Tjörnes beds, Höskuldsvík lavas, and the
Bredavík Group [Field et al., 2017]. The Tjörnes
beds are particularly fossiliferous and are com­
posed primarily of marine sediments with abun­
dant shell and gastropod fossils, interbedded with
fluvial and lacustrine sediments, and also lignite
deposits, indicating that the area has experienced
basalt piles. Most feeder dikes have north to south ori-
entation, their mean thickness is about 3 m, and widths
range from 1 to 10 m [Sæmundsson, 1986]. Textbook
examples of dike swarms found in the eastern fjords
can make up between 3 and 15% of the rock outcrop.
Thordarson [2012] describes the dike swarms as subsur-
face components of fissure swarms in active volcanic
systems, whereby the swarms are linked to localized
deposits of andesite–rhyolite lava and tephra marking
the location of extinct central volcanoes; 40 extinct
volcanic systems have been identified in the Tertiary
succession.
Deposition of the Tertiary basalts ended at 2.5 Ma
coinciding with the onset of an extensive glacial period
[Eiríksson, 2008]. The crustal response to the weight of
ice overburden was translated through normal faulting
several sea‐level fluctuations [Thoroddsen, 1892].
The Tjörnes beds are the only notable pre‐
Quaternary marine deposits in the country, and
they include intertidal, littoral, and subtidal strata
deposits representing a high‐energy marine deposi­
tional system [Field et al., 2017]. In total the Tjörnes
beds are 500 m thick and can be separated into
three biozones based on the dominant mollusc
species: Lower Pliocene Tapes Zone, Upper
Pliocene Mactra Zone, and Serripe Zone. Many of
the mollusc species found in both the Tapes and
Mactra Zones are either extinct in modern times or
largely migrated to live in warmer waters than that
presently surrounding Iceland.
The Tapes Zone comprises thin lignites alternating
with marine deposits rich in molluscs such as
Arctica islandica and species of Cardium and
Mytilus. These species indicate that the Tapes Zone
was deposited in a shallow‐marine environment,
alternating with subaerial lignite deposition. The
Mactra Zone also comprises fossiliferous marine
deposits alternating with subaerial lignites. In this
zone the now extinct Mactra species can be found
alongside extant species of Glycimeris. The youn­
gest zone, the Serripes, accounts for just over half of
the thickness of the Tjörnes beds. The Serripes Zone
comprises predominantly marine sediments but
unlike the Tapes and Mactra Zones interbedded lig­
nite deposits are very infrequent and very thin, and
occur near the top of the zone. Mollusca preferring

a cold climate, such as Serripes gronlandicus and
species of the genera Neptunea and Macoma,
begin appearing in the fossil record pointing this
zone, but overall the sea temperature was still
higher than it is at present [Thoroddsen, 1892].
The fossil floral record of Iceland dates back to
the Middle Miocene, and there is a dramatic
difference between older and younger flora char­
acteristics, due to the gradual cooling of Iceland’s
climate beginning at 12 Ma. This environmental
change caused thermophilus plants (plants that
thrive in warmer climatic conditions) to become
extinct, and cold tolerant plants to become more
dominant [Grímsson and Símonarson, 2008].
Further pollen analysis carried out on the lignite
deposits found in the Mactra Zone shows that the
region supported coniferous forests in the middle
Pliocene. Pollen from fir, spruce, pine, and larch
can be found in the Mactra Zone, as well as broad­
leaf species such as oak, beech, hazel, and holly,
along with alder, birch, and willow. These tree
species represent a warmer climate during the mid­
dle Pliocene than Iceland’s present climate.
Vertebrate fossils are virtually unknown in
Iceland’s fossil record. In the 1990s, bones of a
with throws between 10 and 20 m and main fault
strikes generally trending N–E or N–SW. The
characteristic dip of the Tertiary Basalt Formation is
between 5° and 15°, but the direction of dip is variable
depending on region (Figure 2.1; Einarsson, 1960;
Sigmundssson, 2006). Measurements of Tertiary Basalt
Formation dips identify folds in the basalt that relate
to the rift‐jump complexes previously described.
Conformable boundaries between the Tertiary and
Quaternary basalt deposits in Iceland are not obvious
[Einarrson, 1994]. Dating of changes in polarity of
Earth’s magnetic field, however, have made it possible
to delineate Tertiary and Quaternary basalts, as the
Quaternary Period spans the present Brunhes normal
polarity epoch and the previous Matuyana predomi-
nately reversed polarity epoch [Kristjansson and
McDougall, 1982]. The top of the penultimate normal
polarity epoch, the Gauss, marks the end of the
Tertiary Period at approximately 2.6 Ma.
There are two notable Plio‐Pleistocene depositional
sequences that ultimately make up about 25% of
exposed rock at the surface: Grey Basalt (3.0–0.7 Ma)
and Móberg Formations (0.7 Ma to 10,000 ka).
OVERVIEW OF TECTONICS IN ICELAND 11
small deer were found in a red interbasaltic sand­
stone bed of the Burstarfell Formation in
Vopnafjörður, slightly southeast of the Tjörnes
Peninsula. The finds comprised fragmented
shoulder and scapula bones, and were of Pliocene
age, dated between 3.5 and 3 Ma. This discovery
indicates that it was possible Iceland supported
assemblages of small herbivorous mammals that
were the ancestors of those that became isolated
on Iceland when it became an island in the Early to
Middle Miocene or Late Oligocene [Grímsson and
Símonarson, 2008]. As recently as 2011, the first
marine vertebrate fossil was found in a cliff face of
the Tjörnes Peninsula. A partial right whale skull
was found in the Mactra Zone of the Tjörnes beds.
Age estimates on the skull are varying, with the
minimum age being 3.4 Ma and the maximum age
being 4.63 Ma. This find indicates that the Tjörnes
Formation has valuable potential for further dis­
covery of marine vertebrate fossils, which are so
rare in the fossil record of Iceland. Further discov­
eries such as this could also develop understanding
of communities and evolution of paleomarine
­vertebrate organisms at high Arctic latitudes [Field
et al., 2017].
Although superficially similar in appearance to the
Tertiary Basalt, the Grey Basalt is characterized as
being lighter in color and coarser in texture
[Kjartansson, 1960]. The Móberg Formation is
described as a palogonite tuff and breccia that is a
result of hydration and alteration processes
[Kjartansson, 1960].
In the Pliocene Epoch at about 5 Ma climate began
to cool, and by Early Pleistocene times (2.5 Ma) a
major ice cap had formed, which by Late Pleistocene
times (26 ka) covered the entire island of Iceland,
lasting until the present Holocene Interglacial
(Figure 2.2). In the Weichselian Glacial stage, b
­ etween
the Eemian and Holocene interglacials, five glacial
events took take place [Thordarson and Höskuldsson,
2014], culminating in the Last Glacial Maximum,
when ice likely extended well beyond the current
shoreline. Early reports of a glacial moraine found
130 km offshore [Ólafsdóttir, 1975; Norðahl et al.,
2008] were ­ followed by other geomorphological
studies that determined the ice extent was only
10–20 km on the coastal shelf [Hjort et al., 1985].
Regardless of the offshore position of the ice margin,
Figure 2.2 Growth of ice sheets in comparison to landmass on Iceland over the Tertiary and Quaternary
Periods. [Modified from Thordarson and Höskuldsson [2014]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]

Figure 2.3 Development of a möberg ridge. Strike and dip symbols identify depression within the surface of
the ice sheet: (a) subglacial eruption forms; (b) pillow lava cone or pillow ridge develops; (c) möberg ridge or
cone result post‐eruption. [Figure modified from Thordarson and Larsen [2007]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]
 OVERVIEW OF TECTONICS IN ICELAND 13

Photo 1 An example of a möberg ridge in southwestern Iceland. [Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]

Iceland’s landscape was influenced dominantly by the
expansion and retreat of Pleistocene ice sheets. The
resulting Pliocene–Quaternary geomorphologic evo-
lution includes features such as the mörberg ridges
(Figure 2.3) and tabletop mountains (Photo 1), which
dominate the landscape in the neovolcanic zones.
Moreover, the substantial meltwaters from Weichselian
ice sheets 1 km thick produced abundant fluvial
deposits and spectacular erosional landscape features
such as canyons.
 3
Tectonics of the Reykjanes Peninsula and Southwestern Region
A major rift jump from the Snæfellsnes Peninsula
(Figure 2.1) to the Reykjanes Peninsula occurred
approximately 6–7 Ma to initiative spreading there
[Sæmundsson, 1979; Jóhannesson, 1980]. It is on the
Reykjanes Peninsula where three systems merge: the
West Volcanic Zone (WVZ), the Reykjanes Volcanic
Belt (RVB), and the oblique‐trending RR, i.e. the MAR
[Keiding et al., 2006]. The unique steepness of the RR
as it meets the Reykjanes Peninsula makes it one of the
only places in the world where a mid‐ocean ridge is
visible on land. This change in dip has been attributed
to faster spreading rates, as confirmed by topographic
and seismic studies [Einarsson, 2001]. Although there
has been a gradual decline in activity of the RVB and
WVZ, since between 2 and 3 Ma when the rift started
migrating east [Keiding et al., 2008; Sæmundsson,
1974], small‐scale earthquake activity (M < 5) persists
today in a narrow band (~4 km wide) along the plate
boundary.
There are six major rift areas (denoted as fissure
swarms) in the southwest area of the Reykjanes
Peninsula that align with the present NE–SW active rift
zone: Reykjanes, Eldvörp–Svartsengi, Fagradalsfjall,
Krýsuvík, Brennisteinsfjöll, and Hengill–Langjökull
(Figure 3.1). These active rifts are arranged en echelon
along the RVB, making it very different from the other
volcanic zones identified in Figure 2.1. Hence, the posi-
tion of the active rifts in the RVB relate to the oblique
movement of the plate, which results in more shearing
movement and less spreading perpendicular to the plate
axis [Weir et al., 2001; Sigmundsson, 2006]. Each of the
six rift areas in the RVB has its own magma supply,
Iceland: Tectonics,Volcanics, and Glacial Features, Geophysical Monograph 247, First Edition. Tamie J. Jovanelly.
© 2020 American Geophysical Union. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
15
high‐temperature geothermal system, and clusters of fis-
sure swarms [Clifton et al., 2002]. Related seismicity of
the southwest area aligns with the fissure swarms, result-
ing in shallow (2–5 km) earthquakes that are typically
M = 4 or less [Angelier et al., 2008; Iceland Meteorological
Office, 2018), although, two major earthquakes with
magnitudes between 7 and 8 were reported in 1784 and
1896. Periods of activity were recorded in 1929–1935,
1967–1973, and 2000, indicating a return period of ~30
years [Einarsson, 2008]. The latest occurring largest
earthquakes (M > 5) have been linked to strike‐slip fault-
ing [Árnadóttir et al., 2004] and crustal stretching
[Keiding et al., 2009]. Currently, it is common for the
earthquake swarms to begin in the west, which then trig-
gers aftershock sequences eastward along the fault
[Keiding et al., 2009] that are likely tied to bookshelf
faulting (Figure 3.2) [Einarsson, 2008]. Bookshelf fault-
ing occurs when stress is released in transform fault
zones during strike‐slip earthquakes. In turn, the release
in pressure causes the blocks between the fault zones to
rotate.
The fissure swarms (Photo 2) on the western part
of the Reykjanes Peninsula, which reflect extensional
and normal faulting on northeast‐striking planes
[Einarsson, 1991], were formed beneath Pleistocene
glaciers (i.e., hyaloclastite ridges) or are postglacial
eruptive features. In contrast, the fissures on the east-
ern side are predominantly right‐lateral strike‐slip
faults that crosscut the plate boundary in north–south
patterns [Einarsson, 1991]. As described by Jakobsson
et al. [1978] and Sæmundsson [1979], these eruptive fis-
sures are spaced on average approximately 5 km apart.
16 TECTONICS

Figure 3.1 Active volcanic zones on the Reykjanes Peninsula. The main zone begins with the Reykjanes
Volcanic Belt (RVB) and ends with the Western Volcanic Belt (WVB). Six fissure systems trend perpendicular
to the main zone. [Modified from Jóhannesson and Sæmundsson [1998]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]

The landscape of the Reykjanes Peninsula is consid-
ered to be geologically young, with about half the area
covered by Holocene lava fields. Specifically, the topog-
raphy is molded by 16 eruption events that occurred
between 875 and 1340 CE from five volcanoes
[Thordarson and Höskuldsson, 2014]. The rocks exposed
in the southwest area are not older than 3.2 Ma and
most are Early Pleistocene in age (Figure 2.1). The
material of most mountains in the area is hyaloclastite
formed subglacially. The Reykjanes Peninsula dates to
the Bruhnes normal polarity magnetic epoch
(<0.8 Ma; Middle to Late Pleistocene), which corre-
sponds to the age of the RR segment of the MAR.
3.1. KRÝSUVÍK VALLEY AND LAKE
KLEIFARVATN
The Krýsuvík Valley is one of five high‐temperature
geothermal areas explored for potential resource
management on the Reykjanes Peninsula [Mawejje,
2007]. Reservoir temperatures as high as 300°C at 200–
500 m below surface have been reported from borehole
drilling [Ármannsson and Kristmannsdottir, 1992;
Bjarnason, 2000], which corresponds to hydrothermal
mineral alteration as temperatures increase with depth
(e.g., smectite–zeolite, chlorite, chlorite–epidote;
Gísalson, 1973; Mawejje, 2007]. Steep hyaloclastic
ridges that helped form the closed‐basin system for the
NE–SW orientation of Lake Kleifarvatn (63.9263,
−21.9744) dominate Krýsuvík Valley [Morales, 1992].
Lake Kleifarvatn (9.7 km2) is the deepest lake in the
southwest region and is among the deepest lakes in
Iceland (107 m) (Photo 3). To the east Lake Kleifarvatn
is surrounded by tabletop ridges Geitahlid and
Kistufell, and to the west a subglacial hyaloclastic
ridge (Sveifluhals). These features are evidence of both
effusive and explosive subglacial eruptions [Imsland,
1973; Jónsson, 1978]. In 2001, three earthquakes of
M = 4.5 occurred in the nearby South Iceland Seismic
Zone (SISZ), however, seismicity was not detected at
 Tectonics of the Reykjanes Peninsula and Southwestern Region  17

Figure 3.2 Bookshelf faulting occurs when rift segments are offset from one another and the motion bet-
ween segments is accommodated by transform faults that are oriented orthogonally to the main rift axis.
Concurrently, this lateral motion induces a clockwise rotation of the faults. [Modified from Angelier et al.
[2008]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]

Lake Kleifarvatn despite the appearance of a fissure 3.2. BLUE LAGOON

400 m long and 0.3 m wide that lowered the lake sur-
face by ~4 m [Thordarson, 2012]. The lake is fed by
groundwater and precipitation and has since refilled.
Near Lake Kleifarvatn is an area that was once a research
borehole drill site, called Seltún (63.8970, −22.0548).
From a boardwalk it is easy to view sulfur deposits,
mudpots, and fumaroles. Also nearby are eight explosion
craters of maar volcanic eruptions. The largest
crater, Graenvatn (63.8848, −22.0536) is 300 m in
diameter and 44 m deep (Photo 4; Thordarson and
Höskuldsson, 2014].
AND GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
The Blue Lagoon (63.8804, −22.4495) is one of
Iceland’s most visited sites with more than 500,000
people visiting this man‐made spa yearly (Photo 5)
[Icelandic Tourism Bureau, 2018]. The 5000 m2 lagoon
is the result of the wastewater output from Svartsengi
geothermal plant that has been in operation since 1976
[Gudmundsóttir et al., 2010]. The geothermal water
under Svartsengi is richer in minerals than typical geo-
thermal areas due to the salted ocean water, which
 Photo 2 An example of a fissure swarm in southwestern Iceland. [Courtesy of Russell Maddrey.]

Photo 3 Lake Kleifarvatn is the deepest lake in southwestern Iceland and fills the bottom of Krýsuvík Valley.
[Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]
Photo 4 Grænvatn, near Lake Kleifarvatn, is an example of a maar volcanic eruption. [Courtesy of Russell
Maddrey.]

Photo 5 The Blue Lagoon geothermal spa is a popular tourist destination for rest and relaxation. [Courtesy
of Russell Maddrey.]
20 TECTONICS
seeps through the porous lava and combines with the
hot groundwater. Because the water in the Svartsengi
Geothermal Power Plant has such high mineral content
(e.g., 70 ppm Cl, conductivity 300 μS cm−1) it has been
deemed too corrosive to be used directly as a hot water
source for housing [Thorolfsson, 2005]. Consequently,
the power plant uses the 240°C hot water to heat up
fresh groundwater, which in turn is pumped into homes
on Reykjanes Peninsula. The characteristic milky blue
color of the Blue Lagoon results from the high silica
content extracted in the process of cleaning the water
before it is used in energy production. Since the actual
mineral‐rich hot water is not used directly, whatever is
not used for heating the groundwater is pumped
directly into the lava fields surrounding the power
plant, creating the Blue Lagoon [Thorolfsson, 2005].
The pumped water cools during the production pro-
cess and by the time it reaches the bathing area it is
approximately 38°C [Blue Lagoon, personal commu-
nication]. As a result of continued hot‐water produc-
tion at Svartsengi power plant, ever more water is
pumped into the lava fields, which means the lagoon
keeps growing a few centimeters every year
[Gudmundsóttir et al., 2010].
The lava fields of Svartsengi were formed in a
volcanic eruption in 1226 CE. Due to the young age,
the lava field has high porosity and permeability.
Hydrogen sulfide that is released during the process
of creating geothermal energy can corrode pipelines
if not combined with ambient air. For this reason,
ambient air is used to clean the system and to lower
the temperatures to below 150°C, creating the soft,
slimy, ground that lines the bottom of the lagoon
[Thorolfsson, 2005]. This same silica mud is used to
produce the skin‐care products for which the Blue
Lagoon is known.
3.3. MID‐ATLANTIC RIDGE AT REYKJANESVITI
The mid‐ocean ridge system is the longest and the
most extensive chain of mountains on Earth
(65,000 km), but being located underwater, more than
90% of this mountain range remains hidden from
view [Toomey, 2012; Wright et al., 2012]. Reykjanesviti
(63.8155, −22.7040) is one of the few places on Earth
where a segment of the MAR occurs subaerially as a
surface expression of the submerged RR (Figure 1.1)
in the North Atlantic Ocean. The RR is spreading at
an average rate of 2.5 cm year−1 [DeMets et al., 1994].
The MAR is geologically significant because it marks
the boundary where the North American and
Eurasian tectonic plates meet and separate forming a
horst and graben sequence. The only other place in
Iceland where the MAR can be seen is in Þingvellir
National Park (see section 3.4). Here, the movement
between the North American and Eurasian Plates
can be clearly seen in the cracks or faults that traverse
the region. Also from this location, you can see
móberg hills, which are composed of pillow lavas
made of hydroclastic tephra and breccia that line the
rift valley as it approaches a lighthouse in the dis-
tance. The other pertinent surface features include a
historic Stampar fissure eruption from 1226 CE over-
lying a 2000‐year‐old fissure eruption lava, and an
8000‐year‐old picritic lava shield with hydroclastic
ridges from the last glacial episode (12 ka; Franzson
et al., 2002].
Reykjanesviti is close to a geothermal power plant
and museum (63.8664, −22.6997) that is open to the
public during normal business hours. This power
plant has been operational since the late 1960s and is
adjacent to visible steam vents and solfataras. An
exploration borehole drilled in 2002 to a depth of
2054 m (temperature of 320°C at the base of the
borehole) revealed subsurface hydrothermal alter-
ation below 500 m depth. These data are of interest
because the progressive alteration zonation is the
opposite signature to that found in the Svarstsengi
and Eldvorp geothermal fields (i.e., Blue Lagoon),
which are also on the Reykjanes Peninsula [Franzson,
2000; Franzson et al., 2002].
3.4. ÞINGVELLIR AND HENGILL
The divergent plate boundary seen at Reykjanesviti
trends 70°NW along the whole Reykjanes Peninsula
[Einarsson, 2008] until it joins with the WVZ and SISZ
at the Hengill triple junction (Figure 2.1) within the
Hengill–Langjökull volcanic system [Einarsson, 2008].
The WVZ has been the main site for crustal spreading
in southern Iceland for the past 6–7 Myr at 2 cm year−1
and is currently spreading at a rate of 0.8 cm year−1
[Perlt et al., 2008]. The Hengill–Langjökull system is
the easternmost of a series of six closely spaced
basaltic fissure systems that cut diagonally across the
Reykjanes Peninsula (Figure 3.1) and consists of a
series of NE–SW‐trending fissure vents, crater rows,
and small shield volcanoes occupying a strongly
faulted graben that has been mapped recently by
Friese [2008].
The location known as Þingvellir National Park
(64.2553, −21.1322) presents a rare example of an
exceptionally well‐exposed rift valley that marks the
crest of the MAR and the boundary between the
 Tectonics of the Reykjanes Peninsula and Southwestern Region  21

Photo 6 Þingvellir National Park provides a rare example of an exceptionally well‐exposed rift valley that
marks the crest of the boundary between the North American and Eurasian tectonic plates. A braided river
occupies the subsided graben. [Courtesy of Russell Maddrey.]

North American and Eurasian tectonic plates (Photo 6).
The rift valley narrows from about 20 km in the
northeast to about 10 km in the southwest [Thordarson
and Höskuldsson, 2014]. The extension appears as
nearly parallel fissures and down‐thrown fault blocks
running along the length of the valley [Friese, 2008].
On the west (North American) side of the valley, the
blocks step down toward the east, while the situation
is reversed on the opposite (European) side. The
graben floor (4.7 km wide) slopes to the southwest
toward Lake Þingvallavatn (>100 m above sea level)
and continues to subside at about 0.1 cm year−1 with a
total subsidence of 40 m for the past 9000 years [Islam
et al., 2016]. Rifting within the graben occurs episodi-
cally, with the last major earthquake activity
­occurring in 1789 CE when the graben floor subsided
1–2 m. Additionally, the valley walls (horsts) continue
to move apart at a rate of about 0.7 cm year−1, totaling
70 m of horizontal extension over the past 9000 years.
Almannagjá is a dramatic tensional fracture (Photo 7)
that marks the western boundary of the North
American plate and can be walked along in the park.
This feature is 7.7 km in length, 64 m at its widest
point, and has maximum throws of 40 m [Gudmundsson,
1987]. Its equivalent across the graben, marking the
eastern boundary of the Eurasian plate is Hrafnagjá
(64.2572, −21.1107), which is 11 km long, 68 m wide
and has a maximum throw of 30 m [Gudmundsson,
1987]. The Þingvellir faults are believed to be the sur-
face expressions of deeply rooted normal faults. The
numerous fissures encountered on the valley floor are
of similar origin and are perpendicular to the surface
[Ingolfsson, 2008].
The low‐lying bottom of the graben drains a braided
river system into Lake Þingvallavatn, which is the larg-
est natural lake in Iceland (84 km2). The deepest part
of the lake measures 114 m, which means that its floor
is below sea level. Bedrock, sediments, and faults were
mapped using seismic reflection profiles and sono-
graphs [Thors, 1992; Thordarson and Höskuldsson,
22 TECTONICS
Photo 7 Almannagjá is a dramatic tensional fracture in Þingvellir National Park. [Courtesy of Russell
Maddrey.]
2014]. The Þingvellir lava (Þingvallahraun) covers the
northern part of Lake Þingvallavatn and the graben
floor north and east of the lake. It originated in a
major fissure eruption to the southeast of Hrafnabjörg,
around 9100 years ago. The many single flows of this
lava are best exposed in the fault scarp of Almannagjá
where numerous sheets of individual lava lobes were
stacked as the eruption progressed [Ingolfsson, 2008].
From this sequence of flows it was determined that the
oldest part of the lake basin was formed during the
Weichselian glaciation (Table 2.1), thereby resulting in
the formation of subglacial hyaloclastites. Postglacial
lavas (namely Þingvallahraun, Nesjahraun) flowed
into the basin (~30 km3) to modify its shape [Thors,
1992], thereby damming outlets and thus maintaining
the lake level today.
Volcanoes surround the Þingvellir graben and illus-
trate the connection between rifting and volcanism.
Mount Skjaldbreiður (1060 m) is a shield volcano seen
to the north of the Þingvellir graben. Like much of the
region, it was also formed 9000 years ago in a single
eruption event lasting 50–100 years. A number of lava
flows from this eruption entered the southern reaches of
the graben, covering a 200 km2 area with an estimated
volume of 17 km3 [Thordarson and Höskuldsson, 2014].
Although the area’s geology is renowned, Þingvellir
may be best known to Icelanders as the initial site of
the commonwealth general assembly, AlÞing. It was
established in 930 CE and is still in operation today,
making it the oldest working parliament in Europe.
Sessions were held at this site until 1798, when, it is
thought, multiple volcanic and tectonic events lead to
the meetings being moved to the capital city Reykjavík
[Thordarson and Höskuldsson, 2014].
The area southeast of Lake Þingvallavatn contains
the Hengill, an active central volcano (64.1833,
−21.3333; 803 m), which is associated with the ­present
accretionary zone. Also in this volcanic complex is the
extinct Grensdalur central volcano, which is associated
with an accretionary zone that became inactive at
about 0.7 Ma when the spreading center migrated
west. Between 1993 and 1998 a major volcano‐tectonic
 Tectonics of the Reykjanes Peninsula and Southwestern Region  23

Photo 8 Hellisheiđi Geothermal Plant harnesses subsurface steam and water to generate electricity for
Reykjavík. The plant is at the base of Krafla. [Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]

episode took place that produced thousands of earth-
quakes up to M = 5.5. These events were driven by an
intrusion at 7 km depth. A uniform uplift has been
observed (2 cm year−1), while the seismic records show
episodic activity associated with strike‐slip faulting as
well as normal faulting.
The high‐temperature Hengill geothermal fields
are the second largest in Iceland [Pálmason et al.,
1985] and the Nesjavellir and Hellisheiði geo-
thermal fields (Photo 8; Box 3.1) located southwest
of Hengill are major producers of geothermal
energy for Reykjavík.
3.5. STÓRI GEYSIR AND GULFOSS
The first documented use of the Icelandic word
“geysir” was in 1597 by Björn Jónsson a farmer from
the town of Skaðsá [Nielsen, 1937]. The word “geysir”
can be translated to mean gusher or “the one who
rages” and is related to the Icelandic verb “gjósa,”
which means to erupt [Torfason, 1985, p. 3]. One of
Iceland’s most renowned geysers, the Stóri Geysir
(64.3104, −20.3024), can be found near the town of
Haukadalur. Historic accounts of the Stóri Geysir, or
as it is better known the “Great Geysir,” reveal that it
has been erupting since 1294 CE. Sæmundsson [1979]
determined that the heat source for the area’s geysers
came from shallow igneous intrusions, although dur-
ing the past 10,000 years there has not been any
volcanic activity in the area. Pasvanoglu et al. [1998]
calculated mineral saturation indexes for the waters in
the geothermal park and concluded that the water
from Stóri Geysir is in near equilibrium at 220–240°C.
Determining the chronology of siliceous sinter deposits
associated with hot springs and geysers is difficult due
to the lack of reliable silica dating methods [Jones
et al., 2007]. Jones et al. [2007], however, was able to
determine the history of Stóri Geysir by using inter-
mixed tephra deposits of the 3.5 m thick depositional
apron. The tephrochronology was determined from
palagonite, a post‐depositional alteration product
from the interaction of water and tephra derived from
24 TECTONICS
Box 3.1 Hellisheiði Geothermal Power Station
Emily Larrimore
Iceland’s incredible geothermal capacity and
numerous hydrothermal reservoirs give the small
island amazing potential to be completely self‐
sustaining and independent from fossil fuels.
Although the population growth of Iceland
remains at 1%, increased tourism has put stress
on the country’s need for energy production. For
example, from 2010 to 2015 tourism increased
20% per year, resulting in 1 million foreign visi-
tors exploring the island’s beauty in 2016. The
expansion of tourism has been met recently with
the need to expand its use of natural resources for
energy production. In 2008, about 25% of the
electricity generated in Iceland was from geothermal
sources, and overall 82% of the primary energy
used in Iceland is from renewable domestic
sources [Harðarson, 2014].
Owing to its close proximity to the capital city
Reykjavík, geologists began to further explore the
Hengill geothermal area (Nesjaveillir, Hellisheiði,
and Hveragerdi), located in the middle of the
Western Volcanic Zone (Figure 2.1) [Zakharova
and Spichak, 2012]. The Hengill geothermal area
has about 600 surface manifestations of hydro-
thermal activity, such as hot springs, geysers, and
steam jets, making it a very attractive region for
geothermal energy utilization and development
[Zakharova and Spichak, 2012]. Additionally, the
presence of hydrothermal reservoirs connected by
both horizontal and vertical fissures allows for
easy movement of hot fluids from depths of 1–2
km [Gunnlaugsson and Gislason, 2005]. The
temperature of this geothermal resource varies
between 200°C and approximately 320°C
[Harðarson, 2014].
The Hellisheiði Power Station (Photo 8; 64.0371,
−21.4012) was built by Reykjavík Energy and
began producing electrical energy in 2006 with
an initial production capacity of 90 MWe [Lund
et al., 2008]. (MWe, electricity output of a power
plant in megawatts. The electricity output of a
power plant is equal to the thermal overall power
multiplied by the efficiency of the plant.) In 2010,
the Hellisheiði Power Station began producing
hot water for district heating in Reykjavík, where
about one‐third of the population of Iceland lives.
As of 2011, the total installed capacity of the plant
had increased by nearly four times [Ragnarsson,
2015]. Today, the Hellisheiði Power Station is a
cogeneration plant, meaning that the plant pro-
duces both electricity and heat from one source of
fuel [Ragnarsson, 2015].
An innovative and adaptive element of the
Hellisheiði Power Station is that it was built in
modular units, such that the power station has the
ability to expand as the demand for geothermal
energy generation from industry and municipal
use increases [Gunnlaugsson and Gislason, 2005].
The overall energy production process at Hellisheiði
occurs in three stages: (a) the collection and
processing of steam, (b) electricity generation,
and (c) heating of cold water for space heating.
First, during the collection and processing stage,
steam and water are extracted from drillholes to
be taken to a unit called the separation station. In
the separation station, the steam and water are
separated, then transported to the steam turbines
in the main powerhouse. Each individual steam
turbine has a rated capacity of 40 MWe, and the
turbines are used in the second stage to generate
electricity from the steam. In the third stage, the
steam is used to preheat the cold water in a con-
denser. In tube heat exchangers, final heating of
the separated geothermal water occurs. One of
the finals steps in the production process is to
pass the heated geothermal water through a deaer-
ator to release excess dissolved oxygen and other
gases through boiling. This is done because water
saturated with dissolved oxygen has a corrosive
effect on steel, which would complicate the trans-
portation process [Gunnlaugsson and Gislason,
2005]. To transport the energy created at
Hellisheiði, the power plant is connected to a
220 kV overhead power line that is then extended
to a grid. The power plant also has a buried water
transmission pipeline 18 km long that connects
the plant to Reykjavík’s water distribution system
[Gunnlaugsson and Gislason, 2005].
The hydrothermal reserves of the Hveragerði
geothermal area are mainly used for greenhouse
heating by residents of the region, but Nesjaveillir
also has a smaller scale electrical power station
that utilizes other nearby hydrothermal reservoirs
[Zakharova and Spichak, 2012].
 Tectonics of the Reykjanes Peninsula and Southwestern Region  25
Photo 9 Strokkur (The Churn) erupts every 10 min and has a column height of 30 m. [Courtesy of Tamie
Jovanelly.]
the nearby Katla, Hekla, and Veiðivötn volcanoes. It
was found that Stóri developed in three main phases:
10,000–4000 years ago hot spring waters formed the
geyser; 3000–900 years ago was a period of weathering
and little sinter deposition; 900–800 years ago saw the
rebirth of the geyser [Jones et al., 2007]. Stóri’s eruption
recurrence interval and intensity has fluctuated since
its origin; its annual growth also varies between 0.2
and 1.4 kg year−1 m−2 [Tobler et al., 2008]. In 1845, it
was recorded that the maximum column height rose to
170 m. This occurred just before a 53‐year period of
dormancy ended by a major eruption in 1896 when
column height was described at 60 m. A man‐made
channel was dug around the rim of the geyser in 1935
to promote faster recirculation of surface water to the
central vent, which initially worked, but the channel
quickly became clogged with silica deposition and the
geyser stopped erupting again. An earthquake in 2000
reinvigorated the geyser and it has since been erupting
intermittently. Strokkur (The Churn), another geyser
in the geothermal park, however, erupts every 10 min
and has a column height of 30 m (Photo 9). Pasvanoglu
et al. [1998] determined that the total flow rate in this
geothermal field has decreased over time from 14 L s−1
in 1967 to 9 L s−1 in 1994. It is inconclusive as to
whether drilling in the area is related to these changes
or not. A short hike from Strokkur to the west is
Laugarfjall Mountain, which provides a panoramic
view overlooking the geothermal park.
Gulfoss (64.310l4, −20.3024), which translates to
“Golden Waterfall,” is Iceland’s most popular water-
fall (Photo 10; Iceland Tourism Bureau, 2018]. The
meltwater of the Langjökull glacier feeds the Hvítá
River, which follows NNE-trending faults before it
enters the 2.5 km gorge to form a cataract‐segmented
waterfall. The two‐tiered waterfall drops a total of
32 m (first tier, 11 m; second‐tier, 21 m). The depth of
the canyon at the southern end (called Gullfossgjúfur)
has a maximum depth of 70 m. There are two com-
peting ideas about the origins of the canyon. One is
26 TECTONICS
Photo 10 Gulfoss is one of Europe’s largest waterfalls. This picture depicts the second tier drop of 21 m.
[Courtesy of Russell Maddrey.]
that a catastrophic jökulhlaup flood of meltwater dur-
ing the Younger Dryas (11.7—10.5 ka) glacial retreat
formed the canyon. Another, which may be more plau-
sible, has to do with the varied lithology of the area.
The stratigraphy is such that thick sedimentary units
(<10 m) are capped by thin lava flows (~1–3 m). This
causes differential weathering whereby the softer
sedimentary unit quickly erodes under mechanical
­
weathering processes induced by the presence of water.
With a rate of erosion at 25 cm year−1, the canyon
would have formed during the Younger Dryas
(10,700 ka) stadial.
 4
Tectonics of the South and Southeastern Regions
The SISZ trends east–west between two major
volcanic rift zones of southern Iceland, namely the East
Volcanic Zone (EVZ) and the WVZ at the Reykjanes
Peninsula. The SISZ is a transform fault zone that is
70–100 km long and 20 km wide and is considered
important for its seismotectonic activity (Figure 2.1)
[Stefánsson and Halldórsson, 1988]. The Mid‐Iceland
Belt (MIB) to the north is a subparallel transform fault
that also joins the EVZ and the WVZ. The block that
sits in between the MIB and SISZ is referred to as the
Hreppar microplate and has been described only
recently [LaFemina et al., 2005; Einarsson, 2008].
Rifting during the past 1100 years has been mostly
in the EVZ, but seems to have been switching between
the (older) WVZ and the (younger) EVZ on a time-
scale of thousands to tens of thousands of years
[Einarsson, 2008]. Although it is agreed that the SISZ
is associated with a rift jump, it is still inconclusive as
to whether the jump occurs by continual rift propaga-
tion or by alternating mechanisms that allow both the
EVZ and WVZ to be active [Sigmundsson et al., 1995].
The EVZ is a southward propagating accretionary
plate boundary (2–5 cm year−1 from the presumed hot
spot under Vatnajökull) that started forming 2 Ma
[Einarsson, 1991, 2008]. Over the past 10,000 years the
EVZ has accounted for 85% of the divergence
[Sigmundsson et al., 1995; Islam and Stufkell, 2017]
and represents an interrifting phase. This interrifting
phase is dominated by steady spreading that is in good
agreement with the global plate‐motion models devel-
oped by DeMets et al. [2010] and Pedersen et al. [2009].
During the Holocene, however, the rates of spreading
along the EVZ and WVZ have not been equal
[LaFemina et al., 2005]. Recent results obtained by
analysis of Global Positioning System (GPS) measure-
Iceland: Tectonics,Volcanics, and Glacial Features, Geophysical Monograph 247, First Edition. Tamie J. Jovanelly.
© 2020 American Geophysical Union. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
27
ments across southern Iceland indicate that the
extension between the EVZ and the WVZ is latitude
dependent. For example, as described by Islam et al.
[2016], in the northern region the EVZ accommodates
1.98 cm year−1 of extension, whereby the WVZ accom-
modates 0.26 cm year−1. In the southern region the
EVZ accommodates 1.38 cm year−1 and WVZ
0.7 cm year−1. Surface deformation zones include sev-
eral volcanic systems in the EVZ with their associated
fissure swarms as illustrated by Hekla, Katla (including
Eldgjá fissure), Grímsvötn (including Lakagígar fis-
sure), and Bárðarbunga (including the Vatnaöldur,
Veiðivötn, and Tröllagígar eruptive fissures; see Figure
7.2). A notable rifting episode occurred during the
Laki eruption (1783–1784 CE; 64.0647, −18.2261),
which produced about 16 km3 of erupted material and
formed the Lakagígar eruptive fissures [Jónsson et al.,
1997]. The most recent rifting event occurred in 2014–
2015 at the Bárðarbunga volcanic system (63.6411,
−17.5281), which involved a dike intrusion 45 km long
that formed over a 2‐week period [Hjartardóttir et al.,
2016a]. The total dike volume was about 0.5 km3
[Sigmundsson et al., 2015; Gudmundsson et al., 2016].
A series of north–south surface fractures have been
mapped in the SISZ to indicate a tectonic process
called bookshelf faulting (Figure 3.2) [Einarsson et al.,
1981]. Here, a series of faults are aligned perpendic-
ular to the main transform motion of the SISZ and are
spaced about 1 km from the adjacent fault [Einarsson,
2008]. Specifically, the overall direction of movement
north of the SISZ is to the west, whereas south of the
SISZ it is to the east. Since the movement north of
the fault is occurring faster, the transform motion in
the SISZ is dominantly left‐lateral therefore the
rotation of the blocks appears counterclockwise
­
28 TECTONICS

[Sigmundsson et al., 1995]. Modeling of GPS data by level by ~4 m [Clifton et al., 2003]. Following these
LaFemina et al. [2005] supports rotational movements, events, on 29 May 2008 an earthquake doublet occurred
like bookshelf faulting, such as are found on the on the western margin of the SISZ, 2 km south of the
Hreppar microplate. This evidence best supports the town of Hveragerði (64.0261, −21.1786) that resulted in
propagating rift hypothesis previously mentioned a Mw = 6.1 event [Decriem et al., 2010]. According to
[Einarsson, 2008]. geodetic data ­ analyzed by Decriem et al. [2010],
Some of the largest earthquakes (Mw = 6.0–8.0) in his- continued seismic activity along the SISZ is likely as
toric time have occurred in the SISZ and are usually they determined that this sequence (2000–2008) released
related to movement along this transform boundary that only about half as much of the stored energy compared
produces bookshelf faults [Bonafede et al., 2007]. to the 1896–1912 CE event.
Sigmundsson et al. [1995] determined that to be in step
with relative motion of the North American and 4.1. FAULTS AND FAULT COMPLEXES
Eurasian plates that the average slip rate of the faults OF THE TERTIARY BASALTS
within the SISZ must be about 0.05–0.5 cm year−1 per
fault. Coincidently, due to rift‐jump mechanisms, the The Tertiary plateau basalts of Iceland have been
accumulation of brittle crust over time, and a closer grouped with similar rocks in northwest Britain,
overall proximity to the hot spot, earthquakes closer to Faroes Islands, and Greenland that are also linked to
the EVZ tend to be larger for any given episode and effusive fissure volcanism from central volcanoes
gradually dissipate moving westward [Einarsson, 1991, ­towering 300–1,000 m above the broad and flat‐lying
2008; Trønnes, 2002]. Historic earthquakes along the lava plains [Roaldset, 1983; Thordarson, 2012]. The
SISZ have interesting patterns of seismicity character- collective thickness of the Tertiary Basalt Formation is
ized by sequences that last up to 30 years; a complete estimated to be 10,000 m, although the measured
cycle is ~140 years [Stefánsson and Halldorsson, 1988]. thickness is never much more than 3000 m due to lat-
Earthquake events have been recorded since 1103 CE, eral spreading during the cooling phase (Table 4.1)
however, the times between 1732–1734, 1784, and [Einarsson, 1991]. In eastern Iceland, the stratigraphic
1896 CE are particularly well documented due to prop- thickness accumulated from 700 lava flows over 11 Myr
erty damage and loss of lives [Einarsson et al. 1981; (13–2 Ma) [Sæmundson, 1979]; indicating an average
Stefánsson and Halldórsson, 1988]. accumulation rate of 700 m 106 year−1 [Thordarson and
After an 88‐year cessation of seismic activity, it is Höskuldsson, 2014]. Mapping of the plateau basalts
thought that a new earthquake sequence (30‐year cycle)
began as part of the movement initiated by the 17 June
Table 4.1 Lithology, percentage, and thickness
2000 earthquake (Mw = 6.5) that occurred in the east of Icelandic rock types
central SISZ [Bonafede et al., 2007; Decriem et al., 2010].
This event was followed up by another Mw = 6.5 earth- Lithology Thickness (m) %
quake on 21June 2000 that was ~20 km west of the first Tholeiitic basalt 2134 48
one. Field assessment by Pederson et al. [2001] showed Olivine basalt 1036 23
that there was 2.4 m of dextral displacement on near‐ Porphyritic basalt 549 12
vertical faults. These events triggered multiple large‐ Andesitic lavas 122 3
scale aftershocks (Mw >5.0) on the Reykjanes Peninsula Rhyolitic lavas 335 8
approximately 80 km from the epicenter [Clifton et al., Sedimentary and pyroclastic 274 6
Total thickness 4450 100
2003]. As described in section 3.1, this earthquake
activity caused the destabilization of normal faults Note. Adapted from Jakobsson et al. [2008]; design credit
under Lake Kleifarvatn that resulted in a fall of water Nathan Mennen.

Figure 4.1 West to east outcrop section along the south side of Reydarfjördur starting at Langjökull.
[Adapted from Thórarinsson et al. [1959]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]
 Tectonics of the South and Southeastern Regions  29

indicates 25 km of eroded basalt from edges of the pla- Throughout southeast Iceland the regular structure
teau, resulting in low‐lying topography adjacent to sea of the Tertiary lava pile is commonly interrupted by
level (Figure 4.1), as can be seen in Reydarfjördur paleofissure swarms (5–15 km wide) of dikes that
(65.0354, −14.2160) [Einarsson, 1991]. crosscut the basalts. This is an example of the corifting

Photo 11 (a) Road to Egilsstađir showing dipping Tertiary Basalt Formation in outcrop. [Courtesy of Russell
Maddrey.] (b) A close‐up image of Tertiary Basalt Formation stacking commonly seen in the eastern fjords.
[Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]
30 TECTONICS
Figure 4.2 An example of a geological cross‐section in eastern Iceland showing regional tilting with
­associated rock‐type descriptions by location. [Modified from Sigmundsson [2006]; design credit Nathan
Mennen.]
phase that follows the interrifting phase, which is often
observed at active divergent plate boundaries. During
the corifting phase, dike injections and eruptions
intrude the upper crust, releasing stresses and exten-
sional strains that are accumulated during the interrift-
ing phases [Pederson et al., 2009; Islam and Sturkell,
2017]. For example, in Reydarfjördur (65.0354,
−14.2160), Walker [1960] mapped some 500 dikes in a
40 km long section with a thickness of 1525 m, which
he calculated corresponded to an expansion of ~4%.
As described by Thordarson [2012] the dike swarms are
associated with andesite–rhyolite lava and tephra
deposits that likely represent the location of extinct
central volcanoes: 40 have been identified in the Tertiary
succession.
A characteristic feature of the Tertiary Basalt
Formation is the regional tilting of the lava pile. In
general, the dip can vary from near zero in the upper
strata to 5–10° near sea level [Sigmundsson, 2006] with
the overall direction of dip toward the central and
southern parts of the island or, more specifically,
­dipping toward the volcanic zones from which they
originated (Figure 2.1) [Sæmundsson, 1967]. The
development of synclinal structures centered on rift
areas is a flexural response to increases in loading.
Consequently, anticlinal structures also formed during
rift relocation in the SISZ, as well as in association
with major unconformities (Figure 2.1) [Sæmundsson,
1967]. Prior to the tilting of the basalts by tectonic
movement, vertical uplift caused some 600 m of
­displacement [Thórarinsson et al., 1959]. Textbook
examples of the Tertiary basalts can be seen en route
to Egilsstaðir as Highway 1 ascends along the lake
Lagarfljót (65.2180, −14.4728; Photo 11). A side trip
on Highway 953 from Mjóifjörður (65.2000, −13.8000)
will find other well‐known exposures (Figure 4.2).
 5
Tectonics of the Northeastern Region
The EVZ meets the North Volcanic Zone (NVZ) in
conjunction with the MIB beneath Vatnajökull where
a mantle plume (hot spot) presently resides [Darbyshire
et al., 2000], to form a triple junction (Figure 5.1). The
current offset between the spreading axes of the NVZ
and WVZ and the overall divergent plate boundary
defined by the RR and the KR is 100–150 km
(Figures 1.1 and 2.1) [Björnsson et al., 1977; Angelier
et al., 1997]. The KR is connected to the island via the
transform Tjörnes Fracture Zone (TFZ) that joins
the NVZ. The NVZ is simpler than other parts of the
MAR in Iceland as here the plate boundary has only
one oblique branch, with the main zone being active
for the past 6–7 Myr and for the past 2 Myr propa-
gating northwards [Trønnes, 2002]. The long‐term
local seafloor‐spreading rate is measured at
1.8 cm year−1 [DeMets et al., 1994] and the simplicity
of the system lends itself well to the study of the
rheology of an interrifting phase showing strain
­ For example, the Þeistareykir central volcano does not
accumulation over an area much wider than the
­associated vertical deformation [Pedersen et al., 2016].
A crustal thickness of 30–40 km in the axial rift zone
of northeast Iceland has been estimated by magneto-
telluric measurements, whereas thickness decreases
(20–30 km) with age towards the older Tertiary areas
to the east and west of the NVZ, and with increasing
distance from the hot spot [Björnsson, 1985]. The main
tectonic feature of the NVZ is fissure swarms, although
strike‐slip faults, normal faults, and hyaloclastite
ridges are also present. The fissure swarms are mainly
situated in the center of the 200 km long and 50 km
wide NVZ, which comprises five volcanic systems each
having a central volcano: Þeistareykir, Krafla,
Fremrinámar, Askja, and Kverkfjöll (Figure 5.2).
These systems are arranged en echelon with some
Iceland: Tectonics,Volcanics, and Glacial Features, Geophysical Monograph 247, First Edition. Tamie J. Jovanelly.
© 2020 American Geophysical Union. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
31
overlap of their respective fissure swarms, which tend
to spread in episodic events. This occurs because
fractures within the fissure swarms are activated dur-
ing rifting events, when magma intrudes the fissure
swarms to form dikes or even fissure eruptions
[Sæmundsson and Karson, 2006]. The density of fis-
sures within the swarms is greatest within 20–30 km of
the central volcano, while the distal areas of the fissure
swarm are mostly characterized by noneruptive
fractures. Historically documented rifting events
within the NVZ have occurred in the Krafla volcanic
system (1724–1729 and 1975–1984 CE), Askja
volcanic system (1875–1876 CE), and the Þeistareykir
volcanic system (1618 and 1885 CE) [Sigurðsson and
Sparks, 1978; Magnúsdóttir and Brandsdóttir, 2011;
Hartley and Thordarson, 2013]. As noted by Einarsson
[2008], although all share characteristics of a volcanic
system, they also each have distinguishable features.
have a developed caldera indicating the absence of
shallow crustal magma chambers. In this volcanic
system, olivine–tholeiitic lava shields are more
numerous than elsewhere in the axial rift zone. Next,
the Kraftla system has a caldera, but it has been sepa-
rated by a fissure swarm, causing the infilling of the
depression [Brandsdöttir and Einarsson, 1979; Johnsen
et al., 1980; Hauksson, 1983; Tryggvason, 1994]. In
turn, the Askja system is dominated by the activity of
a central volcano, despite having one of the longer
­fissure complexes in the group.
In summary, the NVZ plate boundary connects the
central volcanoes found in the NVZ; the NVZ is
oblique to the individual fissure swarms in this area.
Björnsson [1985] suggested that this might indicate that
the fissure swarms in northeast Iceland are created in
32 TECTONICS

Figure 5.1 Crustal accretion, relocation, and propagation of the Icelandic rift zones in the past 12 Myr.
Notable features include: at 8 Ma, spreading along the Snæfellsnes and Skagi rift zones; at 6–4 Ma, the
incipient propagation and mature development of the West Volcanic Zone (WVZ) and North Volcanic Zone
(NVZ) after new rift initiation at about 7 Ma; at 2 Ma to present, the southward propagation of the East
Volcanic Zone (EVZ), initiated at about 3 Ma. [Modified from Trønnes [2002]; design credit Nathan
Mennen.]

the upper brittle crust mainly by tensile crack
formation. The central volcanoes of these volcanic
systems are areas of volcanic silica rocks and geo-
thermal energy. Upper Pleistocene rocks in this
­divergent zone, however, often produce pliable lavas
that rarely produce distinct edifices, or if they do ini-
tially, they are prone to post‐depositional subsidence
[Einarsson, 1991].
5.1. FLATEYJARSKAGI AND TJÖRNES
PENINSULAS
The Flateyjarskagi (65.9977, −17.9857) and Tjörnes
(66.1500, −17.1500) peninsulas are crosscut by the
TFZ to create a tectonically complicated area that is
characterized by moderate seismic activity (M < 5.0),
crustal extension, and transform faulting. The TFZ
extends 1–3 km offshore, providing the potential for
tsunami events in this area, as evidenced by the tsu-
nami warning initiated on 26 March 2017 from an off-
shore quake. Distinctive morphological features mark
the 35 km of onland exposure (i.e., in a straight line
from Tjörnes to Dalvík) characterized by zones of
crushed rocks associated with localized steeply dip-
ping Pleistocene lava flows; dips between 14° and 36°
are found in coastal areas closest to the junction between
the Húsavík–Flatey Fault and the KR [Rögnvaldsson
et al., 1998; Angelier et al., 2000; Bergerat and Angelier,
2000; Garcia et al., 2003]. Additionally, in this area
extensive sets of mineral veins occur, as well as
numerous minor faults that strike subparallel to the
TFZ [Gudmundsson et al., 1993; Angelier et al., 2000].
As the TFZ is oriented obliquely to the spreading
direction, both right‐lateral and extensional faulting
are present [Angelier et al., 2000]. The TFZ has been in
existence for 8 Ma and is the result of a rift jump that
initiated spreading in the NVZ [Garcia et al., 2003].
Consequently, this rift jump in the northern region of
Iceland is thought to be considerably older (~6 Ma)
than that of the SISZ, which results in more mature
transform processes and complex stress patterns
(Figure 3.2) [Bergerat and Angelier, 2008].

Figure 5.2 Five active fissure belts found in the Northern Volcanic Zone on the Tjörnes Peninsula. [Design
credit Nathan Mennen.]
The TFZ comprises three subparallel northwest‐
trending seismic zones: Grímsey Oblique Rift (GOR),
Húsavík–Flatey Fault (HFF), and Dalvík Zone (DZ).
Historically the HFF has been considered the prin-
ciple fault because it connects with the KR offshore
(Figure 2.1) [Einarsson, 1991; Bergerat and Angelier,
2008; Stefánsson et al., 2008; Metzger et al., 2012];
however, the GOR was formed ~2 Ma and currently
takes up most of the tectonic movements within the
TFZ [Sigmundsson, 2006; Magnúsdóttir et al., 2015].
Over the past decade, the submerged northern portion
of the GOR, specifically near the island Grímsey,
which is 40 km off the northern coast, has had fre-
quent earthquake swarms with durations that span
days or weeks [Iceland Metorological Office, 2018].
The maximum magnitude of such earthquakes exceeds
5.0, with faulting occurring as right‐lateral strike‐slip.
The HFF occurs on land at the town of Húsavík
(66.0450, −17.3383) and continues eastward as the
Tectonics of the Northeastern Region  33
right‐lateral HFF intersects the normal faults of the
Þeistareykir fissure swarm (Figure 5.2) [Magnúsdóttir
and Brandsdóttir, 2011]. The offshore component of
the HFF forms a valley 5–10 km wide and 3–4 km deep
that meets the Kolbeinsey sea stack (66.6700, −18.5000)
[Gudmundsson, 2000]. The fault can be seen from the
top of Mount Húsavíkurfjall (66.0500, −17.3000)
coming on shore in the bay at Húsavík. Total fault dis-
placement is some 60 km over 6 Myr [Sæmundsson,
1974; Thordarson and Höskuldsson, 2014]. Both exten-
sional and compressional stress fields associated with
the TFZ have several effects on local tectonic processes
and the topography in Húsavík. Extensional forces
have resulted in the presence of two pull‐apart (sag)
basins developed in low‐lying areas [Botnsvatn,
66.0058, −172753; Höskuldsvatn, 65.9850, −17.1983).
In contrast, compressional processes have lead to
vertical uplift of Pleistocene strata and dip‐slip
behavior on the HFF. Up to 200 m high fault scarps
34 TECTONICS
(e.g., the Skjólbrekka slope just north of Húsavík) on
the Tjörnes Peninsula indicate a significant dip‐slip
component causing vertical displacement of up to
1400 m on land and 1100 m offshore [Gudmundsson
et al., 1993; Rögnvaldsson et al., 1998]. Four major
earthquakes have occurred on the HFF during the
past 200 years. In 1755, an earthquake with an esti-
mated M = 7.0 occurred in Skjálfandi Bay and in 1838
a M = 6.5 event occurred near the western end of the
bay. The last major earthquake (M 6.5) on the eastern
part of the fault occurred in 1872 and caused extensive
damage and surface ruptures in the town of Húsavík.
Most of the present‐day seismicity occurs offshore on
the northwest part of the HFF. An analysis of the
earthquake swarms along both the GOR and HFF
zones found the majority (i.e., 90%) of earthquake
focal depths were shallower than 10 km [Rögnvaldsson
et al., 1998]. Additionally, recent research suggests that
the HFF currently has the potential for a M 6.8 earth-
quake [Metzger et al., 2011, 2012]. This is a concern
because Húsavík has over 2000 inhabitants.
The DZ forms the southernmost part of the TFZ.
Although there are no obvious fault scarps on the sur-
face representing the DZ there has been some modern
seismic activity. Most notably, in 1963 a M = 7.0 earth-
quake occurred in the westernmost region of the DZ
near the mouth of the Skagafjörður River. In 1934 the
town of Dalvík experienced a M = 6.2 event (estimate
based on historic accounts). The DZ, however, may
best be known for its morphological features, such as
river canyons (e.g., Jokulsarglijufur National Park).
5.2. LAKE MÝVATN AND MÝVATN FIRES
The area of Mývatn (65.6039, −16.9761) is part of
the Krafla Fissure (Figure 5.2) with bedrock of
mostly basalt and hyaloclastites [Thórarinsson, 1979].
The original lake basin was first created around
38 ka, ­during what is referred to as the Lúdent Cycle,
with an effusive eruption of Ketildyngja (65.4293,
−16.6544) that dammed outflow from melting gla-
ciers to create a basin [Olafsson, 1979]. The lava fields
between Reykjahlið and Vogar Farm were produced
during this time from an eruption at Jarðbaðshólar
(65.6031, −17.0047). The current morphology of
Lake Mývatn (4.2 m deep, 37 km2) was determined by
a large fissure eruption ~23 ka. The lava flowed down
the Laxárdalur Valley (65.6362, −17.1635) to the
coastal plain of Adaldalur (65.8936, −17.3848) and
then to the Arctic Ocean, a distance of 50 km from
Mývatn. Pleistocene basalt ridges toward the west
and möberg ridges (Blafjall and Sellandafjall) sur-
round the shallow lake basin to the east. Numerous
postglacial crater rows, open fissures, and normal
faults (vertical d­ isplacement ranging from 10 cm to
3 m) are found on the east side of the lake. A swarm
of fault scarps west of Mývatn, running from Mount
Vindbelgur (65.6248, −17.0672) northwards through
Lake Sandvatn (64.4260, −20.1824), are of early
postglacial age. The faults and eruption fissures in
the Mývatn area are organized in a NNE–SSW orien-
tation and are part of a much longer fracture zone
extending from Axarfjördur (66.0017, −175122) to
Sellandafjall (65.4163, −17.0411) [Thordarson and
Höskuldsson, 2014].
The area may be best known geologically for the
Mývatn Fires of 1724–1729 CE when, 800 years after
humans first settled in the area [Olafsson, 1979], a
basaltic fissure eruption produced 0.45 km3 of basaltic
lava covering 30 km2 from a discontinuous fissure
11 km long [Granvold, 1984]. As described by Björnsson
et al. [1978] the volcanic and seismic activity associated
with this event was intense for short periods (days)
and then followed by longer periods of quiescence.
Sæmundsson [1978] has evaluated historic Icelandic
documentation of the Mývatn Fires based on geolog-
ical mapping of the area [Thoroddsen, 1925]. From
these accounts it was determined that most of the lava
was erupted during the last 2 years of the episode.
During a major eruption on 30 June 1729, a lava flow
traveled 15 km from Leirhnjúkur (65.7200, −16.7939)
toward the town of Reykjahíð (65.6449, −16.9059),
where it covered four farms but was diverted around
a church that is still standing today [Myvtan Visitor
Center, personal communication]. Accounts of the
first 3 years, from 17 May 1724, describe intense
­earthquake swarms, fault movements, and elevation
changes that took place in a rapid series of events,
including the hydromagmatic eruption to form the
Viti crater (65.04697, −16.72612) that will be discussed
in subsequent chapters. Also on 17 May 1724, fourteen
rootless cone craters were formed at the surface
(Photos 12 and 13).
5.3. KRAFLA FIRES
The Krafla Fissure (Figure 5.2; ~80 km long and
4–10 km wide) contains the 200,000‐year‐old central
volcano, Krafla (65.7286, −16.7478), and extends from
the TFZ in the north at Axarfjördur to south of Lake
 Photo 12 Rootless cones at Mývatn. [Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]

Photo 13 Side profile of a rootless cone at Lake Mývatn. [Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]
36 TECTONICS
Table 5.1 Krafla Fires eruptions (1975–1984)
Eruption Date Duration (days)
1 20–21 December1975 2 important because of the potential expansion of geo-
2 27–29 April 1977 3
3 8–9 September 1977 2
4 16 March 1980 1
5 10–18 July 1980 9 10 km south of the Krafla central volcano.
6 18–23 October 1980 6 Additionally, the use of satellite imagery combined
7 30 January to 4 February 1981 6 with aerial photographs, digital elevation models, and
8 18–23 November 1981 6 other measurement techniques, has provided intense
9 4–18 September 1984 15
Note. Design credit Nathan Mennen.
Mývatn (65.6031, −17.0047). After 250 years of inac-
tivity of the Mývatn Fires, the Krafla Fissure opened
to start an episode termed the Krafla Fires (1975–1984 CE)
[Björnsson et al., 1978; Opheim and Gudmundsson,
1989]. From 1975 to 1984 CE there were nine mag-
matic eruptions and 20 rifting events that occurred
within 7 km of the central volcano, with each event
lasting a maximum of 5 days (Table 5.1) [Tryggvason,
1984, 1986].
The first event on 20 December 1975 began with
earthquake swarms (M = 4.0) around the Krafla
­caldera that resulted in ground fissuring and small
lava eruptions north of the hyaloclastite ridge,
Leirhnjúkur (65.420, −16.480). Soon after, the first
of many rifting events would follow in active pulses
lasting a few months at a time. At the end of each
pulse, the magma reservoir estimated to be 3 km below
the caldera would gradually inflate at a rate of
7–10 mm day−1, with magma infilling the reservoir at
a rate of 5 m3 s−1 [Björnsson et al., 1979]. Once the
­reservoir met a critical threshold the pattern would
begin to repeat itself, with earthquakes, vertical ground
movement (<2 m), and sometimes volcanic eruptions
[Einarsson, 1978; Tryggvason, 1980]. Notable rifting
events include 10 July 1980 when a 5–6 km2 lava field
was produced, followed by a 5‐day rifting event from
13 to 23 November 1980 that erupted another 17.5 km2
of lava at the surface.
With instrumental monitoring in place during the
Krafla Fires, scientists were able to closely observe
the event. Extensive mapping by Hjartardóttir et al.
[2012] illustrated uneven distribution patterns of the
fissure eruptions during the 1975–1984 episode.
Specifically, they noticed that although a cluster of
fissures was within ~7 km of the caldera, there was
also a cluster in the southern region of the Krafla
Fissure up to 70 km away. The irregularity in the
pattern and position of the fissures has raised the
possibility of there being another magma chamber
south of the Krafla caldera. This is particularly
thermal fields. Currently, the Krafla Geothermal
Energy facility operates in the Namafjall area, about
ground surveying of this event. Using this technology,
Hollingsworth et al. [2013] quantified that the total
volume of magma added to the upper crust was 1.2–
2.1×109 m3 and from comparisons with ground
fracturing observations confirmed the overall episodic
pattern of rifting events.
5.4. DETIFOSS, SELFOSS, AND HAFRAGILSFOSS
WATERFALLS
At the headwaters of the Jökulsárgljúfur canyon,
the Jökulsá á Fjöllum river is deeply incised into the
surrounding terrain, with the drop in elevation
­
­occurring at three large vertical waterfalls, all within a
5‐km‐long reach [Baynes et al., 2015]: Selfoss (13 m
high), Dettifoss (54 m high; 65.8147, −16.3846; Photo
14), and Hafragilsfoss (20 m high). The Jökulsá á
Fjöllum river is the second longest river in Iceland
with a length over 200 km and experiences large
summer discharge flows reaching 1500 m3 s−1 [Wells,
2016]. The bedrock is composed mostly of columnar
basalt, with several subhorizontal lava flows stacked
one on top of the other [Baynes et al., 2015;
Figure 5.3). The unique Icelandite, a type of andesite
rock that is iron rich, can also be found intermittently.
The paleoposition of the river can be suggested by
three strath terrace surfaces found at different eleva-
tions throughout the canyon.
The initiation of this canyon is suspected to be the
result of extreme flood events, called jökulhlaups, that
caused catastrophic landscape changes after the end of
the last glaciation [Sæmundsson, 1973; Eliasson, 1977;
Baynes et al., 2015]. This is supported by the correla-
tion of exposed surface ages to three periods of intense
canyon cutting about 9, 5, and 2 ka during which mul-
tiple large knickpoints retreated large distances
(> 2 km) during Holocene glacial melting events
(Photo 14; Baynes et al., 2015].
Additionally, around 9 ka two volcanic fissures
erupted in the area: Rauðhólar and Hljóðaklettar. The
Rauðhólar fissure is thought to contain the largest
crater row on Earth (nearly 150 craters) and was
 Tectonics of the Northeastern Region  37

Photo 14 Strath terraces and knickpoints at Detifoss. [Courtesy of Russell Maddrey.]

Figure 5.3 A lithological cross‐section at Detifoss. [Adapted from Thórarinsson [1959]; design credit
Nathan Mennen.]

­ issected by the Jökulsá á Fjöllum river, which cut

d (65.8294, −16.4136). Both the Rauðhólar and
through the feeder channel of one of the volcanic cra- Hljóðaklettar fissures produced large lava fields,
ters. This opened a unique cross‐sectional view of the although catastrophic fluvial flooding events have
magma channel in the canyon’s east wall near Hafragil eroded most of the deposits.
 6
Tectonics of the Western Region
The 80 km long and 10 km wide Snæfellsness
Peninsula is about 1 h drive north of Reykjavík. The
interior mountain chain provides picturesque views of
the 700–1000 m tall peaks of the Snæfellsjökull strato-
volcano (Photo 15). The Snæfellsness Peninsula is
­distinctly different from other parts of the island in
that the Snæfellsnes Volcanic Belt (SVB) is orientated
east–west, being almost perpendicular to the main
zones of rifting in Iceland (Figure 6.1). Prior to the
establishment of the WVZ, the rift zone at Snæfellsnes
Peninsula extended northwards to Skagi (64.3665,
−20.5832) and was the main spreading center from
about 15 Ma to 7 Ma when the hot spot was offshore
(Figure 1.1). At this time the Snæfellsnes–Skagi Rift
Zone linked directly to the KR [Martin et al., 2011].
The center of the zone is marked by a synclinal struc-
ture in the lava [Jóhannesson, 1980] (Figures 2.1 and
6.2). Evidence for an older rift zone is found at the
extreme northwest of Iceland where a 14.9 Ma uncon-
formity separates lava dipping towards the younger
axis of the Snæfellsnes–Skagi Rift Zone, incidentally
separating the older lava flows [Harðarson et al., 1997].
The Snæfellsnes–Vatnsnes Rift Zone emerged some
8 Ma when the mantle plume created a spreading axis.
This now ancient rift was active until 6 Ma when the
spreading axis migrated towards the WNW at
0.3 cm year−1. As the active spreading axis moved away,
by 3 Ma the mantle plume changed the position of the
axis to form a new rift (namely the WVZ) closer to its
center (Figure 1.1). By 1 Ma, the edge of the mantle
plume was still in proximity of the Snæfellsness
Peninsula. Continued plate movement caused the
divergent plate boundary that crosscut the peninsula
Iceland: Tectonics,Volcanics, and Glacial Features, Geophysical Monograph 247, First Edition. Tamie J. Jovanelly.
© 2020 American Geophysical Union. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
39
to become convergent, thereby developing areas of
uplift (mountains) that now divide the p ­ eninsula in
half. Three volcanic zones formed during this time that
have similar characteristics to those seen in the active
NVZ today. The volcanic systems of the SVB,
Snæfellsjökull (64.8060, −23.7768), Lýsuskarð
(64.8520, −23.2075), and Ljosufjöll (64.9145,
−22.5803), are arranged en echleon and trend WNW
(i.e., mimicking paleoplate movement). Despite the
mountain range and volcanic systems, the reported
crustal thickness on the peninsula is between 15 and
20 km, which is the thinnest crust on Iceland, with the
Mohorovičić discontinuity depth beneath Snæfellsnes
being another 4 km deeper toward the mantle [Allen
et al., 2002b; Du et al., 2002]. Lavas of the three
volcanic systems lie unconformably above a 1.2 Ma
sedimentary horizon that can be viewed in Búlandshofði
(64.9429, −23.4889). The three volcanic systems are
interesting tectonically because they comprise alkali
olivine basalts and transitional alkali basalts that are
typical of flank zone deposition, in contrast to the pre-
dominantly tholeiitic flood basalts in the center of the
island [Jakobsson, 1972; White and McKenzie, 1989;
Jakobsson et al, 2008; see Figure 7.1 below]. Although
the SVB was very active during the Holocene (25 effu-
sive and two explosive eruptions) none have occurred
during human settlement or in the past 1100 years,
which is why many consider the system to be extinct.
The Snæfellsness Peninsula is regarded today as an
aseismic region, although six earthquakes (M < 5.0)
occurred from 1912 to 1962 [Sigurðsson, 1970] and
microseismicity (M < 1.0) has been monitored
underneath the southern and northeastern flanks of
40 TECTONICS
Photo 15 The largest peak on the Snæfellsness Peninsula is the stratovolcano, Snæfellsjökull. [Courtesy of
Tamie Jovanelly.]
Snæfellsjökull volcano that originated from depths
of 8–15 km. This seismic activity likely reflects
movement of fluids within the ductile crust [Fuchs
et al., 2013]. The peninsula continues to be monitored
by the Iceland Meteorological Office.
6.1. SNÆFELLSNES SYNCLINE
AND BORGARFJÖRÐUR ANTICLINE
The axis of the Snæfellsnes Syncline (Figure 2.1)
reflects the active spreading center of the paleo‐
Snæfellsnes–Vatnsnes Rift Zone that began rupturing
some 6 Ma, hence, the youngest of the Tertiary Basalt
Formation exposed on the Snæfellsness Peninsula are
the same age (Figure 6.1). In accordance with the prin-
ciples of syncline formation, these young basalts are
found along its center, which stretches obliquely from
the north (Alftafjörður) to the south coast (Garðar).
On both sides of the syncline, the strata will dip toward
and young toward the center axis (Figure 6.2). It
should be borne in mind, however, that most of the
Tertiary basalts on the peninsula are buried beneath
Plio‐Pleistocene–Holocene deposits (Figure 6.1). To
the north, toward the Vestfirðir Peninsula, and to the
south, along part of the Mýrar region, Tertiary basalts
can be seen in age sequence, i.e., becoming older
toward the flanks of the syncline.
In Borganes (Figure 6.1; 64.5609, −21.9010) evidence
of the Borgarfjorður Anticline can be seen. Opposite to
a syncline structure, the oldest rocks (here 13 Ma) occur
at the axis of the anticline (Figure 6.2) and become pro-
gressively younger toward the flanks: ~12 Ma in the
WVZ to the south and 6–8 Ma towards Hítardalur
(64.8279, −22.0651) in the north (Figures 2.2 and 6.1).
It is likely that the syncline and anticline structures
formed post‐rift jump as the plate movement trajectory
changed to WNW thereby creating convergence and
closure of the Snæfellsnes–Vatnsnes Rift Zone.
 Tectonics of the Western Region  41

Figure 6.1 Location map of Snæfellsness Peninsula with associated ages and rock type. The Snæfellsnes
Volcanic Belt (SVB) is illustrated. The strike and dip symbols highlight the Snæfellsnes Syncline and
Borgarfjöd ̄ur Anticline structures. [Design credit Nathan Mennen.]

Within the rock record across the peninsula the

Figure 6.2 Schematic diagrams of anticline and syncline
structures. [Design credit Nathan Mennen.]
Tindar horizon (8 Ma) experiences almost continuous
deposition with few discontinuities, whereas the
Hreðavatn horizon records notable discontinuities and age
differences between the Tertiary basalts. At Hreðavatn,
for example, the age difference is about 5 Ma (12 Ma
on bottom, 6.5 Ma on top) between distinctive events.
Identifying this unconformity lead to development
of the rift‐jump hypothesis with the extinction of
the Snæfellsnes–Vatnsnes Rift Zone. Accordingly, the
Tertiary basalts are observed to be older toward the
WVZ (away from the rift axis), whereas ages at Mount
Hafnafjall and Hreðavatn are the same as they are the
same distance from the plate divergence axis.
Part II: Volcanics
 7
Overview of Volcanics in Iceland
7.1. VOLCANIC SETTING
The dynamic landscapes of Iceland are the result of
active spreading of the MAR and the presence of a
hot spot that is currently located under Iceland’s larg-
est glacier, Vatnajökull. The high volumes of magma
production compared with other parts of the MAR
results in crustal thickness averaging about 30 km
beneath the hot spot. This active magmatism continues
to increase crustal capacity by contributing intrusions
(dikes, primarily), surface eruptions, and addition by
underplating. The island’s neovolcanics are dictated by
those areas associated with crustal spreading (volcanic
rift zones) as well as volcanic eruptions (Figure 2.1).
The predominant type of basalts found on Iceland are
tholeiitic basalts, which are unusual in that they tend
to show higher concentrations of discordant trace ele-
ments that classify them as enriched mid‐ocean ridge
basalts (EMORB) [Nelson, 2003]. Different from most
MOR scenarios, tholeiitic basalts transition to alkali
basalts within the rift zones (Figure 7.1) [Sigurdsson,
1966; Jakobsson, 1972a, 1979a, 1979b]. This atypical
amount of silica‐rich deposits (approximately 10–12%)
is found at both active and inactive (Tertiary age)
central volcanoes compared with other islands built on
oceanic crust [Gunnarson et al., 1998]. It was initially
thought that the silica was introduced by the melting
of continental crust beneath Iceland. Two viewpoints
regarding silica magma production have emerged,
however. One is fractional crystallization of primitive
basalts or the partial melting of hydrothermally altered
basaltic crust suites [Schattel et al., 2014]. As explained
by Nelson [2003], Fe‐enrichment trends would be
expected by the removal of early crystallizing olivines
Iceland: Tectonics,Volcanics, and Glacial Features, Geophysical Monograph 247, First Edition. Tamie J. Jovanelly.
© 2020 American Geophysical Union. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
45
and pyroxenes from a tholeiitic basalt magma. The
evolution of the Fe‐rich magma would then cause the
iron to become depleted in successive liquids, forcing
the magmatic composition toward rhyolite. The other
is that dehydration melting of tholeiitic basalts due to
high heat flow from hot‐spot proximity may also pro-
vide a mechanism for the generation of Icelandic rhyo-
lite (Figure 7.1) [Sigvaldason, 1974a; Thy et al., 1990].
Over the past 11 centuries, ejections of basalt, andesite,
dacite, and rhyolite magmas have resulted in varying
eruption styles, including: effusive eruptions producing
high‐magnitude lava floods; mixed Strombolian to
Plinian eruptions; explosive phreatomagmatic and
magmatic eruptions spanning the volcanic explosively
index (VEI) from low (0) to high (8) intensity
[Thordarson and Larsen, 2007] (Table 7.1).
There is some discrepancy in the total number of
active and dormant volcanoes on the island, for two
reasons. First, the North American Plate continues to
move westward as are the volcanic zones (namely, the
NVZ, EVZ, WVZ) (Figures 1.1 and 2.1). Herein, a
volcanic zone is defined as comprising active central
volcanoes and extensional fissures, or “fissure swarms,”
which are associated with normal faulting, geothermal
activity, and the possibility of a post‐eruption caldera.
Second, although monogenetic (i.e., single eruption)
basaltic volcanoes are by definition extinct, there are
many on Iceland that remain in zones considered vol-
canically active [Walker, 1999]. Most scholars agree,
however, that there are currently 33 active volcanoes
on the island of Iceland (Figure 7.2), and these repre-
sent nearly all volcano types and eruption styles known
on Earth [Thórarinsson and Sæmundsson, 1979;
Thórarinsson, 1981]. The volcano types are unevenly
46 VOLCANICS

Figure 7.1 Tholeiitic basalt phase diagram showing changes in alkalinity as it corresponds to Iceland’s rift
zones. [Design credit Nathan Mennen.]

Table 7.1 The volcanic explosivity index (VEI)

VEI Eruption description Tephra volume (km3) Cloud column height (km) Eruption type Duration (h)
1 Gentle 10,000 (m )3
0.1–1 Hawaiian/strombolian <1
2 Explosive <0.01 1–5 Strombolian/vulcanian <1–6
3 Severe 0.01–0.1 3–15 Plinian/vulcanian <1–12
4 Cataclysmic 0.1–1 10–25 Plinian/vulcanian 1–>12
5 Paroxysmal 1–10 >25 Plinian/ultraplinian 6–>12
6 Colossal 10–100 Plinian/ultraplinian >12
7 Supercolossal 100–1000 Plinian/ultraplinian >12
8 Megacolossal >1000 Ultraplinian >12
Note. Modified from Newhall and Self [1982]; design credit Nathan Mennen.

distributed between volcanic zones: three within the
RVB, nine in the WVZ, two in the MIB, five in the
NVZ, eight in the EVZ, three in the SVB, and three in
intraplate volcanic belts [Jóhannesson and Sæmundsson,
1998] (Figure 7.2). According to Thordarson and
Larsen [2007], 80% of the verified historic eruptions
have taken place within the four most active volcanic
systems (Grímsvötn, Bárdarbunga, Hekla, and Katla;
Figure 7.2), which are all located in the EVZ. In
addition, there are approximately 150 dormant
Icelandic volcanoes, i.e., volcanoes that have been
inactive for a minimum of 10,000 years.
The resulting volcanic systems are variable: twelve
are comprised of a fissure swarm and a central vol-
cano, seven of a central volcano, nine of a fissure
swarm and a central domain, and two with a single
 OVERVIEW OF VOLCANICS IN ICELAND 47

Figure 7.2 Location map of active and extinct volcanoes on Iceland. Active volcanoes are listed by number.
EVZ, East Volcanic Zone; WVZ, West Volcanic Zone, NVZ, North Volcanic Zone; SVB, Snæfellsnes Volcanic
Belt. [Modified from Thordarson and Larsen [20067; design credit Nathan Mennen.]

central dome [Thordarson and Larsen, 2007]. This
delineation is based on recurrence of eruptions hap-
pening on the same vent system and further suggests
the separation of central volcanoes (polygenetic, i.e.,
built from multiple eruptions, type) from basalt vol-
canoes (monogenetic eruption type). Exploration of
the geologic record through tephrochronology and
detailed mapping indicates that some 205 historic
events have occurred, which averages 20–25 eruptions
per century [Larsen and Eiríksson, 2008a]. Of these 205
events, 192 represent distinct eruptions and 13 are clas-
sified as long‐term (one month to several years) fissure
eruption events often termed “fires” (e.g., Table 5.1).
Of the eruptions identified, approximately 78% are
classified as explosive, 8% as effusive, and 13% as
mixed. There has been recent discussion surrounding
the current classification of effusive eruptions in
Iceland as either monogenetic or polygenetic. Sheath
and Canon‐Tapia [2015] noted that fissure eruptions
can have either single or multiple feeder‐dike injec-
tions. They argue that these flood basalt events should
be termed accordingly as “diffuse volcanic fields”
instead of by the volcano classification type.
There have been approximately 13 eruptions since
the Víkings settled Iceland in 874 CE, with some events
causing dramatic lifestyle and landscape changes, as
discussed in Box 7.1 and the following chapters. Hekla
is among the most famous volcanoes on the island as it
has erupted 18 times since 1104 CE, with the last time
being in 2000 CE. Also in the EVZ, Katla has erupted
48 VOLCANICS
Box 7.1 Living with Volcanoes
Emily Larrimore
Globally, almost 500 million people live within
exposure range of a volcano that has been active
in recorded history [Hansell and Oppenheimer,
2004]. To those who experience an eruption
living within this range can cause negative acute
and chronic health effects, as well as negative
psychological impacts. In Iceland, multiple
volcanic eruptions can occur within an inhabitant’s
lifetime so it is important that the effects of erup-
tions are studied thoroughly.
Being that Iceland is endowed with many unique
volcanic features that can become destructive fairly
quickly, it is important to study the impact that
natural disasters have on the population of
Iceland. Hlodversdottir et al. [2016] completed a
population‐based study on the effect that the 2010
Eyjafjallajökull eruption had on the physical and
mental health of 2066 exposed children who lived
near the volcano. This study found that adverse
physical and mental health issues such as increased
likelihood of respiratory symptoms, increased
anxiety, increased frequency of headaches, and
increased frequency of sleep disturbances were
exhibited by children living in exposed areas
6–9 months after the eruption [Hlodversdottir
et al., 2016]. This study also found children who
had experienced damage to their homes or other
possessions were also more likely to experience
anxiety and depression. The researchers in this
study were surprised to find that in 2013, three
years after the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull, the chil-
dren in this study were still experiencing adverse
symptoms. One reason for this is that children are
an extremely vulnerable group during a natural
disaster, and they require developmentally appro-
priate intervention and preventative strategies
in order to avoid severe psychological trauma
[Hlodversdottir et al., 2016].
In terms of physical health effects, epidemiolog-
ical studies have found a strong relationship ­between
both acute and chronic exposure to particulate
matter and mortality [Ostro, 1984; Pope and
Dockery, 2006; Brook et al., 2010]. The morphology
of volcanic ash is similar to that of asbestos in that it
is a respiratory hazard caused by insoluble particles
in the form of fibers [Horwell and Baxter, 2006].
After heavy ash fall, short‐term health problems
from inhaling particulate matter can include asthma
attacks, bronchitis, and chest tightness, and can
worsen preexisting conditions such as chronic bron-
chitis and advanced heart problems [Horwell and
Baxter, 2006]. Studies including historical and con-
temporary eruptions have found that volcanogenic
gases have accounted for <1–4% of fatalities caused
by eruptions, however, this is likely an underesti-
mate of total deaths caused by volcanic gases as
these studies do not fully account for overall volcanic
degassing not associated with eruptions [Hansell
and Oppenheimer, 2004]. Poisoning from volcano-
genic H2S emissions can cause unconsciousness
and death within minutes of exposure to concentra-
tions of >700–1000 ppm [Hansell and Oppenheimer,
2004]. Population studies of chronic low‐level
exposure show dose‐dependent trends for increases
in diseases of the nervous system [Hansell and
Oppenheimer, 2004]. Furthermore, CO2 released
during an eruption with a concentration 30%
can cause unconsciousness in 1 min. Prolonged
exposure can cause seizures and lead to death
[Hansell and Oppenheimer, 2004]. Emissions of
SO2 can cause short‐term effects such as eye irrita-
tion and severe airway constriction in asthmatics
[Horwell and Baxter, 2006]. Epidemiological and
clinical studies of the health effects of volcanic gases
are still lacking, and future studies are required to
properly gauge the full scale and intensity that vol-
canogenic emissions have on human health. This is
especially true as tourists are becoming increasingly
fascinated with volcanic areas such as Iceland.
Icelandic eruptions also have great effects on
continental Europe. In 1783–1784 a series of erup-
tions of the Laki volcano lasting 8 months resulted
in the death of around a quarter of the population
of Iceland, and created a low‐lying “haze” that
caused wide‐sweeping effects and damage
throughout Europe, especially in the United
Kingdom [Sonnek et al., 2017]. Volcanic emissions
caused significant crop failures in Europe, resulting
in increased mortality, as well as negative health
effects including eye irritation, headaches, and
breathing difficulties [Sonnek et al., 2017]. At pre-
sent, volcanic emissions have the potential to work
in combination with anthropogenic air pollution to
create remarkably harmful air quality [Hansell and
Oppenheimer, 2004]. In addition, gases emitted
during volcanic eruptions can be very damaging to

technological infrastructure fabricated with copper,
aluminum, nickel, tin, and silver [Sonnek et al.,
2017]. Volcanic gasses such as H2S, SO2, HCl, and
HF can cause exceptional corrosive damage to
telephones, computers, circuit boards, and other
telecommunication equipment, potentially result-
ing in failure [Sonnek et al., 2017].
Although sometimes destructive, Iceland’s
geology offers it extraordinary economic opportu-
nities in the form of tourism. Geotourism, a
relatively new trend within tourism, promotes
travel destinations that are unique in their landscape
and geodiversity. Geoparks, like the Katla Geopark,
have become popular among travelers for the
promise of getting up close and personal with
geologic features such as volcanoes, glaciers, and
20 times since settlement. Since ~1100 CE, it is sug-
gested that Iceland is responsible for more than one‐
third of all new lava exposed at the surface, with
magma productivity >5 km3 per century [Thordarson
and Larsen, 2007; Thordarson and Höskuldsson, 2008].
This total includes the Earth’s largest eruption of the
past 200 years, as measured by volume, at Bárðarbunga
in 2014–2015. This eruption lasted six months and
produced 85 km2 of lava, which equates to the size of
Manhattan. The largest tholeiitic eruption since
1100 CE occurred over a 50‐day duration at Laki
(1783–1784 CE) producing 370 km2 of lava.
7.2. VOLCANIC MORPHOLOGY
The morphology of Iceland’s volcanoes varies widely
in size and shape, and there is variation in overall life
spans ranging from 0.5 to 1.5 Myr [Jakobsson et al.,
1978; Sæmundsson, 1978, 1979; Jakobsson, 1979a]
(Figure 7.3). Undoubtedly, Iceland is unique in the diver-
sity of volcanic features represented. Moreover, the com-
plexities of extensional rift tectonics and the continued
presence of a hot spot leads to interesting discussion of
volcano formation and structure. Although there are
currently 33 active volcanoes on the island, there are also
more than 50 extinct central volcanic features represent-
ing 0.78–0.15 Ma (Figure 7.2).
7.2.1. Stratovolcanoes and Associated Features
Many of Iceland’s volcanoes contain (or once contained)
a central vent underlying the summit crater, which would
classify them as stratovolcanoes or composite cones. Here,
OVERVIEW OF VOLCANICS IN ICELAND 49
geysers. Geotourism is advantageous for Icelandic
society as it can promote conservation and sustain-
ability, educate the general public on potential
risks and hazards, and can benefit local economies
and encourage rural development [Ólafsdóttir and
Dowling, 2014].
Volcanic eruptions obviously cause negative
effects on society that can result in financial loss,
environmental degradation, and even fatalities, but
the unique volcanic nature of Iceland has also
provided many economic, energy, and tourist
opportunities. Further research and development
of models to predict the negative impacts and chal-
lenges caused by future eruptions are of vital
importance so that the benefits of Iceland’s geo-
thermal activity can outweigh its costs.
the volcano’s cone‐shape structure, or edifice, is built
by the symmetrical accumulation of lava or pyroclastic
material around this central vent system through repeated
eruptions (i.e., polygenetic eruption type), which may or
may not be bimodal in magmatic composition. They
commonly have a stratified appearance with alternating
lava flows, airfall tephra, pyroclastic flows, volcanic
lahars, and/or debris flows (Figure 7.4). The three largest
stratovolcanoes, Öræfajökull (64.5400, −23.8071;
2100 m), Eyjafjallajökull (63.631, −19.6083; 1667 m), and
Snæfellsjökull (64.8400, −23.9017; 1446 m), are currently
in volcanic belts where little or no crustal spreading
occurs (Figure 7.2, Photo 15).
Although there are numerous calderas existing today in
Iceland, the most recent formation of a caldera occurred
after the Bárðarbunga (64.6411, −17.5281) eruption in
2015. A caldera forms by the collapse of a volcano into
itself to form a large caldron‐like depression in its place.
The depression forms after the rapid evacuation of a
magma chamber that has been left without structural
support for the crust above the magma chamber.
7.2.2. Shield Volcanoes and Associated Features
Skjaldbreiður (64.4092, −20.7525) (Photo 16) is a
large‐volume (>1 km3) basalt lava shield volcano with
a summit crater [Rossi, 1996]. Shield volcanoes in
Iceland can be distinguished from stratovolcanoes by
their heights being typically about one‐twentieth of
their widths. Additionally, the lower slopes are often
gentle (~3°), but the middle slopes become steeper
(~10°) and then flatten at the summit. This gives shield
volcanoes a flank morphology that is convex in an
50 VOLCANICS

Figure 7.3 Volcano morphology and time line, with relative sizes, shapes, and life spans of various types
of volcanoes. The volcano images are vertically exaggerated two times and the craters and calderas are
exaggerated four times. The approximate erosional expectances of the volcanic structures are listed in
years. [Modified from Decker and Decker [2005]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]

Figure 7.4 Basic volcano morphology. [Design credit Nathan Mennen.]

upward direction. Their overall broad shape results
from the extrusion of low‐viscosity mafic lava with low
gaseous content that spreads outward from the sum-
mit area. The resulting surface structures will be deter-
mined by magma discharge rate and the steepness of
the slope over which the lava flows. “Aa” lava flows
develop when there is a high discharge rate and steep
slopes (Photo 17). The partially solidified front of the
flow steepens due to the mass of flowing lava behind it
until it separates from the flow. At this time, the gen-
eral mass behind it moves forward. The top of the flow
cools quickly while the molten magma underneath
cools slowly as it is sheltered from contact with the
atmosphere; a jagged appearance results. In contrast,
gentle slopes and lower discharge events form smooth
undulating or ropy masses called pahoehoe that are
typically <1 m thick (Photo 18). Pahoehoe flows move
in sheets, or by the advance of the lava toe. Increasing
Photo 16 Pahoehoe field in front of Skjaldbreid ̄ur Shield Volcano located on the Reykjanes Peninsula.
[imageBROKER/ Alamy Stock Photo.]

Photo 17 An example of an aa lava flow. [Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]

52 VOLCANICS
Photo 18 An example of a pahoehoe lava flow. [Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]
viscosity on the part of the lava or shear stress
­introduced in the topography can change a pahoehoe
flow into an aa flow, but the reverse never occurs. Lava
tubes are also common features associated with shield
volcanism. By definition, lava tubes are cave‐like
volcanic features formed by the hardening of the
outer shell of the tube. These structures help further
the transmission of lava because the tube insulates the
lava moving within. Lofthellir lava cave (65.6317,
−17.4536) on Snæfellsnes Peninsula provides a text-
book example. Effusive eruptions can also produce
spatter rings and scoria cone volcanoes (Photo 19) that
represent short (days to months) and small (<0.1 km3)
to medium (0.1–1 km3) mafic events associated with
shield volcano systems. The height is generally less
than 300 m and can occur as discrete volcanoes on
basaltic lava fields, or as a parasitic cone generated by
flank eruptions on shield volcanoes or stratovolcanoes.
Scoria cones are composed almost wholly of ejected
basaltic tephra that is commonly lapilli size, although
bomb‐size fragments and lava spatter may also be
­ resent. Sometimes the age of the scoria cone can
p
be discerned by shape of the edifice whereby newer
deposits will have slopes up to 35°, and older eroded
cones typically have gentler slopes (15–20°). Unlike
strato or shield volcanoes, scoria cones have straight
sides and very large summit craters with respect to
their relatively small edifices. The red‐oxidized inte-
riors reveal that the scoria cone was breached during
its formation.
Volcanic structures often associated with Iceland
are linear‐type volcanoes or volcanic fissures. Hekla
(63.9923, −19.6658; 1491 m) is such an example as it is
a volcanic ridge that is elongated along the strike of its
main eruptive fissure (Photo 20). Fissure eruptions that
did not centralize can leave a monogenetic crater row
whereby multiple craters indicate multiple single‐event
eruptions (Photo 21). The crater rows are more common
in Iceland than in any other volcanic district; the largest
ones have an area of ~50 km2 and craters may be
counted in hundreds or even thousands [Thórarinsson
et al., 1959]. In size, they range from 1–2 m high and
 Photo 19 An example of a spatter cone. [Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]

Photo 20 The Hekla volcano formed by an elongated fissure eruption found along its ridge crest. [Courtesy
of Tamie Jovanelly.]
54 VOLCANICS
Photo 21 An example of a rootless cone. [Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]
2–3 m in diameter to more than 30 m high and with a
base of 300–400 m, such as at Mývatn. The failure of
an eruption to centralize may be due to weak compres-
sive stress or because the magma ascent is high due to
low viscosity magma [Németh and Smith, 2017].
7.3. SUBGLACIAL ERUPTIONS
The terms subglacial and intraglacial classify
volcanic eruptions by the landforms created by such
events. Specifically, subglacial events apply only to
those processes occurring under ice cover without
direct contact with the atmosphere. The term
­intraglacial is more general since it also applies to
eruptions and volcanoes that have broken through
the glacier [Jakobbsson and Gudmundsson, 2008]. The
interaction of magma with the presence of ice and
water is an important part of the volcanic processes
in Iceland that affects both explosivity and mineral
texture. For example, the average eruption rates at
the end of the last glacial period in Iceland (~12 ka)
were 100 times higher than during either glaciated or
unglaciated conditions [Maclennan et al., 2002]. This
was also confirmed by cosmogenic 3He ­chronology
conducted by Licciardi et al. [2007], which indicated
12 of 13 subglacial eruptions had a final eruptive
phase during the last deglaciation; in a­ccordance
with the hypothesis that melt production in Iceland
is enhanced by isostatic readjustment through
creation of new conduits transporting magma to the
surface. Ice confinement and changes to meltwater
drainage are among features that distinguish subgla-
cial volcanism from submarine and subaqueous
eruptions [Gudmundsson, 2004; Smellie, 2000, 2006].
As noted above, an important feature of volcanism in
Iceland is the interaction of magma with ice and water
as it was mostly ice‐covered during the Pleistocene, and
today 10% of the country is still covered, including
some of the most active volcanoes. Ten of the pres-
ently active central volcanoes have been shaped by
subglacial eruptions (i.e., Grímsvötn, Bárdarbunga,
­
Mýrdalsjökull, Eyjafjallajökull, Hengill, Tindfjöll,
Hofsjökull, Tungnafellsjökull, Askja, and Kverkfjöll).
Phreatomagmatic basaltic eruptions (i.e. Surtseyan‐
style) are common in Iceland and include subglacial,
subaerial, and submarine eruptions from monogenetic
central vent and fissure eruptions, as well as eruptions
from polygenetic central volcanoes [Thordarson and

Figure 7.5 Comparison between tindar (top) and tuya (bottom) subglacial structures. [Modified from
Jakobsson and Johnson [2012]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]
Larsen, 2007]. These eruptions differ from phreatic
eruptions, which are steam‐driven explosions that
occur when water beneath the ground or on the surface
is heated by contact with magma, lava, hot rocks, or
new volcanic deposition (e.g., tephra and pyroclastic‐
flow deposits). During both types of eruption, how-
ever, the intense heat of the magma (upwards of 1170°C
for basalts) may cause water to boil and flash to steam,
thereby generating an explosion of steam, water, ash,
blocks, and bombs. The products from phreatomag-
matic eruptions are often discerned because they con-
tain juvenile clasts, have low vesicule content, and are
considered to be better sorted and finer grained [Heiken
and Wohletz, 1985].
7.3.1. Subglacial Features
During the Pleistocene, the majority of Iceland was
covered by an ice sheet (Figure 2.2) resulting in subgla-
cial eruptions and initial explosive eruptive phases due
to magma–water interactions as seen at Grímsvötn
(64.4203, −17.2100) and Katla (63.6397, −19.1550).
Subglacial eruptions from a central vent can lead to
the formation of tabletop mountains (also known as
OVERVIEW OF VOLCANICS IN ICELAND 55
tuyas) or möberg ridges (also known as tindars)
(Figure 7.5). To avoid confusion, Russell et al. [2014]
defines a tuya as a positive‐relief volcano having a
morphology that results from ice confinement during
eruption and comprising a set of lithofacies that reflect
direct interaction between magma and ice/meltwater.
More specifically, Russell et al. [2014] separates these
glaciovolcanic features into four morphological cate-
gories: flat‐topped, conical, linear, or complex. Using
this as a guide, tindars are generally found in semiregu-
lar linear rows having an abrupt peak and a 2:1 ratio
(length vs. width) [Jakobsson and Gudmundsson, 2008].
Tuyas also have a broad lava cap that is missing from
tindars.
Lateral subglacial fissure eruptions lead to the
formation of elongated möberg sheets consisting of
hyaloclastite lava, pillow lava (Photo 22), and/or
columnar basalts (Figure 7.6). These sheets can flow
considerable distances (up to 35 km) under the glacier
with widths about 2 km and thickness of 150 m [Walker
and Blake, 1966]. Hyaloclastite lava is hydrated tuff‐like
breccia rich in volcanic glass and has the appearance of
angular flat fragments sized between a few millimeters
to a few centimeters. This fragmentation occurs by the
56 VOLCANICS
Photo 22 Pillow lava basalts are often covered by moss in southwestern Iceland. [Courtesy of Tamie
Jovanelly.]
force of the volcanic explosion or by the thermal shock
during rapid cooling. Subglacial‐eruption pillow basalts
are formed if the ice to water pressure is adequately
high. (This process is comparable to the dry formation
of pahoehoe lava lobes known as inflation or endoge-
nous growth). Under low‐pressure conditions, magma
will immediately cool due to the rapid heat transfer
from the ice to the magma resulting in glassy mineral
textures, like obsidian [Gudmundsson, 2005]. A structure
that forms from the solidification of (mainly) basaltic
magmas under the presence of water is columnar basalt.
When the lava cools, contraction occurs at centers that
are equally spaced allowing a hexagonal fracture pattern
to develop [Spry, 1962] (Figure 7.6). The fracture
pattern that forms at the cooling surface will tend to be
propagated down the lava as it cools, forming long,
geometric columns perpendicular to the surface flow of
water (on top of the lava) that can range in size within a
deposit. A shift in colonnade‐type columns (e.g., those
columns that are straight) to entablature (e.g., those col-
umns that are irregular) may be due to changes in water
flow direction or intensity, whereby flow changes create
different angles of cooling fronts. Thus, the division of
colonnade and entablature is the result of slow cooling
from the base upward and rapid cooling from the top
downward (Figure 7.7).
Localized phreatic eruptions can cause the formation
of rootless cones when lava (1100°C or greater) crosses
over a wet surface, such as a swamp or a lake. Rootless
cones are often confused with crater rows as the tephra
from the single‐event explosion builds up crater‐like to
give the appearance of a volcanic crater. Additionally,
they are dissimilar in that rootless cones are not
connected to a subsurface magmatic conduit system.
7.4. TEPHROCHRONOLOGY
Tephrochronology is the technique of using tephra
ash from individual volcanic eruption events to
­determine a chronological order for the purposes of
reconstructing geologic time, paleoenvironments, or
archaeological events. The origins of tephrochronology
began in Iceland where it was first used in the 17th
century to describe soil sections [Thórarinsson, 1981c;
 OVERVIEW OF VOLCANICS IN ICELAND 57

Figure 7.6 Hexagonal columnar basalt. [Photo courtesy of Russell Maddrey; design credit Nathan Mennen.]

Figure 7.7 Entabular versus colonnade columnar basalt. [Modified from Spry [1962]; photo courtesy of
Russell Maddrey; design credit Nathan Mennen.]

Davies, 2015]. Centuries later, in the 1930s, an Icelandic
doctoral student, Sigurður Thórarinsson, began to
make relationships between pollen and tephra dispersal
patterns [Sigurðsson, 1983; Davies, 2015]. In his
­dissertation, he coined the term “tephrochronology”
[Sigurðsson, 1983]. Undoubtedly this tool, which
started out as being a relative dating technique, has
developed into an important absolute technique where
firm dates can be determined and tied to the geochem-
ical signatures of specific volcanoes, thereby expanding
58 VOLCANICS
its use as a means to determine the distal extent of
volcanic ash and volume. Isopach maps are common
representations of tephra distribution that are based on
land surveying (for recent events) or investigation of
soil profiles (historic events). The overall dispersal of
tephra is influenced by environmental factors that
include explosion type and duration, plume height, pre-
vailing wind direction, and strength at time of eruption
[Óladóttir et al., 2011].
Although it is not an exact science, tephrochronology
can aid in determining the volume of ejected material.
Volumes of tephra are commonly published as: bulk
volume or compacted volume, freshly fallen or uncom-
pacted volume, and dense rock equivalent (DRE).
Additionally, in areas where tephra has fallen offshore
two volumes may be listed: that on land and that on
land and sea at sea. For events not recorded during his-
toric times estimating the volumes can provide an
indicator of explosivity that can be correlated to the
VEI (Table 7.1). Many tephrochronology scientists con-
sider the Grímsvötn 2004 event to be one of the best
field recorded data sets for representing accuracy in vol-
umetric definitions of tephra fallout [Larsen Larsen and
Eiríksson, 2008b]. This success is largely because of the
combination of ground, aerial, and satellite observa-
tions, and the ability to sample relatively undisturbed
material on Vatnajökull ice cap using state‐of‐the art
equipment [Oddsson et al., 2007; Jude‐Eton et al., 2012].
Larsen and Eiríksson [2008a], however, note that only a
small portion of the historic eruptions occurring under
Vatnajökull produced enough tephra to be dispersed
beyond the ~8000 km2 ice cap.
In Iceland, tephrochronology included in soils can
date back to 9000 ka. Between 600 and 700 tephra
layers are known in soil, sediment, and ice [Larsen and
Eiríksson, 2008a] with more than 500 basaltic in com-
position, and approximately 100 that are primary sili-
ceous in composition [Óladóttir et al., 2008, 2011].
One of Iceland’s most active volcanoes, Hekla, pro-
duced three unique silica tephra deposits (referred to
as H3‐1050 BC, H4‐2250 BC, H5‐5100 BC) that are
often used as marker beds for tephrochronology of the
island. These tephra layers are found in soil profiles on
90% of the island making widespread correlation pos-
sible. Additionally, because of their distinct silica‐rich,
white to yellow color, and laminar bedding, they
become easily identifiable.
7.5. VOLCANIC REPOSE
Understanding the repose of all types of volcanoes
has been a highly important and much investigated
subject in the field of volcanology. Although some of
Iceland’s volcanoes are well known for repetitive cycles,
they offer only suggestions into eruption frequency,
and offer little usefulness in terms of volcanic hazard
mitigation or preparation strategies. For example,
Hekla’s 10‐year eruption pattern began in 1970, how-
ever, it has remained dormant since its last explosion
in 1990. Other volcanoes, like Katla, have been
extremely violent before historic time for which only
the tephra record can give some clues of dispersal pat-
terns, volume, etc. Repose time can be linked to explo-
sivity whereby the longer the pause between eruptions
the larger and more intense will the next eruption likely
be. Some have suggested that monitoring the duration
of precursory activity, like the infilling of a shallow
magma reservoir for example, could help to predict
volcanic eruptions [Passarelli and Brodsky, 2012].
Physical parameters, such as these, involve the run‐up
time of magma movement. Rubin [1995] suggests that
the silica content of the magma is ultimately the driver,
however, as it influences the viscosity, and therefore
the run‐up time. Here, run‐up time is described as the
time elapsed from the initiation of observed magmatic
unrest to the onset of the magmatic eruption [Passarelli
and Brodsky, 2012]. Although a positive correlation
between repose and run‐up time has been found for all
classes of magma composition volcanoes evaluated
(34 in total), it is agreed that precursory activity is both
hard to establish and is largely influenced by the tec-
tonic setting. The question posed by Thelen et al.
[2010] still remains, what earthquakes or parameters
are important to interpret an impending eruption? For
now, there is some agreement that repose time and
seismic energy released are essential into forecasting
eruptions [Thelen et al., 2010].
7.6. VOLCANIC EXPLOSIVITY INDEX
Newhall and Self [1982] proposed the VEI as a means
to categorize recent and paleo events for the purpose of
making comparisons based on the explosive character
of an eruption, utilizing a logarithmic scale of 0–8
(lowest to highest) to depict magnitude. The criteria
included in the VEI are listed in order of decreasing
reliability: volume of ejecta, column height, qualitative
description of event (e.g., gentle, explosive, colossal),
classification (e.g., Hawaiian type, Vulcanian type),
duration (hours of continual blast), tropospheric injec-
tion, and stratospheric injection. For example, a value
of 0 can represent a nonexplosive event that produces
<10,000 m3 of tephra and a value of 8 can represent a
cataclysmic event that produces 1.0 × 1012 m3 tephra

(Table 7.1). Therefore, the VEI for either modern or
paleo events can be approximated by eruption magni-
tude (volume) or intensity (mass eruption rate).
Newhall and Self [1982] acknowledged that there are
limitations to the VEI. In particular the scale does
not include atmospheric or geographic (i.e. latitude
proximity) data, nor does it attempt to classify injection
type. Subsequently it as been acknowledged that non-
explosive eruptions producing large pyroclastic flows
may receive a higher VEI than necessary and that using
DRE to report bulk volume may be difficult for com-
parative purposes [Newhall et al., 2018]. Additionally,
Houghton et al. [2013] observed challenges in applying
the VEI to phreatic events that sometimes only produce
small eruptive volumes of tephra that are locally dis-
persed [Houghton et al., 2013].
OVERVIEW OF VOLCANICS IN ICELAND 59
Newhall and Self [1982] estimated VEIs for some
8000 eruptions, including those occurring on Iceland,
using data published in Simkin et al. [1981]. Also noted
was a requirement that whenever an explosion was
reported without a description, a correction could be
applied by adding a VEI value that accounts for paleo
events as a proxy for missing data. In addition a
correction could be applied if the historic description
lent itself to an event likely being larger or smaller than
reported (e.g., reporting VEI 3 instead of 2). Newhall
and Self [1982] compiled a list of the largest explosive
eruptions in the world since 1500 CE with VEI ≥ 4;
Icelandic volcanoes represented 1% of those eruptions.
Today, volcanologists extensively use the VEI for cre-
ating hazard maps and to determine tephra dispersal
forecasting [Houghton et al., 2013].
 8
Volcanics of the Reykjanes Peninsula and Southwestern Region
Southwestern Iceland and the submarine northern
RR comprise a complicated rift system composed of
overlapping spreading centers that include: the RR,
the Reykjanes Peninsula (comprising the RVB), and
the WVZ (Figures 1.1, 2.1, and 3.1). The 170-km‐long
WVZ (Figure 2.1) was the main focal point of crustal
spreading in south Iceland at 6–7 Ma, but volcanic
activity reduced during Pleistocene and postglacial
times, especially compared with the RVB. The main
decline in volcanic intensity of the WVZ in Pleistocene
times resulted from both the development of the SISZ
(Figure 2.1) and the reduction in tectonic activity with
decreased rates of spreading. The last volcanic eruption
in the WVZ occurred 1000–1300 CE, which correlates
to activity on the Snæfellsnes Peninsula. Conversely,
postglacial volcanic activity has been dynamic on the
Reykjanes Peninsula. Today, however, in the WVZ
there is still an abundance of evidence for crustal
spreading (faulting) and hydrothermal activity, which
includes geysers, mudpots, and steam vents.
8.1. VOLCANISM OF THE WESTERN
VOLCANIC ZONE
A relatively large part of the WVZ is covered by the
ice cap, Langjökull. For this reason, the landscape of the
WVZ is characterized by Late Pleistocene (0.01–0.78 Ma)
intraglacial volcanism that has been influenced by
the presence of an ice sheet 500–2000 m thick in the
interior. The largest of these intraglacial volcanic
features being the tuya called Eiríksjökull (64.7697,
−20.4020), which has an estimated volume up to 48 km3
Iceland: Tectonics,Volcanics, and Glacial Features, Geophysical Monograph 247, First Edition. Tamie J. Jovanelly.
© 2020 American Geophysical Union. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
61
and is considered the largest known monogenetic
v­olcano in Iceland [Jakobbson and Johnson, 2012].
Of the 258 intraglacial volcanoes identified in the
WVZ, 101 are consistent with tuya formation in that
their lavas were deposited above water level. Jakobbson
and Johnson [2012] suspected that this might indicate
deposition in lakes within the ice sheet. This is consis-
tent with the proposal of Eason et al. [2015], who agree
that these features formed at the onset of deglaciation
when ice sheets melted rapidly, providing the opportunity
for uplift of the underlying mantle, which in turn influ-
enced the melting rates in the upper mantle. Although
abundant, it is likely that the tindars and tuyas in the
WVZ correspond to low‐volume Holocene eruptions
from volcanic fissures and volcanic lava shields; the
average WVZ volume is 0.11 km3 compared with
1.11 km3 lava shields on the Reykjanes Peninsula
[Andrew and Gudmundsson, 2007]. It is therefore sug-
gested that the morphology and structure of the intra-
glacial volcanoes in this region were largely dependent
on tectonic control (i.e., fissure length and width) and
availability of magma at the time of eruption. In the
WVZ, a relatively short eruption fissure produced
small tindar when little magma was available, and a
small tuya or eventually a larger tuya when more
magma was erupted and the eruption lasted longer; a
long eruption fissure produced a tindar [Andrew and
Gudmundsson, 2007].
Evidence of explosive tuya features, like the
Kerlingarfjöll central volcano (64.6275, −19.2569), are
also found in the WVZ [Stevenson et al., 2010]. This
Quaternary rhyolite outcrop rises 1488 m above a
62 VOLCANICS
g­ lacial outwash plain and is the second largest deposit
(200 km2) in Iceland resulting from at least 21 different
eruptions over the past 275 kyr (from approximately
68 to 345 ka) [Flude et al., 2010]. Holocene basalt lava
flows cap the tuya formations in the northeast of the
complex suggesting that Kerlingarfjoll was ice covered
for most of its volcanic history [Gronvold, 1972]. This
central volcano has been of particular interest in the
discussion and understanding of continental crust
formation, wherein studying silicic material in oceanic
crust provides insights into relevant magmatic
processes [Flude et al., 2010]. Moreover, the use of reli-
able absolute dating techniques like K–Ar or Ar/Ar
methods on these deposits has contributed to providing
a chronological framework for explosive volcanism in
Iceland; for example, in determining that repose
periods for rhyolite volcanism are on the order of tens
of thousands of years, thus making it possible for
Kerlingarfjöll to erupt again. Additionally, the detailed
chronology of the ryholitic deposits has revealed that
the explosive activity spans the last four glacial periods.
The ages are not precise enough to assign an eruption
to a particular glacial or interglacial stage, but some
eruptions may have taken place in Northern
Hemisphere interglacial periods [Flude et al., 2010].
The volcanic features of the WVZ landscape makes
for ideal comparisons between three main eruptive
environments: effusive deep‐water eruption producing
pillow lavas; explosive shallow‐water eruption producing
hyaloclastites; and an effusive subaerial capping lava
eruption [Eason et al., 2015]. Often these stages coin-
cide with, or are followed by, dike and irregular minor
intrusions. The Middle to Late Pleistocene intraglacial
volcanic rocks of the WVZ belong to the palagonitic
Möberg Formation, which comprises all strata formed
during the Brunhes geomagnetic epoch to the end of
the Pleistocene [Jakobsson and Gudmundsson, 2008].
The resulting rock types found in the WVZ are often
picrites, olivine tholeiites, and tholeiite basalts, with
only a small portion (~0.5 vol%) of the magma emerg-
ing as intermediate or silica rich [Jakobsson and
Johnson, 2012].
8.2. VOLCANISM OF THE REYKJANES
PENINSULA
In the southwest of the Reykjanes Peninsula, there
are six major volcanic regions that align with the modern‐
day NE–SW active rift zone: Reykjanes, Eldvörp–
Svartsengi, Fagradalsfjall, Krýsuvík, Brennisteinsfjöll,
and Hengill–Langjökull (Figure 3.1). These regions
consist of lava fields, postglacial basaltic crater rows,
and small shield volcanoes like the Reykjanes Volcano
(63.8500, −22.5660) with a summit at 140 m. The
Reykjanes volcanic system is the westernmost of a
four closely spaced fissure system that extends diago-
nally across the Reykjanes Peninsula. Holocene (e.g.,
Hellnahraun, Kapelluhraun) and modern eruptions
(e.g., Reykjanes Fires) that have occurred at several
locations on the NE–SW trending fissure system
cover most of the volcanic system, but rocks span
the age of 3.2 Ma and become progressively younger
to the south. Three shield volcanoes (Hrútagjá and
Þráinskjöldur, 63.9568, −21.9842; Sandfellshæð
63.8710, −22.5905) were formed during the Pleistocene–
Holocene transition that are important to the overall
shaping of the peninsula some 9000–14,000 ka. With
cumulative volumes of lava nearing 15 km3, these
flows are the major factor responsible for raising the
peninsula above sea level. More specifically, pahoe-
hoe lavas from the half shield volcanoes, Hrútagjá and
Þráinskjöldur, spread radially northwards to form 20 km
of coastline between Straumsvík and Vogararstapi.
Iceland’s largest tumuli result from Hrútagjá lava
flows. The main crater is a shallow depression sitting
on top of a lava rise. In the culmination phase of the
eruption (6000 CE), a solid crust of lava around the
crater was inflated by magma, resulting in extensive
rise. Later, when the magma escaped through chan-
nels, a subsided block of lava was left behind, marked
by deep fissures on the margins [Sigurgeirsson, 2010].
In contrast, Þráinskjöldur is heavily dissected by
fissures and faults from rifting in the Reykjanes
volcanic system. Sandfellshæð provides a textbook
example of a shield volcano with its gently sloping
sides (<3°) that rise, to 90 m above sea level and its
lava covers 120 km2. The summit crater is well
defined: 450 m wide and 20 m deep. Forming during
glacial time (14,000 ka), Sandfellshæð is older than
the other two volcanoes previously mentioned and
formed when sea level was about 30 m lower than
present.
The Younger Stampar cone row (63.9155, −22.3650)
that was formed during the Reykjanes Fires (1210–
1240 CE) is the youngest volcanic formation on the
Reykjanes Peninsula. This 4.5-km‐long formation
covers the northern tip of the peninsula and can be
recognized from a top of the Mid Ocean Ridge.
Additionally, toward the interior of the peninsula
the Arnasetur (63.9056, −22.4106) monogenetic
volcanic fissure with scoria and spatter craters
formed in an eruption that was also part of the epi-
sode. The resulting fissure is 2 km in length and the
lava formed covers 20 km2.
 Volcanics of the Reykjanes Peninsula and Southwestern Region  63

8.3. ESJA MOUNTAIN AND EXTINCT
VOLCANIC SYSTEMS (KOLLAFJÖRÐUR
AND STARDALUR)
Esja is a mountain complex of three central
­ olcanoes that dramatically dominates the northern
v and can be seen along the northern slopes of
skyline of Reykjavík, and is a popular hiking spot
as it is only 10 km from the city center. The summit
is called Hábunga and sits 914 m above the low‐
lying area. Esja was created in the late Pliocene,
when _during warm periods lava flowed and in the
cold periods ridges of tuff were built up under
the glacier. The oldest part of the mountain range
(dating to 3.2 Ma) can be explored at the base of the
western slope and the younger rhyolitic cap deposits
dating to 1.8 Ma can be seen on the eastern side,
called Móskarðshnúka (64.2431, −21.5278). The
1650 m total thickness of the Esja succession was
formed by the extinct Stardalur and Kollafjörður
volcanic ­ systems that originated with the initial
spreading of the WVZ. Due to erosion, the gabbro
intrusions that once were the root of the central
­volcanoes can be seen at the base of Mount Esja.
Fissure ­
eruptions fed by dikes followed earlier
volcanic activity [Forslund and Gudmundsson, 1991]
Eyararfjall (64.3191, −21.7261) and Lokufjall
(64.2818, −21.8257).
8.4. RAUÐHÓLAR ROOTLESS
CONE COMPLEX
The term Rauðhólar translates to “red hills” in
Icelandic and has been coined as a geologic term to
describe rootless cone features. Although there are
other Rauðhólar chain complexes in Iceland (namely,
in Vesturdalur near Mývtán), some of the easiest to
visit are near Reykjavík in a town that bears the
name of the feature (64.0986, −21.7797). This local-
ized phreatic eruption spanning 1.2 km2 in the RVB

Photo 23 Mount Hengill, southwest Iceland. [Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]

64 VOLCANICS
created a cluster of phreatic pseuodcraters that
formed when the Leitahraun lava flowed over a wet-
land 5200 ka. The Leitahraun lava was emitted from
a shield volcano located on the eastern side of the
Bláfjöll (63.9842, −21.6583) mountain complex. The
main pathway of the lava was toward the south to
the coast near Þorlákshöfn, however, the lava also
flowed towards the west, crossing wetlands at
Rauðhólar into Lake Elliðavatn, then along the
channel of River Elliðaár and into the sea at
Elliðavogur in Reykjavík. The Rauðhólar pseu-
docraters in Elliðaárhraun are part of Reykjavík’s
nature reserve of Heiðmórk that was created in 1950
to preserve these unique features. Originally, there
were over 80 craters, but the gravel from them was
used for road and airport construction during World
War II. Now, as a result, some interior structures of
the pseudocraters can be examined closely. Other
rootless cones can be observed west of Kirkjubæjar­
klaustur in Álftaver (63.5261, −18.3603) and at
Landbrotshólar near Katla, where the largest
(50 km2) complex in Iceland can be found. The age
and origin of the lava at Landbrotshólar has been
debated, but its origin is believed to be the volcanic
eruption of Eldgja in 934 CE.
8.5. HENGILL AND ÞINGVELLIR
The Hengill–Langjökull fissure swarm is located in
the southern part of the WVZ. It extends at least 30 km
north of the Mount Hengill central volcano (64.0856,
−21.3133; Photo 23) and covers an area of 100 km2.
This active volcano (805 m in height) last experienced
an eruption around 1000 CE, which is said to have
occurred during a meeting of the Icelandic parliament
at Þingvellir. Mount Hengill has been volcanically
active since 0.8 Ma and has produced four postglacial
(< 10,000 ka) lavas [Sæmundsson, 1967]. The volcano is
mostly composed of hyaloclastites, but contains pillow
lavas, pillow breccias, as well as andesite, dacite, and
rhyolite. The extensive Nesjavellir and Hellisheiði high‐
temperature geothermal area encompasses Mount
Hengill, which is the major producer of geothermal
energy for Reykjavík (Box 3.1). The area experiences
continuous background small‐magnitude earthquake
activity that correlates spatially with surface heat loss.
More specifically, between 1994 and 2007 about 100,000
earthquakes were recorded, reaching intensity up to
M = 5.0 [Jakobsdottir, 2008]. Crustal doming with a
maximum uplift rate of 2 cm year−1 coincided with the
seismic activity, until collapse in 2000.
 9
Volcanics of the South and Southeastern Regions
The EVZ and NVZ neovolcanic zones connect
beneath Vatnajökull. The EVZ is thought to have
begun its formation ~2–3 Ma within pre‐existing crust
[Foulger and Natland, 2003]. The EVZ connects to the
WVZ with two strike‐slip faults, the MIB and the SISZ
(Figure 2.1). Due to the proximity of the hot spot
under Vatnajökull, and the faster rate of spreading
along the Eurasian plate margin, the EVZ represents
the most active volcanism on the island during historic
times (i.e., post‐874 CE to present; Figure 9.1). The
EVZ neovolcanic zone is responsible for about 77% of
historic eruptions and ~60% of the erupted magma
volume. According to Thordarson and Larsen [2007]
the Grímsvötn volcanic system alone accounts for
about 38% of the verified historic eruptions, while the
three other systems collectively represent ~39% of the
remaining events (Bárdarbunga, ~14%; Hekla, ~13%;
Katla, ~12%). The other three systems on the EVZ
that have also been active in historic time are
Vestmannæyjar, Eyjafjöll, and Torfajökull, which
account for 3% of the events [Larsen et al., 1998;
Larsen, 2002]. Additionally, central volcanoes in the
EVZ mentioned above, as well as Eyjafjallajökull, have
over the past 11 centuries produced a minimum of 24
silica‐rich tephra eruptions [Larsen et al., 1999].
Isopach maps based on the identification of tephra
layers by Larsen et al. [1999], with contributions from
Thórarinsson [1954, 1967], have determined variable
directions, distal extent, and volume of tephra deposi-
tion for these explosive events (Figure 9.2). The esti-
mated volumes of the 24 eruptions vary widely from
10 to <0.01 km3 [Larsen et al., 1999] (Figure 9.3,
Table 9.1). Two Hekla events produced the furthest
Iceland: Tectonics,Volcanics, and Glacial Features, Geophysical Monograph 247, First Edition. Tamie J. Jovanelly.
© 2020 American Geophysical Union. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
65
fallout deposits: a 1947 tephra has been identified in
western Russia and an 1845 tephra has been identified
in the northern islands of the British Isles [Dugmore
et al., 1995; Wastegard et al., 2000].
The origin of these silica magmas within the EVZ
continues to be highly debated. The two main view-
points regarding silica magma production include (a)
fractional crystallization of primitive basalts and (b)
partial melting of hydrothermally altered basaltic
crust [Schattel et al., 2014]; however, Scerrisdottir
[2007] proposed a combination of these circumstances.
Schattel et al. [2014] compared rift and off‐rift vol-
canoes in the NVZ and EVZ (i.e., Askja vs. Hekla) in
order to investigate the physicochemical conditions of
silica magma origin with respect to possible crustal
assimilation. Although the controversy continues,
Schattel et al. [2014] concluded that magmas behave
differently at rift and off‐rift localities. For example,
the authors suggest that the rhyolitic magmas at Hekla
originated deeper in the crust (≥4 km), under lower
temperatures, but with higher water content compared
with those at Askja.
The type of activity represented within the EVZ varies
depending on the proximity (north or south) to the
junction of the SISZ, which has resulted in uneven dis-
tribution of central volcanoes (Figures 2.1 and 7.2);
notable clusters occur near the southern tip of the
EVZ and in eastern central Iceland, which is for
the most part covered by the western part of the
Vatnajökull ice cap (Figure 9.1). The extensive ice
cover and limited exposure of rocks has resulted in
much less detailed knowledge of the geology of this
area compared to other parts of the EVZ [Gudmundsson
66 VOLCANICS

Figure 9.1 Active fissure, volcanic systems, and central volcanoes found in southern and central Iceland.
[Modified from Gudmundsson and Högnaddóttír ̄ [2007]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]

and Högnadóttir, 2007]. Bedrock topography of the
western part of Vatnajökull was mapped in consider-
able detail in the 1980s and 1990s using radio echo
soundings [Thórarinsson, 1974; Thórarinsson and
Sæmundsson, 1979; Bjórnsson and Einarsson, 1990;
Larsen et al., 1998]. This was followed by production
of a Bouguer anomaly map that revealed anomalies
associated with central volcanoes and fissure swarms
in the area [Gudmundsson and Högnadóttir, 2007].
A change of eruptive styles and compositional prod-
ucts along the EVZ is also evident [Jakobbson, 1972a;
Meyer et al., 1985]. North of the SISZ it is common to
 Volcanics of the South and Southeastern Regions  67

Figure 9.2 Geology of the Hekla region showing distribution of historical lava flows. [Modified from
Höskuldsson et al. [2007]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]

see rifting structures, such as fissure swarms (e.g., Laki,
Eldgjá) and hyaloclastite ridges, that represent past
glaciation and isostatic rebound situations. To the
south of the SISZ large central ­ volcanoes (e.g.,
Grímsvötn) that illustrate high‐frequency but low‐
volume eruptions dominate the landscape. Iron‐rich
basalts characterize the central EVZ (e.g., Veidivötn,
Grímsvötn), whereas furthest south, at the rift tip in
Vestmannæyjar, alkali basalts dominate. In the interior,
FeTi tholeiites can be found at Hekla (Figure 7.1).
Each volcanic center has distinctive geochemical char-
acteristics that require differences in source compo-
nents and their proportions at distances of 10–20 km.
The large shield volcanoes that populate the WVZ and
NVZ are absent in the EVZ [Sinton et al., 2005].
Olaðottír et al. [2011] noted that in prehistoric time
the EVZ experienced a lag of 1–3 kyr between peak
activity for volcanoes directly above the mantle plume
compared with volcanoes located in the nonrifting
part of the EVZ or closer to the island boundary. From
this time–space relationship the authors drew the
conclusion that a significant increase in future volca-
nism can be expected there, following increased levels
of volcanism above the plume.
Volcanic activity in the EVZ has influenced airline
travel multiple times in the past decade (e.g.,
Eyjafjallajökull, 2010; Grímsvötn, 2004; Hekla,
2000). The Eyjafjallajökull eruption in 2010 resulted
in the cancellation of 100,000 flights and affected the
travel of about 10 million passengers costing some
68 VOLCANICS
Figure 9.3 Directions of ash dispersal from volcanic erup-
tions at Hekla. Numbers correlate to events listed in
Table 9.1. [Design credit Nathan Mennen.]
$50 billion in lost Gross Domestic Product [Oxford
Economics, 2010] (Figure 9.4). Casadevall [1994] out-
lined the impacts of volcanic eruptions on aircraft
operations: decreased visibility, exterior abrasion
to the airplane, temporary engine failure, and
permanent engine damage. Collection of baseline
data from historic volcanic eruptions in the EVZ
therefore is important for predicting potential haz-
ards to transtlantic flight paths and European air
travel. More specifically, determining seasonal wind
patterns, average eruption column height, ash par-
ticle size distribution, and ash volume are crucial
variables to be included in computer models. Using
a minimum plume height of 12 km and other data
from past EVZ eruptions, Leadbetter and Hort [2011]
examined the probability and timing of volcanic ash
reaching European airspace. Results from the com-
puter model determined that all countries in Europe
will receive some volume of volcanic ash within 24 h
following an eruption; countries closer to Iceland,
like the United Kingdom and those in northwest
Europe have a higher risk of ash concentrations
exceeding a 5% threshold. The countries having the
highest risk of deposition within a 4‐day period
include Scotland and those in Scandinavia [Leadbetter
and Hort, 2011].
9.1. GRÍMSVÖTN AND BÁRÐARBUNGA
The subglacial Vatnajökull volcanoes are amongst
the most active in the country in historic time
[Thordarson and Larsen, 2007]. Together with the inter-
play of associated fissure swarms, the central vol-
canoes of Grímsvötn, Bárðarbunga, and Kverkfjökull
produce explosive basaltic eruptive products because
of magma interacting with glacial meltwater. Grímsvötn
and Bárðarbunga are closer to the hot‐spot plume
compared with Kverkfjökull (Figure 9.1).
The deposits of the Vatnajökull volcanoes are
challenging to investigate due to presence of glacial
ice and erosional, distribution, and preservation
processes. The eruptive histories of three partly sub-
glacial volcanic systems (Grímsvötn, Bárðarbunga,
and Kverkfjökull) have been analyzed using tephra,
soil profiles, and written records [Thórarinsson, 1950;
Larsen et al., 1998; Thordarson and Larsen, 2007;
Larsen and Eiríksson, 2008a]. However, some of the
written accounts have been found to be incorrect
regarding the activity of Kverkfjökull and only a
fraction of the historic eruptions at volcanoes
beneath Vatnajökull have produced tephra that was
deposited and preserved in soils outside the ice cap
and in the barren highland areas [Larsen and
Eiríksson, 2008]. Even the recent small eruptions of
Grímsvötn in 1983 and 2004, for example, had
limited tephra dispersal and deposited none outside
the 8000 km2 ice‐cap.
A key question addressed by Olaðóttir et al. [2011]
is whether these volcanoes have always been as active
as observed during the last millennium or has their
activity exhibited periodic or other systematic long‐
term changes? Through this study, the authors deter-
mined the estimated eruption frequency of each
volcanic system: Grímsvötn ~7 eruptions in 100 years;
Bárðarbunga ~5 eruptions in 100 years; Kverkfjöll
0–3 eruptions in 100 years, but showing periodic
activity with repose times of >1000 years [Olaðóttir
et al., 2011]. A “Mid‐Holocene low” was also discov-
ered as all three volcanic systems experienced lulls in
activity from 5 to 2 ka. This change in activity is
attributable to decreases in magma generation from
the mantle plume rather than to ice‐load/glacial‐thick-
ness relationships.
Grímsvötn (64.417, −17.333) has been one of the
most active volcanoes in Iceland since 1200 CE,
including six eruptions between 1934 and 2011. The
volcano covers an area of ~62 km3. The bedrock topog-
raphy of Grímsvötn central volcano has been mapped
by radio echo sounding [Björnsson and Einarsson,
 Volcanics of the South and Southeastern Regions  69

Table 9.1 Tephrochronology of Hekla with associated volume, repose period, and eruption date. The numbers listed
correspond to those on Figure 9.3
Dormant Tephra volume
Number Date CE years (km3) VEI Notes
1 1104 >300 ? ? A highly destructive eruption that ejected its tephra over
the entire northern half of Iceland
2 1158 53 >0.2 4 Formed the Efrahvolshraun lava flow
3 1206 47 >0.15 4
4 1222 15 ? ?
5 1300 77 >0.5 4 Second largest tephra erution; formed the Selsundshraun
lava flow
6 1341 40 ? ? Flourine from the ejected tephra poisoned livestock
7 1389 47 >0.2 4 Formed the Nordurhraun lava flow
8 1510 120 >0.75 4
9 1597 86 ? ?
10 1636 39 ? ?
11 1693 56 ? ? Produced upwards of 60,000 m3 s−1 of tephra which was
eventually carried as far as Norway
12 1766 72 1.3 5 Hekla’s largest volcanic eruption recorded; 3–5 cm of
tephra deposited; flooding caused from melted ice and
snow at Hekla’s peaks
13 1845 77 0.63 4 This 7 month long eruption caused widespread death
among local livestock and wildlife
14 1947 102 0.8 4
15 1970 16 0.2 4
16 1980 10 0.12 4 This eruption spread along Hekla’s 6.9 km fissure,
depositing upwards of 20 cm of tephra
17 1991 9.5 0.15 4
18 2000 9 0.11 4 Hekla’s most recent volcanic eruption produced an ash
plume 10 km high, which traveled over 300 km from
the eruption site
Note. Modified from Larsen et al. [1999], Oladóttir et al. [2011], and Thórarinsson [1970]; design credit Nathan Mennen.
VEI, volcanic explosivity index.

1990] revealing a composite caldera that Gudmundsson
and Milsom [1997] divided into three regions. A
combined magnetic and seismic reflection survey of
the main caldera indicated that the caldera floor is
made of volcanic clastic sediments, lava flows and sills
[Gudmundsson, 1992]. The Grímsvötn caldera lake
(10–12 km wide, 200–300 m deep) is largely confined
to the main caldera and is overlain by a floating
ice‐shelf 240–260 m thick. Direct surface expressions
of hydrothermal activity are visible at its highest peak,
Grímsfjall (1722 m), on the southern caldera rim, in
the form of fumaroles, steam outlets, and ice caves.
Most of the phreatomagmatic eruptions persist for
days to weeks. Volcanic eruptions at Grímvötn
often coincide with jökulhlaups when the water level
in the caldera lake rises to a critical height of 1425–
1450 m a.s.l. Geothermal activity continuously melts
the overlying ice, and meltwater accumulates in a sub-
glacial lake within the caldera until the surrounding ice
is breached. When this happens, water escapes to cause
a jökulhlaup in the River Skeiðará, after having trav-
eled ~50 km beneath the Skeiðarárjökull outlet glacier.
Jökulhlaups occur there every 1–10 years and last from
days to weeks, each time releasing 0.4–4 km3 of water
[Björnsson, 2003].
A devastating jökulhlaup occurred in November
1996 following an eruption of Grímsvötn, however, no
lives were lost due to detailed monitoring (e.g., hydro-
logical, seismic, geodetic) carried out by the IMO. The
flooding event itself did not occur until 13 days after a
fissure eruption occurred between the Bárðarbunga
volcano and Lake Grímsvötn, but indicators from cal-
dera subsidence and subsurface monitoring of water
flow allowed for proper evacuation and the closing of
70 VOLCANICS
Figure 9.4 The aviation zones shut down (red) or restricted (orange) by the 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull.
[Deltafalcon/Wikimedia Commons; Public Domain.]
the Ring Road (at Hringvegur) prior to the arrival of
the flood wave. The velocity of the glacial River
Skeiðará peaked at 55,000 m3 s−1, or more than five
times that of a “normal” megaflood. Ultimately, a sec-
tion of road across the Skeiðará sandur was washed
away by the intensity of the flood event (Photo 24).
Smaller jökulhlaups have occurred since the 1996 event
(e.g., 2004), when appropriate warnings have also been
issued by the IMO. To provide a historic perspective,
from 1600 to 1934 about one jökulhlaup occurred
every decade with a discharge of about 5–7 km3 of
water; post‐1938 two or three jökulhlaups would occur
every decade with correspondingly smaller discharges
between 0.5 and 3.5 km3 [Björnsson, 1992; Björnsson
and Gudmundsson, 1993].
All historic eruptions at Grímsvötn took place
from the ice‐covered central volcano, with exception
of the 1783–1784 Laki fissure eruption [Thórarinsson,
1974; Gudmundsson and Björnsson, 1991]. The most
recent eruption occurred on 21 May 2011 when a
20–25 km ash cloud was accompanied by multiple
earthquakes [Petersen et al., 2012]. The ash cloud
from this eruption was classified as 10 times larger
than the 2004 eruption and produced an order of
magnitude larger volume of magma (0.2–0.3 km3
DRE) [Sigmarsson et al., 2013; Jude‐Eton et al., 2012].
Although flight travel was interrupted in northern
Europe, it was much less widespread than the 2010
disruption after the Eyjafjallajökull eruption.
Another notable event occurred on 28 December
 Volcanics of the South and Southeastern Regions  71

Photo 24 The remnants of a bridge wiped out along the Ring Road (Route 1) by a jökulhlaup flooding event
in 1996 linked to the eruption of Grímsvötn. This is known as the Skeiđará Bridge Monument. [Courtesy of
Russell Maddrey.]

1998 when a week‐long eruption took place but did
not trigger a glacial outburst.
Bárðarbunga is the second most active volcano in
historic time (with Hekla a close third) and second
tallest peak in Iceland (2009 m). Bárðarbunga is part
of a volcanic system that is approximately 200 km long
and 25 km wide. The caldera is about 80 km2, up to
10 km wide, and 700 m deep. The crater is hidden by
850 m of glacial ice.
Although the eruption frequency is less than that
of Grímsvötn, activity on the two systems often
behaved concurrently [Larsen et al., 1998; Sigmarsson
et al., 2000]. Also similar to Grímsvötn, the
Bárðarbunga central volcano has been capped with
ice historically, but approximately 70% of the overall
system is ice free [Sæmundsson, 1978]. Despite this,
there have only been 3 of 23 confirmed eruptions
along the ice‐free fissure swarm [Larsen, 1984;
Thordarson and Larsen, 2007].
9.2. KATLA AND EYJAFJALLAJÖKULL
Katla (63.633, −19.083), which translates to “kettle”
is a gentle sloping (<4°) polygenetic bimodal volcano
that sits within the rift of the EVZ (Photo 25). The
30 km diameter central volcano is within a 110 km
long volcanic system that narrows to <1 km in the
northeast; the Eyjafjallajökull volcano is also within
this system. The summit is 1480 m a.s.l., where the cal-
dera is covered by a 590 km2 glacier called Mýrdalsjökull
that has an approximate thickness of 230 m [Oladöttir
et al., 2008]. Radio echo measurements completed by
Björnsson et al. [2000] determined that the caldera was
650–700 m deep and seismic profiling completed by
Gudmundsson et al. [1994] revealed a shallow (~3 km)
magma chamber below the surface. Subsequently, the
radio echo measurements also revealed a complex
drainage system that influences the direction of glacial
meltwater discharge during jokhulhaups at Katla.
72 VOLCANICS
Photo 25 The gently sloping Katla volcano in the Eastern Volcanic Zone. [Courtesy of Emily Larrimore.]
Thordarson and Larsen [2007] consider Katla to be the
most productive volcanic system in Iceland in terms of
magma volume production, considering that the 934–
940 CE Eldgjá Fissure Fires (63.633, −19.083) event
resulted in a 700 km2 lava field.
The explosive eruption history of Katla dates back
to the Pleistocene (~10,000 BCE), since when a
minimum of 300 subglacial events have likely occurred
from the central volcano [Larsen, 2000], averaging six
eruptions per century and an average repose time of
25 years [Óladóttir et al, 2005] (Figure 9.5, Table 9.2).
Of these 300 eruptions, 208 tephra layers are found in
the stratigraphy of the eastern flank with 190 classified
as prehistoric and 18 as historic [Oladöttir et al., 2005,
2008]. The vast majority of the tephra layers have min-
eralogy that indicates basaltic origins, with two periods
in particular with a high frequency of events occurring
at 3500–5500 BCE and 8000–9500 BCE [Oladöttir
et al., 2005]. Larsen et al. [2001], however, estimate that
the amount of material produced by an individual
event is typically <1 km3. In the vicinity around
Mýrdalsjökull, the Katla tephra layers have specific
characteristics that help discern them from those
deposited by Hekla. Specifically, most of the tephra
layers show distinctive bedding planes due to intermittent
deposition and shifting wind strength and direction
during the eruption [Larsen, 2010]. Additionally,
Larsen [2010] notes two distinct differentiation patterns
within some deposits. The K1357 deposit, for example,
contains fragmented fine‐grained tephra that coarsens
upward, which may indicate the influence of meltwater
during the initial eruption phase. The reverse sequence
 Volcanics of the South and Southeastern Regions  73

is found at K1755 suggesting a lower water‐to‐magma

ratio. Additionally, there have been at least 12 small
to moderate volume (<0.01–0.27 km3, calculated as
uncompacted tephra) silica eruptions (trachydacitic
to dacitic) occurring between 5500 and 1700 BCE
[Larsen et al., 2001; Óladóttir et al., 2008]. In teph-
rochronology these deposits are often referred to as
SILK, with a silica content between 63 and 67%
[Larsen et al., 2001]. SILK deposits, as described by
Larsen [2010], are yellow to green in appearance and
sometimes ­contain needle‐like glass shards. As expected,
comparisons of the distal fallout mapping of SILK
versus basalt tephra units indicate less dispersion
related to their brief Plinian eruptions (Figure 9.5).
Oladöttir et al. [2008] suggest that changes in the min-
eral composition of the tephra over time are the result
of cyclic behavior of Katla’s subsurface magma con-
duit system. Notably, the changes indicate that when
the “plumbing system” evolves from a simple chamber
to one containing complex sills and dikes, the eruption
frequency will increase. Consequently, Katla is cur-
rently in a period of low eruption frequency and
Figure 9.5 Directions of ash dispersal from volcanic
simple magma development.
eruptions at Katla. Numbers correlate to events listed in
Table 9.2. The initial eruption, ~10,000 BCE, is linked to a
Plinian eruption that dispersed 10 km3 of rhyolitic
tephra (with lesser amounts of basaltic‐icelandite and
icelandite) and airborne ash some 1300 km away from
the source [Thordarson and Höskuldsson, 2008]. This
event is tied to a pyroclastic flow deposit referred to as
Table 9.2 Tephrochronology of Katla with associated the Sólheimar ignimbrite [Tomlinson et al., 2012]. The
volume, date, dormancy period, and volcanic explosivity Sólheimar ignimbrite has special significance for
index (VEI) value. The numbers listed correspond to those ­several reasons. First, this unit represents one of the
on Figure 9.5 largest eruptions from Katla producing >6 km3 of
pyroclastic material as measured from proximal
Dormant Tephra
Number Date CE years volume (km3) VEI
deposits [Lacasse et al., 2007], and likely represents the
source magma chamber. Next, the ignimbrite is often
1 920 >300 0.27 4 considered the source of the bimodal Vedde Ash
2 1262 342 0.48 4
deposit [Lacasse et al., 1995] that dates to the Younger
3 1357 95 0.20 4
4 1416 59 ? ?
Dryas Stadial in northern Europe (9823–10,365 BCE)
5 1440 24 ? ? [Birks et al., 1996]. For this reason, the Vedde Ash
6 1500 60 0.50 4 (in Nordic countries) or Skógar tephra (in Iceland)
7 1580 80 ? ? has been used to correlate tephrochronology from
8 1612 32 0.04 3 ­terrestrial cores in Iceland and northern Europe (e.g.,
9 1625 13 0.50 4 Blockley et al., 2007], to ice cores in Greenland
10 1660 35 0.26 4 (e.g., Grönvold et al., 1995], and marine cores from the
11 1721 61 0.33 4 North Atlantic (e.g., Jennings et al., 2002]. An inter-
12 1755 34 0.80 4 esting feature of this tephra is that it contains a mix-
13 1823 68 0.05–0.1 3 ture of both acidic and basaltic glass types that could
14 1860 37 0.05–0.1 3 indicate one transitional eruption, two eruptions, or
15 1918 58 0.5–1 4
a Plinian eruption followed by fissure deposition
Note. Design credit Nathan Mennen. [Norðahl and Hafliðason, 1992; Lacasse et al., 1995].
74 VOLCANICS
Again, although this tephra is often used as a
correlative tool for the last glacial termination it
remains questionable. A petrogenesis evaluation of the
ignimbrite and the ash by Tomlinson et al. [2012] was
not able to confirm correlation between the ignimbrite
and the Vedde Ash, although they suggest that per-
haps the Vedde Ash soon followed the initial eruption.
The first eruption to occur in the Katla volcanic
system after the Víking settlement in 874 CE was
60 years later in 934 CE. Since then, Katla has erupted
20 times with a recurrence interval between 13 and
95 years [Thordarson and Larsen, 2007]. All the historic
eruptions have been subglacial phreatomagmatic erup-
tions generating basaltic tephra deposits ranging in
volume from <0.1 km3 to >0.5 km3, with the most
notable and widespread being 1625 CE, 1755 CE, and
1918 CE [Thórarinsson, 1981c] (Figure 9.5). For
Figure 9.6 Jökulhlaup flooding events since 1612 CE from Katla onto the Mýrdalur sandur plain. [Modified
from Larsen [2010]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]
example, reported estimates of the fallout tephra from
the1918 event exceeded 50,000 km2 on land with depo-
sition reaching the Faroe Islands on the first day of the
eruption [Larsen, 2010].
Like tephra, the deposition that occurs via flooding
is an important part of the geologic record for Katla.
Moreover, the fast‐moving and voluminous jökulhlaups
produced at Katla are considered the most destructive
in Iceland [Tómasson, 2002; Russell et al., 2010];
sometimes even being referred to as “Katlahlaups”
(Figure 9.6). Regardless of eruption size, volcanic
activity under Mýrdalsjökull creates meltwater mixed
with ice blocks and volcanic debris. As discussed by
Larsen [2010], since 1179 CE all documented Katla
jökulhlaups have originated at the caldera and move
through a system called “Kötlujökull Pass” that leads
to the coastline at the Mýrdalssandur. The Kötlujökull
 Volcanics of the South and Southeastern Regions  75
Pass is a 15 km route that can be on top of, within, or
below the Kötlujökull glacial lobe to the east of Katla
(Figure 9.6). Through historic description, it appears
that there is little warning before the flooding event as
it can occur before, or just after, the first appearance of
an ash column. Flood deposits have been traced back
to 1612 CE (Figure 9.6) and every jökulhlaup since
1660 has extended the coastline, including the 1918
eruption [Larsen, 2010]. From historic reports
Tómasson [1996] estimated the velocity of the flooding
discharge to be 7–10 m s−1 and the peak discharge dur-
ing a 1755 event to be ~300,000 m3 s−1, or similar to the
flow volume of the River Amazon. Tómasson [1996]
also estimated that the total 3.6 km3 of sediment
deposited was moved by 8 km3 of meltwater. Fluvial
modeling of the 1755 event by Duller et al. [2014]
determined that the coastline expanded ~4 km toward
the ocean, but has since eroded to the original position
mapped in 1904. Perhaps even more impressive is the
transport of a huge boulder (named Kötluklettur,
64.4500, −18.6600) that is estimated to weigh 1000 tons
and was likely transported 14 km [Jónsson, 1982]. In
recent times, three jökulhlaups linked to seismic
activity underneath the ice cap occurred in 1955, 1999,
and 2011. The small‐scale (M <3.7) seismicity and
geothermal activity tied to these flooding events are
thought to be indicators of unrest [Óladóttir et al.,
2005; Soosalu et al., 2006; Sturkell et al., 2010].
Sedimentary structures produced by highly turbulent
jöklhlaups are complex, but provide information on
the overall fluid behavior of the water [Russell et al.,
2010]. Maizels [1989, 1991, 1992, 1993] conducted
detailed sedimentological investigations of the stratig-
raphy for the 1918 event from in situ exposures, while
also considering data collected on discharge, sediment
supply, flow path, etc. A depositional model presented
by Maizels [1993] indicates great variability in deposi-
tional style depending on location and distance from
source (e.g., main flood path, point of flow separation,
and flow around bedrock obstacles). An exposed
cliff face along the Selfjall River (63.9625, −20.4536)
provides views of massive units, gravel beds, cross‐
bedding, fining trends, etc. Additionally, she was able
to link lithofacies along the sandur plain with flow
behavior thus illustrating pre‐surge (massive, clast‐
supported imbricated gravels), main surge (massive
pumice granules), and post‐surge deposition (trough
cross‐bedded pumice granules below horizontally bed-
ded pumice granules and sand) [Maizels, 1992]. Duller
[2007] and Duller et al. [2008] further explored the
main surge deposit described by Maizels [1992] as
massive and argued that the presence of large‐scale
migrating antidunes and the development of stationary
chute and pool structures may be associated with
localized hydraulic jumps.
Low‐levels of seismic activity have been monitored
in the vicinity of the Katla volcanic zone for the past
50 years. From these data two distinct seismic areas
have been determined: a location referred to as
Goðabunga rise in the west and the caldera itself
[Einarsson and Brandsdóttir, 2000]. Perhaps the most
interesting data illustrated by a half century of moni-
toring at Katla is Einarsson and Brandsóttir’s [2000]
notion of seasonality related to seismic dispersal. The
authors concluded that there is an increase in earth-
quake activity during the autumn (peaking in October)
due to changes in crustal pore pressure following the
summer thaw. Soosalu et al. [2006] followed this study
to look closer at the shallow (<2 km) movements
occurring at Goðabunga. They proposed that the
Goðabunga seismic cluster might instead be the result
of an acidic crytodome building in the area that accel-
erated toward the surface in 1999. They argued that
when a cryptozone moves upward, the brittle crust
above it thins with time and the deformation becomes
localized. In 2010–2011 another seismic cluster was
observed on Katla’s south flank ~4 km from the crater
rim [Sgattoni et al., 2016]. Sgattoni et al. [2016]
acknowledge the difficulty in discerning seismicity
relating to volcanic as compared to that initiated by
glacial movement. They suggest, however, that volcanic
processes are likely the primary cause for the
Goðabunga cluster as the seismicity started during a
period of unrest and showed stability over time, and
the ice cap appeared unresponsive to climate change
during the episode (e.g., the glacier showed no obvious
signs of melting or cracking). In contrast, Jeddi et al.
[2016] analyzed each region of Katla’s seismicity, sepa-
rating episodes into volcanotectonic, long period, or
mixed, and concluded that volcanotectonic events
occur only at depths >4 km. Nonetheless, it is agreed
that an eruption in the 21st century is imminent.
Likewise, Eyjafjallajökull (63.6314, −19.6083)
(Photo 26), a neighbor ~25 km to the west of Katla
and within its volcanic system, has been recently active
after nearly 200 years of dormancy. Eyjafjallajökull is
a stratovolcano (1666 m a.s.l.) that covers 100 km2 with
a 2.5 km wide elliptical summit caldera beneath 200 m
of glacial ice. Seismic activity at Eyjafjallajökull has
been monitored since 1973 with little activity recorded
until 1991, which lead up to three shallow earthquake
swarms in 1994, 1999, and 2009–2010 (depth to focus
1–13 km; most occurring at 5 km) [Sturkell et al., 2003;
Gudmundsson et al., 2010]. Earthquake magnitudes in
76 VOLCANICS
Photo 26 Eyjafjallajökull, the stratovolcano in the background, is in close proximity to many farms and
farming communities. [Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]
2010 were substantially larger than earlier swarms,
however, all seismicity is linked to magmatic intru-
sions. Specifically, the earthquake swarms in 1994 and
1999 are linked to crustal deformation and are inter-
preted to be the formation of a sill at 4–6 km depth
[Gudmundsson et al., 2010].
The most recent eruptive activity of Eyjafjallajökull
began on 20 March 2010. The first small eruption
occurred on an unglaciated eastern slope and pro-
duced lava with little ejecta. This event was a precursor
to a 3‐week effusive fissure eruption that caused little
disruption. On 13 April 2010 the IMO was alerted to
increased seismicity beneath the summit caldera. By
the following morning, a VEI = 4.0 subglacial eruption
had taken place along the southern crater rim emitting
an ash cloud 9 km into the atmosphere. The initial
eruption produced 1000 m3 s−1 of intermediate magma,
and tephra deposition occurred over the course of
3 days. Lava flows, small eruptions, seismic activity,
and flooding in the area continued until 2 May 2010
[Gudmundsson et al., 2010].
Only three other eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull are
known during historic time: 1821–1823 CE, 1613 CE,
and 920 CE. Accounts of the 1821–1823 CE event
indicate small‐scale intermediate tephra emissions
from the south rim followed by a long pause of nearly
2 years that eventually led to fluorine poisoning of
area livestock and a jökulhlaup [Larsen, 1999; Sturkell
et al., 2003]. In less than 6 months after Eyjafjallajökull
went quiet, a volcanic eruption occurred at Katla.
Similarly, historic accounts of Katla eruptions in
1612–1613 CE and 920 CE followed soon after activity
at Eyjafjallajökull [Thoroddsen, 1925; Gudmundsson
et al., 2005]. Additionally, a major eruption at Katla
occurred in 934 CE and the Eldgjá Fires from 934–940 CE.
The historic accounts of these contemporaneous
events of Eyjafjallajökull and Katla raises the question
of whether activity at Eyjafjallajökull can be a warning
sign of larger scale activity to follow.
Little is known about Eyjafjallajökull prior to his-
toric time, which limits the reliability of recurrence
intervals used in natural disaster planning and
 Volcanics of the South and Southeastern Regions  77
assessment. Field survey by Jónsson [1998] suggested
that some highly altered rocks intruded by dikes and
veins near Seljavellir farm (63.5667, −19.6333) may
indicate its origin to be >0.78 Ma, which would make
it among the oldest active volcanoes in Iceland [Sturkell
et al., 2003]. Typical of many volcanoes not located
within the rift zone, Eyjafjallajökull produces relatively
small amounts of alkaline tephra and ash (≤0.1 km3)
[Sturkell et al., 2003], which makes correlation by teph-
rochronology very challenging. At best, a thin layer of
intermediate composition tephra in outcrop nearest to
the volcano is found at the same level as Katla 1612 CE
and may denote its eruption [Larsen, 1978]. Subglacial
volcano eruptions, however, like those at Eyjafjallajökull,
are typically associated with flooding events that can
also leave deposits in the sedimentary record. Two
flood events have been documented by Dugmore et al.
[2013] on the flanks of Eyjafjallajökull that date to the
6th and early 10th centuries. Although a silica tephra
layer (Layer H) dates to 600 CE [Dugmore, 1987;
Kirkbride and Dugmore, 2008], there is no tephra layer
associated with the 10th century event.
9.3. ELDGJÁ AND LAKI (SKAFTÁR) FIRES
In the Katla Volcanic Zone there is a 75 km long
active fissure system to the north of Mýdralsjökull
associated with eruption of flood basalts. Iceland is
one of the few places in the world where a recurrence
interval for flood basalts has been established; an event
will occur every 300–1000 years that will emit between
5 × 106 and 9 × 106 tons of SO2 for each cubic kilo-
meter of magma erupted [Thordarson and Self, 2003].
Although the eruption column height is usually only at
tropospheric to lower stratospheric levels (i.e., polar jet
stream), the detriment to the environment is associated
more with the duration of these effusive events, which
can last one to several years.
Two flood‐basalt eruption events have occurred
along this fissure, namely: Eldgjá (63.9553, −18.6200;
934–940 CE) and Laki (64.0744, −18.6200; 1783–1784 CE)
Fires. The two systems are parallel to one another
although they differ in style. The older Eldgjá Fires
reactivated a tectonic graben floor within the Katla
Volcanic Zone producing pseudocraters (rootless cones)
at Landbrotshólar. The rootless cones in this area are
up to 70 km away from the active fissure, toward the
Landbrot and Álftaver regions, as the pahoehoe‐type
lava was transported in lava tubes beneath the surface.
The Laki Fires to the east occupied a fissure 27 km
long that resulted in 140 vents and craters (also known
as the Lakagígar crater row), which include scoria
cones, spatter cones, and tuff cones [Hamilton et al.,
2010] (Photo 27). The vents and craters are separated
into >16 rootless cone groups within the Laki lava flow
field, which has been implied by Hamilton et al. [2010]
to mean that the regional water table is high.
The Eldgjá and Laki Fires are similar in that they
each produced large basaltic lava fields associated with
effusive flow; DRE 19.6 km3, and 15.1 km3, respec-
tively [Thordarson, 1995]; the Eldgjá Fires being among
the largest flood‐basalt event recorded in historic time,
covering ~781 km2. Correspondingly, atmospheric
emission levels of SO2 have been estimated between
70–122 Tg total for these two events [Thordarson
et al.,1996, 2001]. (As compared to 92 Tg emitted by
global anthropogenic sources during 2016 [EPA,
2017].) It should be noted here that the initial start date
of the Eldjá Fires is uncertain: recent high‐resolution
glaciochemical records from Greenland suggest 939 CE
[Oppenheimer et al., 2018], and Stothers [1998] ques-
tions the reliability of some documents that point to a
934 CE origin.
Undoubtedly, historic settlements were threatened
by these eruption events. The farms within the districts
of Alftaver and Síða had to be relocated during the
Eldgjá Fires, as lavas could not be prevented from
advancing over their homesteads. Although the
number of direct deaths is not known for the Eldgjá
Fires, there is an abundance of recorded data explain-
ing the impact of the Laki Fires on people. As many as
10,000 people may have been killed by the Laki Fires
in Iceland (referred to in Iceland as the “Haze Famine”)
and 60% of all grazing livestock died due to fluorino-
sis. This is similar to the mortality Schmidt et al. [2011]
found on mainland Europe, which they suggested was
as high as 17% between 1783 and 1784.
Additionally, historic documentation for the Eldjá
and Laki Fires offer insight into the implications for
global climate. Stothers [1998] explains how an increase
in SO2 emissions can trigger cold weather conditions:
SO2 is most harmful when it reacts with water vapor to
form H2SO4 aerosols in the stratosphere where it can
shelter incoming heat, thus inducing global cooling
with residence time of 1–2 years. For example,
Thordarson and Self [2003] suggest that in the after-
math of the Laki Fires the continents of Europe and
North America experienced a mean surface cooling of
1.3°C that lasted 2–3 years. In parts of Europe espe-
cially, both events have been linked to the presence of
sulfur fog (occurring multiple times during the Laki
Fires), followed by unusually harsh winters that lead to
the destruction of crops and, ultimately, famine
[Stothers, 1998; Thordarson and Self, 2003; Schmidt
78 VOLCANICS
Photo 27 Cross‐sectional view of a crater row. [Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]
et al., 2011; Sonneck et al., 2017; Oppenheimer et al.,
2018]. Thordarson and Self [2003] completed detailed
mapping of this ~175 Mt aerosol plume of H2SO4 that
represented a mass loading from a one‐time event.
Conversely, the Eldjá Fires are not linked to global
cooling despite Thordarson and Höskuldsson [2009]
classifying them as the greatest source of volcanic
pollution in recent history. Likely, this is because there
were 15 explosive phases during a 6‐year span, as
opposed to an 8‐month duration for the Laki Fires.
Schmidt et al. [2011] considered how a Laki‐style
eruption would affect populations at modern day. In
modeling the event using current atmospheric condi-
tions against estimated eruption properties (i.e., mag-
nitude, altitude, and timing of volcanic SO2 release)
they determined a similar event could create a world-
wide health hazard with excess mortality to increase
~8.2%. The authors explain that this number is less
than those estimated for the Laki Fires because there is
less threat from starvation, increased ability to move
away from danger, and populations are overall
healthier. Schmidt et al. [2011] considered that the
consequences to air travel and the long‐term effects on
natural ecosystems in Europe were the greatest threat
if such an event occured today.
9.4. DYRHÓLAEY LAVA CAVE
At present, Dryhólaey (63.3996, −19.1269) is a
1.3 km2 tombolo connected to the mainland by two
large offshore bars formed from sediment deposited
offshore and the surrounding coastline (Photo 28).
However, Dryhólaey originated from a violent hydro-
magmatic eruption during the Surtseyan Episode
1963–1967 (see section 9.7) producing a hyaloclastic
tuff cone separate from the mainland [White and
Houghton, 2000]. In the later stages of the eruption,
the explosions transformed into an effusive pahoehoe
event, thus capping the tuff below it while also inter-
secting the shoreline to create a lava delta [Schmidt and
Schmincke, 2000; Thordarson and Höskuldsson, 2007].
It is in the lava delta area that a sea cave later formed
by erosion mainly of hyaloclastic deposits. Gadányi
[2008] mapped the sea cave to establish that its entrance
 Volcanics of the South and Southeastern Regions  79

Photo 28 At present, Dryhólaey is a tombolo connected to the mainland by two large offshore bars formed
from sediment deposited offshore and along the coastline. [Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]

is 16.4 m wide, 2 m high, and 21.3 m in length.
Reynisfjara Beach (63.4053, −19.0764) nearby is
known worldwide for its black basalt beaches and its
Plio‐Pleistocene columnar basalts formed during inter-
glacial stages when sea level rose.
9.5. HEKLA—THE QUEEN
Hekla (63.9923, −19.6658) is an elongated stratovol-
cano that is situated on the southwestern boundary of
the EVZ and is one of the most active volcanoes in
Iceland (Figure 9.3), and arguably Europe (Photo 20).
At the base of Hekla there are palagonite tuff deposits,
while the bulk of the mountain comprises many layers
of lava and tephra. Although known for its explosively,
Hekla does not have a caldera, which may be the result
of a narrow and deep seated magma chamber [Larsen
and Thórarinsson, 1977; Sverrisdottir, 2007]. Hekla is
part of a fissure system 5.5 km long called Heklugjá,
with the central summit standing at 1490 m a.s.l.
Nearby are other major systems that have been active
during post‐Pleistocene times; Torfajökull (63.8920,
−19.1220) is 25 km west and Tindfjallajökull (63.7831,
−19.7160), Eyjafjallajökull (63.6304, −19.6067), and
Mýrdalsjökull (63.6467, −19.1303) are 25–50 km
southeast. In the Middle Ages, Hekla became known
as the “Gateway to Hell” by Europeans who believed
that Hekla was one of two known entrances to Hell
(the second being the Stromboli volcano in Italy). For
this reason, Hekla went largely unexplored until 1750
when the first documented hikes to the summit took
place [Thórarinsson, 1970].
The first eruption of Hekla dates to 5120 BCE
[Óladóttir et al., 2011; Thorarinson, 1971] and marks
an important beginning to the explosive history of the
volcano called “The Queen.” This event, referred to as
H5 in tephrochronology, is an important marker bed
used for correlation of soil profiles as its silica‐rich
deposit can be found on ~90% of the island
(>80,000 km2), along with the two other equally
intense events (VEI ≥ 4.0) of H4 at 2250 BCE and H3
at 1050 BCE [Larsen and Thórarinsson, 1977]. The
80 VOLCANICS
finding of two additional tephra markers in the marine
record further constrain the age of the H5 and H4
tephras. Specifically, Gudmundsdóttir et al. [2011]
established stratigraphical correlation of two tephra
layers within the TFZ (Figure 2.1) on the north
Icelandic marine shelf. These marine records are
referred to as Hekla DH (4632 BCE) and Hekla Ö
(4042 BCE).
Here it should be noted that although all 18 recorded
historic eruptions (Table 9.1, Figure 9.3), as well as the
H3–H5 tephras, are found preserved in the tephra
record, sometimes complications can arise in distin-
guishing between Hekla and nearby Katla deposits
[Jóhannsdóttir, 2007]. Additionally, it has been noted
by Jagan [2010] that there are difficulties in discerning
eruptions from the same volcano if the analysis is
based solely on major element composition. For
example, Jagan [2010] and Larsen et al. [1999] described
similarities in the mineralogical composition of the
tephra deposits H1510 and H1947 (8 and 14 in
Table 9.1), and only an understanding of their position
in the stratigraphic column can resolve any confusion.
A comprehensive database designated to the study of
tephrochronology can be found on the internet (www.
tephrabase.org) to aid in the mapping and further
understanding of tephra in Iceland and Europe.
Hekla’s unique increase in eruption pattern throughout
its history delineates it from other Icelandic volcanoes.
The initial phase of each Hekla eruption is always a
highly explosive subplinan to Plinian type eruption
[Janebo, 2016; Gudnason et al., 2017] that has produced
silica rich tephra in volumes ranging from 0.02 km3 to
2.2 km3 (namely the H3 and 1104 CE events; Figure 9.3,
Table 9.1) [Larsen et al., 1999]. The second eruption
Figure 9.7 Silica content as compared to repose time and Hekla eruption events. [Modified from
Thórarinsson [1970]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]
phase is typically basaltic andesite deposits and then
mafic fissure eruptions usually follow this. Since the
first eruption after human settlement in 874 CE, Hekla
has erupted 18 times, with the last event occurring in
2000. Up to the 1970s the recurrence interval of
Hekla eruptions was around two per century, but since
1970 the volcano has erupted about every 10 years:
1970, 1980, 1991, and again in 2000 (Table 9.1)
[Thórarinsson and Sigvaldason, 1972; Grönvold et al.,
1983; Gudmundsson et al., 1992; Höskuldsson and
Olafsdottir, 2002].
The duration and magnitude of the explosive phase
is directly correlated with the amount of time spent
in dormancy prior to the eruption (Figure 9.7).
Additionally, the increasing frequency of Hekla eruptions
has been linked to the magmatic chemical composi-
tion of its eruption products [Sigvaldason, 1974;
Höskuldsson et al., 2007]. After dormancy lasting
100 years or more, high‐silica magma (rhyodacite) was
ejected from the volcano (i.e. H3, H4, H5, and
1104 CE). After the 1104 CE event there is a shift from
the ryhodacite composition to the less silica‐rich
basaltic andesite, which also corresponds to an increase
in frequency of eruption (<30 year interval)
[Thórarinsson, 1970]. Eruptions taking place along the
margin of Hekla, however, are always found to be
more basaltic [Thórarinsson, 1967; Jakobsson, 1979b].
This again raises the question concerning the origin of
silica‐rich magma in the EVZ. As reviewed by
Sverisdottir [2007] research on the chemistry and
petrology specific to Hekla has been extensive. Many
mechanisms have been proposed including: fractional
crystallization in shallow magma chambers [Einarsson,
1950], assimiliation of silica rocks from unknown
 Volcanics of the South and Southeastern Regions  81
sources [Tryggvason, 1965], and mixing of two differ-
ent magmas produced by crustal melt [Sigvaldason,
1974a]. Although still a matter of debate, recent inves-
tigations in petrology help to support the idea of a
hybrid magma that originates first from partial melting
of tholeiitic crust to produce silica magma, which is
held in a deep crustal reservoir until release, thereby
providing the potential for mixing with other material
[Sverrisdottir, 2007]. This idea of hybridization of
magma corresponds to the data collected for the
majority of the 18 documented historic eruptions (e.g.,
1300, 1693, 1766, 1845, 1947, 1970, 1991, 1980, and
2000) [Gudnasdon et al., 2017].
As described by Sigmundsson [2006], seismicity is
typically a precursor to volcanic eruptions, as the
movement of the intruding magma causes stress from
expansion within the rock to accommodate for viscous
flow. Different to the other volcanoes in the EVZ, how-
ever, the modern‐day high‐intensity opening phase
eruptions monitored at Hekla occur within a 30 min
window of initial seismicity [Gudmundsson et al., 1992;
Soosalu et al., 2003; Thordarson and Larsen, 2007]. This
raises questions about the location and depth of the
magma chamber. Prior to the 1991 eruption Tryggvason
[1994] measured slow rates of ground inflation 4–6 km
away from the central summit, with uplift occurring at
a rate of about 3.5 cm year−1 over the course of an
11 year repose. Based on these measurements, the depth
of source chamber should be ~6 km below the surface.
Weber and Castro [2017] later confirmed this data set
by using experimental petrology constraints on magma
storage for the H3 event. They concluded that a large
silica eruption at Hekla could be fed by a shallow,
upper crustal reservoir, which may translate into less
ground displacement, which would be make it harder
to ultimately predict. Undoubtedly, changes in magma
composition will influence the geologic structures
found at the Earth’s surface. It has been seen at Hekla
that mixed eruptions can produce both tephra and lava
deposition [Thórarinsson, 1970]. After the first tephra‐
producing Plinian eruption (which can last between
one and several hours), andesitic lava forms aa lava
flows that are typically followed by pahoehoe struc-
tures of alkali basalt [Thórarinsson, 1970].
The past five eruptions of Hekla in the 20th century
have been well documented by scientific communities
and provided both insight and further questions into
the hazardous nature of living in its shadow. Precise
bulk volume measurements (≤0.241 km3) completed by
Pedersen et al. [2017] indicate that there has been great
variability in lava production rates since the 1947 event
(ranging from 7 × 106 to 40 × 106 m3 year−1). Using
these data, Pedersen et al. [2017] compared the vol-
umes produced with the observed changes in v­ olcano
inflation rates (coeruptive tilt change), thereby making
correlations to overall eruption size.
In contrast to other volcanoes in the EVZ, detailed
eruption accounts exist that report on the human
implications and the response to Hekla [Thórarinsson,
1970]. Particularly devastating eruptions took place in
1300 CE, 1341 CE, 1510 CE, 1693 CE, and 1766 CE.
For example, the event in 1300 CE produced some
30,000 km2 of tephra, some of which was carried
northward to produce darkness for days. Some 500
people died in Skagafjördur and Fljót. In 1693 it was
recorded that about 60,000 m3 s−1 of tephra fell in the
initial hour of the eruption, devastating eight farms
[Thórarinsson, 1970]. Beyond the devastation that
falling ash and tephra can have on a civilization, the
presence of colorless gases or the distribution of harm-
ful elements has proven to be just as troubling. After
the eruption in 1947, problems arose with continued
CO2 emissions, which caused water contamination and
the death of livestock in the Loddavötn area. Within
one year, the CO2 and lime precipitate in the water dis-
sipated [Thórarinsson and Sigvaldason, 1972]. The next
eruption on 5 May 1970 resulted in acute fluorosis of
livestock, which came about through increases in the
chemical element fluorine that had adhered to the
falling tephra particles. The initial samples on 5 May
contained 2000 ppm of fluorine (fatality in sheep is
caused by the ingestion of 25 ppm or greater), which
accounted for the death of 3% of adults and 9% of the
newborn populations [Georgsson and Pétursson, 1972].
Other historic eruptions have reported the emittance
of fluorine, including those of 1341, 1693, and 1766 CE
[Thórarinsson, 1970].
9.6. ÞJÓRSÁRDALUR VALLEY
Þjórsárdalur Valley is ~20 km to the north of Hekla
and has been labeled as the “Pompeii of Iceland” since
first written about in 1897 by Bruun. The deposition
of more than 10 m of pumice from the Hekla 1104 CE
eruptions enveloped 15 medieval farm sites containing
one‐third of all Víking settlements in Iceland [Vésteinsson,
2004; Dugmore et al., 2007]. The sites were first exca-
vated in 1939 by Nordic archeaologists who collabo-
rated with geologist Sigurður Þorarinsson in the very
preliminary stages of establishing tephrochronology.
Specifically, a farmstead called Stöng (64.1200, −19.8261)
was found and later determined to be the home of
a prominent farmer and warrior called Gaukur
Trandilsson. The initial site assessments and subsequent
82 VOLCANICS
studies provided unclear evidence as to whether the
sites were abandoned. Dugmore et al. [2007] concluded
from historic studies that volcanic eruptions are rarely
fatal to settlements, and if so, only for a short period
of time. Meaning, that civilization likely returned to
the area soon after. Overall, the geomorphic and teph-
rachronologic evidence of the valley indicates
landscape destabilization (e.g., lack of soil formation)
that delayed ecological recovery until post‐1300 CE
[Dugmore et al., 1995]. However, this maybe the result
of delayed environmental rebound from the ensuing
Hekla eruptions of 1158 CE, 1159 CE, 1206 CE, and
1300 CE.
In the upper Þjórsárdalur Valley, near the major gla-
cial river Þjórsá, the Hreppar Formation is exposed
comprising a succession of lava basalts. These lava
units show great variability in thickness (up to 500 m)
as they infilled valleys and river channels, and buried
hills [Kristjánsson et al., 1998]. These volcanic deposits
were derived from two extinct volcanoes, Stóra‐Laxá
and Þjórsárdalur, and are Early Pleistocene in age
(2.6–0.78 Ma). The Hreppar Formation may be a
crustal remnant that was left by the eastward movement
of the active spreading zone 2–3 Ma [Kristjánsson
et al., 1998]. On top of the Hreppar Formation near
Hrepphólar (64.0694, −20.3275) is an interglacial lava
flow with columnar jointing. The Hrepphólar columns
measure an average of 0.45 m in diameter and many
exceed 20 m in length, although the basal contact is
not exposed [Kristinsdóttir, 2010].
9.7. SURTSEY VOLCANIC ISLAND
An extension of the EVZ is a young (<20,000 ka),
mostly alkali archipelago called the Vestmannaeyjar,
or commonly the Westman Islands (63.4277,
−20.2674). The largest and only inhabited island,
Heimaey, developed over 12,000 years from a series of
mixed eruptions from a central volcano, which
occurred under both hydromagmatic and nonhydro-
magmatic influences. The other smaller islands were
developed from submergent eruptions, the most
notable being Surtsey, which is 33 km off the southern
coast of the mainland. The island volcano was named
Surtsey after the fire giant “Surtr” from Norse
mythology, and has become one of the most docu-
mented cases of volcanic development and evolu-
tionary biology in the world. This pristine landscape
has been protected since its origin as a United Nations
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) World Heritage Site and continues to be a
site of scientific discovery (Figure 9.8). Moreover, this
well documented phreatomagmatic eruption has
become formally classified by volcanologists as the
“Surtseyan‐style” eruption and has been applied to a
number of other locations where this kind of activity
has also occurred (e.g., Taal, Philippines; Kavachi
Volcano, Solomon Islands; Ambae, Vanuatu).
Fishermen off the south coast of Iceland first
noticed smoke on the horizon during sunrise on 14
November 1963. Concurrently, the residents of Vík
noticed the smell of hydrogen sulfide gas, and a marine
science vessel measured above‐normal sea‐surface
temperatures in the North Atlantic [Thórarinsson
et al., 1964]. It was soon after these events that Icelandic
geologist’s flying over the archipelago witnessed the
growth of a new volcanic island. The growth of Surtsey
has been chronicled in detail by 85 site visits made by
Sigurdur Thórarinsson [1964, 1966, 1968] and by innu-
merable scientists who contributed to the nine volumes
of the Surtsey Research Progress Reports.
Over the course of 3.5 years the island developed
through three main eruption phases [Thórarinsson,
1966, 1968] (Figure 9.9), with the total amount of
eruptive material estimated at 1.1 km3; 70% tephra and
30% lava [Thórarinsson, 1969]. Phase I was subaerial
emergence of the island from 130 m below sea level.
Phase II allowed for phreatic eruptions above the
ocean surface that produced unconsolidated basalt
from 1150 to 1160°C or hotter magma dispersed in
finely bedded layers. The newly deposited tephra was
made up of 82–88% unaltered basaltic glass (sider-
omelane; density 2.70 g cm−3), and the remaining
percentage comprised phenocrysts of olivine, plagio-
clase, and fragments of autogenic hyalobasalt
[Jakobsson and Moore, 1986]. By 18 November 1963 a
550 m linear ridge, 45 m a.s.l., developed into a bifur-
cated fissure system that gradually culminated in an
eruption from a single vent. By 24 November the shape
of the island became nearly circular (900 m long,
650 m wide) with the crater rim at 100 m a.s.l. By the
end of the first five months of explosive hydromag-
matic eruptions (4 April 1964) two unconsolidated tuff
cones called Surtur I (420 m) and Surtur II (500 m)
had developed [Thórarinsson et al., 1964]. During this
time, eruption columns of ash rose to 13 km and
updrafts were reported to cause severe lightning epi-
sodes accompanied by water spouts and hail [Decker
and Decker, 2005]. Once the tuff cones grew large
enough to block the ocean water from entering the
vents, the eruptions transitioned to Phase III, an effu-
sive subaerial eruption lasting 13.5 months at Surtur II
(Figure 9.8). This was a defining moment for the lon-
gevity of the island as low‐viscosity lava began to
 Volcanics of the South and Southeastern Regions  83
Figure 9.8 Development and formation of Surtsey volcanic island. [Modified from Decker and Decker
[2005]; design credit Nate Mennen.]
solidify on the surface to create a hard cap‐rock over
the loose tephra deposits that formally made up the
island [Decker and Decker, 2005]; its area would
expand to 2.5 km2. In comparison, during the “Surtla
Episodes,” occurring between December 1965 and July
1966, three small volcanic cones (Syrtkingur, Jolnir,
and Surtla) were formed near Surtsey along submarine
vents on a fissure 250–300 m long [Moore, 1985]. As
the pseudo‐islands were small in size (<64 m), they
quickly eroded. Finally, the reactivation of Surtsey I
(June 1967) marked the last activity when lava tunnels
made their way to the ocean and increased the surface
area to 2.65 km2.
Amongst other revelations, the Surtsey eruption
provided insight into the relationship between water–
magma mixtures and the explosivity of the resulting
event. Moore [1985] considered this interaction
i­mportant for the formation of the 460 × 106 m3 of
tephra that was created during the first 4.5 months as
the crater rim built above sea level (Figure 9.9). The
balance in creating a depositional island is having
enough water as to not decrease temperatures, while
producing enough magma as to not reduce the amount
of steam produced (Figure 9.10). In order for Surtsey
to maintain a hydromagmatic steam explosion, Moore
[1985] determined that infilling of water into the
Surtsey craters would have to be around 20 m3 s−1. The
unusual mechanics of this continuous uprush explosion
cycle reflects the precise combination of variables
required for accretionary lapilli‐rich material to be
deposited [Moore, 1985]. Additionally, the presence of
diatreme pipes confirms this cycle and fits the Lorenz
[1975] description of volcanic conduits filled with
pyroclastic debris and interior wall blocks whereby the
84 VOLCANICS
Figure 9.9 Surtsey island cross‐sectional shape and changes
over 50 years. [Adapted from Jakobsson [1972b]; design
credit Nate Mennen.]
explosion carries the vesiculated material to the sur-
face. At Surtsey, diatremes are commonly subjected to
extensive hydrothermal alteration [Moore, 1985],
which is vapor dominated above sea level and seawater
dominated below sea level [Jakobsson and Moore,
1986]. Similarly, a further investigation of palago-
nitization indicated that sideromelane and olivine
combined to form an array of secondary minerals that
crystallized both above and below sea level between
24° and 149°C [Jakobsson and Moore, 1986]. It was
also determined from drill cores that virtually all of
the glass is replaced by palagonite at 120°C, which
indicates that the alteration process is largely tempera-
ture dependent [Jakobsson and Moore, 1986].
Monitoring the subsidence, consolidation, and
erosion of Surtsey has been an on‐going process for
more than 50 years. The initial ground surveys com-
pleted on Surtsey included the installation of 42
bench markers along a 1600 m east–west transect
[Tryggvason, 1968; Moore et al., 1992], which was
measured frequently with markers being added to or
improved. The initial rates of subsidence measured
in 1967–1968 were 15–20 cm year–1 and likely repre-
sents the compaction of volcanic material and the
sea‐floor underneath the island, along with litho-
spheric downwarping due to the new subaerial land-
form as 2 × 1015 g of newly added crust was deposited
on the surface [Tryggvasson, 1972; Moore et al.,
1992]. Overall, the rate of subsidence measured was
1.1 ± 0.3 m during the first 24 years [Moore et al.,
1992] and 1–2 cm year−1 thereafter, with the greatest
subsidence occurring on the eastern side of the island
near Surtsey II. Jakobbson and Moore [1986] reported
the first signs of compaction in August 1966 on the
outermost 10–15 cm of exposed tephra, although
initial microscopic examinations of these samples
did not reveal any palagonization starting. Compaction
is important to the discussion of subsidence at
Surtsey because the initial total porosity was reported
as high as 40–50% [Oddsson, 1982]. As an example, it
was estimated that by 2007, 95% of the volume of
the tephra cones was altered to compact and non-
fractured palagonite tuff [Jakobsson et al., 2009].
Thus, in addition to the height reduction of Surtsey,
erosive forces of temperature and coastal geomor-
phologic processes have caused both subaerial and
submarine destruction to reduce the area of the
island to half its original size in 1967 (~1.3 km2).
Romagnoli and Jakobsson [2015] make comparisons
of erosional and depositional changes that have
altered Surtsey’s shape over the past 50 years, while
noting that extreme rates occurred during the first
few decades and then slowed in recent time. Perhaps
the most drastic reduction resulting from the high‐
energy coastal processes has been that of the uncon-
solidated tephra coastline, which eroded hundreds
of meters to produce cliff faces and a submarine
shelf on the southern portion of the island. Here, a
boulder beach has formed in the swash zone, which
in turn, has protected the remaining cliff face from
wave abrasion. In contrast, on the northern coast
there is a migrating cuspate spit that is influenced
by strong currents and is dependent on the sedi-
ment balance provided by erosion of other parts of
the island. The submarine morphology of the island
has also been monitored through bathymetric sur-
veys from 1967 to 2007, which paid particularly
close attention to the three previously mentioned
pseudo‐islands that formed below sea level.
Interestingly, these submarine shoals are areas of
intense erosion that has led to the majority of Jólnir
and Syrtlingur being destroyed [Romagnoli and
Jakobsson, 2015].
 Volcanics of the South and Southeastern Regions  85

Figure 9.10 Volumetric proportions of materials that influence the evolution of hydromagmatic eruption
craters, including temperature (°C), water (%), rubble (%), and lava (%). Diagonal pattern indicates presence
of steam. [Modified from Moore [1985]; design credit Nate Mennen.]

The evolution of Surtsey island has also contributed
to the vast knowledge of ecological succession of plants
and animals. As soon as the island stabilized above sea‐
level in 1965, the first evidence of vascular plants was
found, which were followed by byrophytes (1967) and
lichen (1970) [Fridriksson et al., 1992]. Additionally, sea
birds (mainly gulls) started to nest on the island in
1970, which became an intergral part of seed dispersal
in the island interior. Today, there are more than 69
species of vascular plants [Magnússon et al., 2009].
 10
Volcanics of the North and Northeastern Regions
The EVZ transitions to the NVZ under Vatnajökull
and in conjunction with MIB forms a triple junction in
central Iceland (Figure 2.1). From central Iceland, the
NVZ extends 200 km northward to the coast, where it
connects with the TFZ. Compared with the EVZ and
WVZ that form two subparallel rift zones in the south,
the NVZ is considered simpler as there is only one pri-
mary segment (50 km wide) that has been active over
the past 6–7 Myr with overall propagation to the north
for the past 2 Myr [Trønnes, 2002].
In the center of the NVZ there are five overlapping
fissure swarms arranged en echelon, each with a
central volcano: Þeistareykir, Krafla, Fremrinámar,
Askja, and Kverkfjöll (Figure 5.2). In the northern
part the long linear extensions of the NVZ fissure
swarms are often crosscut by the TFZ (e.g., the noth-
ern end of the Krafla and Fremrinámar fissure
swarms). All these f­issure swarms, and particularly
those areas nearest to the central volcanoes, are high‐
temperature geothermal fields that have produced
silica‐rich explosive eruptions during historic time
[Sæmundsson, 1974], however, the NVZ makes up only
about 2% of the overall volcanism of the island and
16.5% of the total DRE produced [Thordarson and
Höskuldsson, 2008]. Additionally, the presence of
numerous Holocene lava shields, hyaloclastite ridges,
and fissure lavas are characteristic of the NVZ
[Sigvaldason et al., 1992].
Importantly the NVZ contributes to the discussion
of how silica‐rich magma can be generated at MOR
(Mid Ocean Ridge) locations (e.g., the catastrophic
eruption of Askja 1875). Historically, researchers
have suggested that this event was fed by lateral flow
Iceland: Tectonics,Volcanics, and Glacial Features, Geophysical Monograph 247, First Edition. Tamie J. Jovanelly.
© 2020 American Geophysical Union. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
87
of magma from a central volcano [Sigurðsson and
Sparks, 1978; Macdonald et al., 1990], whereas others
support ­fissure eruptions being fed by vertical magma
flow not associated with a main reservoir [Hartley
and Thordarson, 2012, 2013] (Figure 10.1). According
to the lateral flow hypothesis, when there is a shallow
magma chamber underneath a central volcano the
reservoir can become pressurized through magma
replenishment that leads to lateral injections of shal-
low dikes into a fissure swarm. Sigurðsson and Sparks
[1978] identified this process as a driving mecha-
nism of rifting on a volcanic system. Conversely,
Gudmundsson [1995] suggested a magma reservoir
­hypothesis where the pressurization of deep magma
chambers (>20 km depth) can induce volcano‐
tectonic episodes that trigger subvertical dikes into
the crust. The still debatable lateral flow hypothesis
was first introduced as a phenomenon applied to
Icelandic rifting by Björnsson et al. [1977] to describe
the Krafla Fires occurring in 1975–1984.
The three‐phase cyclic deformation process (inter‐,
co‐, and postrifting) of the NVZ tectonic rifting his-
tory has influenced its volcanics [Pedersen et al., 2009].
In particular, the mature central volcanoes of Askja
and Krafla have undergone caldera collapse, likely
influenced by spreading along the plate boundary.
Consequently, these two volcanoes are the only ones in
the NVZ to have produced eruptions within the past
1000 years. The two most recent interrifting episodes
in the NVZ occurred between 1975 and 1984 along the
Krafla fissure and almost 100 years earlier, again at
Askja [Pedersen et al., 2009]. Sæmundsson [1991] con-
firmed that the Krafla fissure swarm has been among
88 VOLCANICS

Figure 10.1 Comparison between the lateral flow (top and middle panels) and magma reservoir (bottom
panel) hypotheses with regard to the generation of silica‐rich magmas at MOR locations. [Modified from
Hartley and Thordarson [2013]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]

the most active of the NVZ, with at least six major
events during the past 3000 years. Pedersen et al. [2009]
link area subsidence to weaknesses in plate boundary
structure and to increases in magmatic activity of this
system (mainly Krafla and Askja) in recent time.
Similarly, Drouin et al. [2017a] confirmed the location
of the spreading axis through Krafla and Askja central
volcanoes and suggested that recent deformation of
the area may be linked to glacio‐isostatic adjustments
due to the retreat of the Vatnajökull ice cap, which has
been ongoing since 1890 [Björnsson et al., 2013].
10.1. THE DYNÁUFJÖLL MASSIF COMPLEX
AND ASKJA
William George Lock wrote a book about Askja in
1881. In the first pages he very abruptly describes the
greatness of this volcano, which in his opinion has
been undervalued and underestimated in comparison
to the greatness of Hekla. “In the desert interior of the
island—the very fact of its being a volcano unknown
even to the Icelanders themselves prior to 1875—
stands a volcanic mountain whose vast proportions
dwarf Hekla into utter insignificance” [Lock, 1881,
p. 1]. In fact, due to the rugged terrain of the interior,
and the remoteness of the volcano, it is thought that
the Askja caldera had only been visited once prior to
the 1875 eruption [Sigurðsson and Sparks, 1978].
As confirmed by radiocarbon dating, the areas
eruption history begins in 6892 ± 200 BCE with a
VEI = 5 eruption that initially created the Kollur
volcanic edifice [Sigvaldason, 1979; Sæmundsson,
1991; Smithsonian Institute, 2019] (Figure 10.2). The
Plinian‐style eruption (1–2 km3 DRE) was triggered
at the time of glacial retreat and is associated with
the glacio‐isostatic rebound of a 400–500 m crustal
depression as the 1500–2000 m thick ice sheet in
central Iceland melted; this coincided with volatile
 Volcanics of the North and Northeastern Regions  89

Figure 10.2 Askja crater. Locations B, C, and D are described in section 10.1. [Modified from Lupi et al.
[2011]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]

supersaturation as glacial melting reduced litho-
static pressure above the rhyolitic magma
chamber [Sigmundsson, 1991; Sigvaldason, 2002].
Hyaloclastites and pillow lava ridges that dominate
the area were likely formed subglacially by ring‐frac-
ture eruptions [Sigvaldason, 1968]. Gravity survey
determined that the main vent was located in the
central part of the Dynáufjöll volcano (areal extent
of 400 km2) [Brown et al., 1991]. Although the vent
was destroyed by the 1875 eruption, remnants can be
seen today as an embayment structure in the southern
part of the Askja caldera (45 km2) that is nested
within the larger system. This extensive eruption is
associated with a silica‐rich tephra layer, referred to
as the Dyngjufjöll tephra that has been found in the
Greenland ice cores, on top of glacial deposits in
northeast Iceland, and in the central highlands of
Iceland [Grönvold et al., 1995]. One of the thickest
units of Dyngjufjöll tephra (15 cm) described on
land was found 150 km to the northeast on a raised‐
beach in Bakkaflói (66.1250, 14.8570) [Sæmundsson,
1991]. Tephra mapping by Sigvaldason [2002] within
a 5 km radius of the central vent provided some
clues about the eruptive phases, including the likely
presence of a meltwater lake that was created by the
eruptions themselves. According to Sigvaldason
[2002], however, erosive processes over the Holocene
have erased most of the tephra from the land‐based
record on Iceland, limiting the possibility of map-
ping the areal extent more fully.
90 VOLCANICS
The crown of the Askja central volcano (also referred
to as the Dyngjufjöll volcanic center) is its caldera,
which was created during the eruption of 10 ka when
lava flowed over the ice‐free surfaces. The caldera
formation is unusual in that it is not considered to be
either a structural caldera (i.e., subsidence along faults)
or a topographic caldera (i.e., mass wasting along a
structural depression). Instead, Sigvaldason [2002]
describes the caldera being formed via uplift from
rapid crustal rebound and doming in the volcanic
center from increased magmatic pressure (forming the
Ö skjuop Pass, 65.0333, −16.7500), which was then fol-
lowed by collapse. Since 10 ka, a minimum of 39 km3
of basaltic magma has erupted from 175 effusive and
explosive eruptions that have been documented
through stratigraphic sequencing and tephrochronol-
ogy [Hartley et al., 2016]. Approximately 30% of the
eruptions occurred during historic times, half of which
are associated with the Askja caldera.
Hartley et al. [2016] suggests that magma discharge
rates at Askja were highest during postglacial times
between 5182 BCE and 2282 BCE, although they were
not able to associate deglaciation with peak volcanic
activity here due to the low resolution of tephrochro-
nology for the area. Of the total eruptions at Askja, 14
of the tephra layers found within the vicinity are
considered time marker beds [Hartley et al., 2016]
­ would be used as practice grounds for the first NASA
(Table 10.1), from which eruption frequency has been
determined as 2–3 eruptions per 100 years on average
[IMO, 2019]. Unlike Iceland’s other major volcanoes,
the repose period for Askja is highly variable; repose
periods can be a few years to a decade to only one
Table 10.1 The eruptive history of Askja with associated
volcanic explosivity index (VEI)
Date
8910 BCE
2050 BCE
1250 BCE
1300 CE
1797 CE
1 January1875
1919
March 1921
November 1922
15 January 1923
1924
15 July 1926
19 December 1938
26 October 1961
Note. Adapted from the Smithsonian Institution [2019]; design
credit Nathan Mennen.
event per 50–150 years. Basaltic fissure eruptions
with volumes between 0.05 and 0.2 km3 are typical at
Askja, however, large‐scale explosive silica eruptions
(tephra volumes <2.0 km3) have been documented
[IMO, 2019].
The central volcano known as Askja (65.0111,
−16.7485) (Photo 29) is just one part of a larger massif
called the Dyngjufjöll complex in central northeast
Iceland. This Pleistocene möberg mountain range
covers an area of 250 km2 and has an average relief of
600–760 m over the younger (<2500 BCE) Odáðahraun
lava fields, which are considered the largest continuous
lava desert in Iceland at 4000 km2 [Thórarinsson, 1963;
Sigurðsson and Sparks, 1978]. Likely, the tholeiitic basalt
lava fields resulted from effusive pahoehoe‐style
eruptions from numerous shield volcanoes in the area;
namely, Trölladyngja (1460 m; 64.8944, −17.2497),
Kollóttadyngja (1177 m; 65.2194, −16.5475), and
Ketildyngja (986 m; 65.4306, −16.6444) [Gudmundsson,
1996]. Gudmundsson [1996] suggested that this large‐
scale influx of lava may have influenced the initial
caldera collapse and associated fissure swarm (140 km
long), some of which filled in the caldera floor from
1470 BCE to 782 BC. Over time, this rugged terrain
was highly weathered by glacially directed wind pat-
terns creating the perfect pseudolunar surfaces that
lunar rovers in the late 1960s.
The sheer size and complexity of Askja’s nested cal-
dera structure (50 km2) is what makes this central vol-
cano the largest in Iceland, with its three overlapping
crater depressions (Figure 10.2) [Sigurðsson and Sparks,
1978]. The three craters (Askja, Ö skjuvatn, and Kollur)
reside between two identical fissure swarms to the
west and east that delineate part of the Askja volcanic
system. Ö skjuvatn is the youngest crater (11 km2) that
VEI
formed during a subsidence event during the 1875
5 eruption. Remote sensing of the area indicated that
0
Kollur and Askja calderas are parallel to the regional
fissure swarms, whereas Ö skjuvatn caldera is perpen-
0
1
0 dicular [Trippanera et al., 2018]. These differences in
5 structure may be important to the overall under-
2 standing of magma source, caldera collapse, location
0 of landslides, etc. [Trippanera et al., 2018]. The Askja
0 volcanic system is 10–15 km wide and 100 km long and
0 contains the volcanic flank that rises 100–500 m above
0 the present caldera floor [Brown et al., 1991] and con-
2 tinuously goes through cycles of inflation and defla-
2 tion, with associated volcanic activity [Tryggvason,
2 1989b; Camitz et al., 1995; Dalfsen et al., 2005].
Geothermal properties of the area are currently uti-
lized along the eastern and southern edges of the
 Volcanics of the North and Northeastern Regions  91
Photo 29 Askja crater. [Arctic images/Alamy Stock Photo.]
Ö skjuvatn caldera, specifically related to fissure vents
(labeled B, C, and D on Figure 10.2). Other geothermal
activities are utilized ~2 km north of the main caldera,
and the nearby Viti Crater (60 m in depth) continues to
be a popular geothermal bathing spot for tourists.
10.1.1. The Askja 1874–1876 Event
After 400 years of little activity, the volcano‐tectonic
event from 1874 to 1876 would mark the second VEI = 5
explosion recorded at Askja [Gudmundsson, 1996;
Smithsonian Institute, 2019] (Table 10.1), leading to the
abandonment of 17 farms and the documented emigra-
tion of area residents to America [Sigurðsson and Sparks,
1978]. Precursory seismic activity was reported on
17–18 April 1872 when an estimated 6–7 M earthquake
occurred 100 km northwest along the TFZ (Figure 2.1)
[Tryggvason, 1973; Newhall and Dzurisin, 1988]. Two
years later the Askja central volcano and associated fis-
sure swarm became active, with seismicity and eruptions
that continued until early 1876 [Sigurðsson and Sparks,
1978; Brandsdóttir, 1992]. Following the initial ­seismicity
at Askja, the Sveinagja graben (45–60 km north of
Askja) became active from February to October 1875.
Over these 8 months there were at least six eruptive epi-
sodes, which produced the Nýjahraun lava field [Harley
and Thordarson, 2013]. The Nýjahraun lava field and its
associated basalts are important to the understanding
of the overall mechanics of the magma system beneath
Askja. Hartley and Thordarson [2013] found that the
petrology of the 1875 event (composed of olivine, pla-
gioclase, and clinopyroxene phenocrysts) is dissimilar to
the 20th century aphyric events. From this they deduced
that the 1875 event is not tied to the same magma
source as recent events; specifically, that the Nýjahraun
lava likely did not originate from the lateral migration
(northward) of magma from Askja thus supporting the
magma reservoir hypothesis (Figure 10.1). The Sveinagja
graben itself (34 km long, ~2.5 km wide) was initially
active during a rifting episode that started in 1872 when
the northern part of the graben subsided between 3 and
6 m [Gudmundsson and Bäckström, 1991].
Plinian and phreatoplinian eruption began on 28 and
29 March 1875 and were well documented by ­eyewitness
92 VOLCANICS
accounts that occurred both during and immediately
after the event [Lock, 1881]. The majority of the ash
produced during this 17 h event was dispersed to the
east (Figure 10.3) and was found up to 1 mm thick as far
away as 1100 km in Scandinavia [Thórarinsson, 1981a;
Carey et al., 2010]. The maximum column height for
the Plinian‐type explosions at Askja was estimated at
26 km, with a combined DRE total of 0.321 km3 and
total tephra volume at 1.84 km3 after 8 h (Table 10.2).
The 11 km2 caldera that formed is called Ö skjuvatn,
and is one of the youngest collapse calderas on Earth
[Hartley and Thordarson, 2012] and now holds a 230 m
deep lake in the center [Sigurðsson and Sparks, 1981].
Caldera formation followed the explosive eruption and
the total volume of subsidence (2.88 km3) far exceeded
the volume of erupted products (0.764 km3), but it took
another 40 years before the caldera bottom was at
the current position of ~1100 m a.s.l. [Hartley and
Thordarson, 2012]. Formation of the caldera is impor-
tant to understanding the Askja plumbing system.
Figure 10.3 Askja 1875 ash fall dispersion map with
associated thickness of deposition. [Modified from Carey
et al. [2010] and Smithsonian Institute, 2019; design credit
Nathan Mennen.]
Table 10.2 Askja 1875 column height, dense rock equivalency (DRE), and tephra volume as compared to eruptive hours
Event Deposit Column height (km)
Askja 1875 Unit B Subplinian 8 0.004
Askja 1875 Unit C Phreatoplinian 22.8
Askja 1875 Unit D Plinian 26
Note. Modified from Carey et al. [2010]; design credit Nathan Mennen.
DRE, dense rock equivalent.
There are two main competing hypotheses that remain
inconclusive: lateral dike injection [Sigurðsson and
Sparks, 1978] versus tectonically induced subsidence
[Hartley and Thordarson, 2012]. Viti, a large steam‐
explosion crater, also formed during this event and is
found on the northern margin of Ö skjuvatn. Some
active hydrothermal fumaroles are found within the
nested crater system today.
Well‐preserved ash deposits enable accurate docu-
mentation of relevant parameters, although there is
no one locality where every layer is found [Carey
et al., 2010]; most are documented records are from
the northern and eastern rims of Ö skjuvatn [Sparks
et al., 1981]. Uniquely, three drastically different
eruption styles occurred during the 1875 event (sub-
plinian, pheatoplinian, and pyroclastic surge and
Plinian) that correspond to wet versus dry magma, as
well as variance in eruption regime (ash fall vs. pyro-
clastic surge) [Carey et al., 2010]. Changes in the
eruptive style can be caused by variations in volatile
concentrations in one or more interacting magmas
prior to eruption, or to the interaction of magma
with external water sources, as suggested by Carey
et al. [2009]. These phases were first determined by
tephrochronology work completed on pyroclastic
flow deposits by Self and Sparks [1978] where they
separated the flow into six layers (A–F) (Figure 10.4):
layers A, E, and F represent weak phreatic or hydro-
thermal activity prior to or following the main phases
represented by layers B, C1, C2, and D) [Carey et al.,
2010]. Complete descriptions for each unit are
provided in Carey et al. [2010], including details on
direction of pyroclastic flow, bedding, grain size,
etc. The phreatoplinian and Plinian ash fall units
(layers C and D) are the most widely dispersed. While
Sigurðsson and Sparks [1981] noted the varying lithol-
ogies of the pyroclastic deposits of layer D, they
determined that the overall composition of the ejecta
is 94% white, rhyolitic pumice and ash that contain
less than 0.5% crystals by volume. Additionally, they
observed that the pumice is “unusually vesicular”
with an average density of 0.44 g cm−3.
DRE (km3) Tephra volume (km3) Eruptive time (h)
0.014 1
0.104 0.45 1
0.213 1.37 6
 Volcanics of the North and Northeastern Regions  93

The eruption‐style and product of the Askja 1875

eruption is often compared to the rhyolitic events that
are also occasionally seen at Hekla. A major difference
in these volcanic systems, however, is that Askja is
within the divergent plate boundary of the NVZ and
Hekla is “off‐rift” (Figure 2.1). Schattel et al. [2014]
considered the Askja rift rhyolites to have originated
through extensive assimilation of high‐temperature
hydrothermally altered crust at shallow depths
(≥1.8 km). Additionally, the authors explain that these
rhyolites are hot (935–1008°C), relatively dry
(H2O <2.7 wt%), and oxidized, which is unusual
because explosive volcanism commonly seen in island‐
arc systems is associated with water‐rich pre‐eruptive
magmas, where the presence of water drives the pro-
cess [Schattel et al., 2014].

10.1.2. The Askja 1961 Event and Today

Prior to the 1961 event at Askja, several small‐scale

basaltic eruptions occurred between 1921 and 1929
near Ö skjuvatn, with an erupted volume of about
0.03 km3; including a fissure eruption 6.0 km long
opening up south of the Dyngjufjöll mountains
[Sigvaldason et al., 1992] and the creation of a small
volcanic island in Lake Ö skjuvatn in 1926.
The last major activity at Askja, however, began on
6 October 1961 with seismicity followed by the
formation of three new solfataras on the eastern cal-
dera wall discharging boiling mud at a rate of 30 L s–1
[Thórarinsson and Sigvaldason, 1962]. Narrow fissures
(5–15 cm) orientated north–south were also observed
in this area. According to Thorarinsson and
Sigvaldason, who were the two geologists at the scene,
the eruption began when an east–west fissure (0.7 km
long) opened up on 26th October. Within the first
10 h, they reported that this effusive, Hawaiian‐style
eruption had spewed ~500 m tall lava fountains and
the lava flows reached a distance of 7.5 km over an
area of approximately 6 km2. The total area of the lava
flow by the end of the 6‐week episode was mapped at
11 km2. Additionally, the viscosity of the magma
changed during the event, whereby an ore‐rich aa lava
was produced first. By 5th November a second phase
of lava containing more phenocrysts lead to the
­production of pahoehoe features [Thorarinsson and
Sigvaldason, 1962]. This event produced about 0.1 km3
Figure 10.4 Schematic lithological log of volcanic prod- basaltic lava and 0.004 km3 tephra [IMO, 2019] and
ucts from the 1874–1875 eruption of Askja. [Modified from caused subsidence in the main caldera interior along
Sparks et al. [1981]; design credit Nathan Mennen.] its ring fractures. Earthquake swarms reported on
30 January 1962 and 12 June 1962 indicated magmatic
intrusions.
94 VOLCANICS
Prior to this eruption, processes of inflation and
deflation at Askja were not monitored, nor were
changes in lake‐level at Ö skjuvatn. This is particularly
important because the dormancy of this volcano can
be monitored by changes in its shape. As described by
Newhall and Dzurisin [1988], a volcano at rest is com-
monly linked to periods of inflation and deflation,
which help to determine its state of repose. Moreover,
it has been determined that the rate of ground defor-
mation at Askja is higher than anywhere else in
Iceland—with exception of those systems that are cur-
rently active [Tryggvason, 1989a]. The processes of
deflation at Askja are also of interest because amongst
the recorded texture of all historic lava flows some
have been aphyric, which suggests that magma has not
pooled for any lengthy period of time before eruption
[Oskarsson et al., 1982; Dalfsen et al., 2005]. This is
unusual because as the magma goes through the pro-
cess of degassing, it both cools and contracts, forming
a crystallized magma [Sigmundsson et al., 1997].
Tryggvason initiated several forms of geodetic mon-
itoring at Askja in 1966 [Tryggvason, 1989b], with
subsequent studies by Camitz et al. [1995], Sturkell and
Sigmundsson [2000] and Dalfsen et al. [2005]. Initial
deflation measurements were reported at Askja bet-
ween 1966–1967, 1968–1970, and 1983–1989 that were
linked to the withdrawal of magma below the caldera,
and opposite happening during inflation. From 1983
to 1989 Tryggvason [1989b] measured a subsidence
of 8 cm year−1 at the caldera center, or a volume of
about 3 × 106 m3 year−1. Camitz et al. [1995] reported
continued subsidence of 11 ± 2.5 cm year−1 during
1990–1993, concluding that this deflation was in
agreement with decreases in pressure at 2.8 km depth.
This is in agreement with the deflation measurements
from 1991 to 1998 (0.7 cm year−1) by Sturkell and
Sigmundsson [2000] and the microgravity measure-
ments by Dalfsen et al. [2005], which suggested subsur-
face mass decreases of 1.6 × 1011 kg between 1988 and
2003. Dalfsen et al. [2005] also concluded that mag-
matic eruption at Askja has not occurred since 1961
because extension along the rift zone at ~1.97 cm year−1
[DeMets et al., 2010] is providing space in the ductile
crust that can accommodate any magma drainage
from the shallow magma chamber. This is confirmed
by a dike intrusion occurring southeast of Askja near
Upptyppingar (65.0375, −16.2447) from April 2007
to March 2008 with an approximate volume of
47 × 106 m3 [Hooper et al., 2011].
According to Gylfadottír et al. [2017], the most
recent activity at Askja was a rockslide that fell from
its talus slopes into Lake Öskjuvatn on 21 July 2014 to
create a tsunami‐like wave. The wave is modeled to
have that traveled about 3 km in 1–2 minutes across the
lake and inundated the shore with a vertical runup
measuring up to 80 m [Gylfadottír et al., 2017]. Eye‐
witness accounts suggest a plume of light‐colored ash
erupted into the atmosphere, but its origin was not
determined. Small‐scale earthquakes are common
along the northeast and northwest borders of the
Askja central v­ olcano, as well as in its southeast corner
[Hjartadöttir et al., 2009].
10.2. KRAFLA
The surface area of the Krafla caldera (65.715,
−16.728) extends over 64 km2 (Photo 30). This shield
volcano (818 m a.s.l.), which is capped by a caldera
10 km wide, is situated within the 100-km-long Krafla
fissure swarm (Figures 5.2 and 7.2). The volcano began
to form ~100,000 years ago with a rhyoltic eruption,
which likely initiated the collapse of a 45 km2 caldera
that has since been infilled with hyaloclastite rocks
and lavas making it a subdued topographic feature.
Subsequently, a dome at Hágöng (65.7322, −16.6689)
developed, and a 2.5 km3 welded air‐fall tuff layer was
deposited [Tuffen and Castro, 2009]. The detailed stra-
tigraphy from this layer of mixed intermediate compo-
sition 50 m thick (estimated DRE volume 2.4 km3)
indicates changes in eruption activity from Plinian to
Stromolian [Calderone et al., 1990]. Over half this tuff
layer has been described as rhyolitic, which has been
hypothesized to have been generated through near‐sol-
idus fractionation of melted hydrothermally altered
basalts, rather than by extreme fractionation of pri-
mary basaltic magma [Jónasson, 1994]. Moreover, pet-
rological analysis of the erupted rock suggests mixing
of melts over a range of crustal depths, including the
uppermost mantle [Maclennan, 2008; Sigmarsson et al.,
2008]. More specifically, Winpenny and Maclennan
[2014] described olivine‐tholeiitic rocks as being
derived from mantle‐source melts, while it is thought
that rhyolites of the area originate from a crustal
magma chamber [Grönvold, 1976]. The second eruptive
phase of Krafla (~100–70 ka) produced three subgla-
cial rhyolite ridges 300 m tall near the caldera rim
(Gaesafjallarani, Jörundur, and Hliðarfjall). The last
phase that occurred ~24 ka resulted in another rhyo-
litic eruption (<0.05 km3) to form an obsidian
ridge, called Hrafntinnuhryggur (65.7036, −16.7131).
Hrafntinnuhryggur is particularly interesting because
Tuffen and Castro [2009] describe it as the first docu-
mented example of a rhyolitic fissure eruption beneath
firn (>55 m thick); this study started a discussion
 Volcanics of the North and Northeastern Regions  95

Photo 30 Landscape view of Krafla. [Arctic images/Alamy Stock Photo.]

about the contrasting effects that variable ice thick- Table 10.3 Eight rifting episodes within the Krafla fissure
nesses can have on rhyolitic eruptions. swarm
During the Holocene, Krafla has experienced 35
Lava flows Number Date
eruptive events, mostly basaltic, that have occurred
either in the caldera or on the mountain Namafjall Krafla rifiting episode 1 1975–1984 CE
(65.6392, −16.8197), which have been confirmed Mývatn rifting episode 2 1724–1729 CE
Younger Laxá lava flow 3 182 BCE
by tephrochronology and/or historic observation
Grænavatnsbruni lava flow 4 182 BCE
[Björnsson et al., 1977, 1979; Sæmundsson, 1991; Hólseldar lava flow 5 332 BCE
Smithsonian Institute, 2019]. The total eruptive produc- Hverfjallseldar lava flow 6 782 BCE
tion during and after caldera formation is estimated at Stóraviti lava flow 7 1724 BCE
0.42 km3 kyr−1 [Ármansson et al., 1987]. Additionally, Older Laxá lava flow 8 1782 BCE
there have been eight rifting episodes (Table 10.3) along
the Krafla fissure swarm (Figure 5.2) that are separated Note. Design credit Nathan Mennen.
by long periods of dormancy. In a comparative study
of the six tholeiitic rifting episodes, Hjartadóttir et al. most notable rifting events that have occurred over the
[2012] found that most occur within 10–30 km of the past 1140 years include the Mývatn Fires (1724–1729)
central volcano and that the fissures tend to be unevenly and the instrumentally recorded volcanic‐tectonic epi-
distributed between the northern and southern por- sode, Krafla Fires (1975–1984) [Sigurðsson and Sparks,
tions of the Krafla fissure swarm. They suggest that 1978], which are discussed separately below.
this may be the result of an additional deep magma Perhaps what makes Krafla most iconic is the 2011
source south of the central volcano, or that the TFZ discovery of rhyoltic magma in two shallow (2.1 km
(Figure 2.1) may aid in the reduction of those fissures deep) exploratory geothermal wells (K‐39 and the
found in the north [Hjartadóttir et al., 2012]. The two IDDP‐1) near the central caldera [Elders et al., 2011].
96 VOLCANICS
This created an exclusive opportunity to investigate
an in situ magma flow of silica‐rich composition
(76.5% SiO2) in an otherwise basaltic environment.
It was reported that the recovered cuttings were
quenched sparsely phyric, vesicle‐poor glass with the
in situ temperature of the melt between 850 and 920°C
[Zierenberg et al., 2013]. It had been previously known
that Iceland is an extreme example of having depleted
levels of δ18O in its overall volcanic products, espe-
cially when compared with other ocean island basalts,
although it was unclear why [Harmon and Hoefs,
1995]. Here, a rhyolitic magma with a low level of δ18O
could be studied under specific pressure and tempera-
ture and without the degassing of volatile contents
that occurs during a volcanic eruption. The investiga-
tion by Elders et al. [2011] concluded that assimilation
of the partially melted, hydrothermally altered,
basalts was the dominant process in forming this rhy-
olite. This was later confirmed by a detailed petrology
analysis by Zierenberg et al. [2013], who added that
the melt began crystallizing plagioclase, augite,
pigeonite, and titanomagnetite at temperatures near
1000°C during rise of the melt to its emplacement
depth of 2.1 km. These data correspond with findings
by S‐wave shadowing during the 1975–1984 eruptions
[Einarsson, 1978] that located the main magma
chamber 3–7 km beneath the central caldera.
Additionally, because the exploratory wells provided
a known magma position at depth, they have aided
in the calibration of various geophysical methods,
including seismic tomography [Kim et al., 2017].
10.2.1. The Krafla Fires of 1975–1984
After the dramatic display of the Mývatn Fires, the
Krafla fissure swarm experienced more than 250 years
of dormancy until the Krafla Fires started in 1975. This
event was instrumentally monitored (e.g., leveling, tilt,
gravity measurements) and provided the opportunity
for comparative studies between crustal deformation
episodes. Some would argue that the Krafla Fires are
the best‐studied example of dike‐intrusions on a divergent
plate boundary to date [Buck et al., 2006]. The Krafla
Fires began on 20 December 1975 when increasing
seismicity was recorded near the caldera. A fissure 3 km
long had reactivated near the hyaloclastite ridge,
Leirhnjúkur (593 m a.s.l., 65.7000, −16.8000). The first
eruption lasted only 12 h, but marked the beginning of
nearly a decade of activity along the Krafla fissure swarm.
The Krafla Fires had begun (Table 5.1, Figure 10.5).
Two small‐scale eruptions occurred north of
Leirhnjúkur in 1977, followed by 3 years of quiescence
apart from the crustal movement close to the caldera
and lateral flow of magma away from the caldera
[Einarsson and Brandsdóttir, 1980]. In 1980, two large‐
scale eruptions took place, the first (10–18 July; 1 in
Figure 10.5) at Gjástykki (65.8439, −16.7517), a large
downfaulted graben with walls up to 30 m tall. A
swarm of fissures spanning 4 km long and 500 m wide
emerged at Gjástykki over the next 8 days to produce a
6 km2 lava field known as Snagahraun. The second event
(18–23 October 1980; 4 in Figure 10.5), also north of
Leirhnjúkur, produced a lava field double the size of
Snagahraun from a fissure 7 km long. The eruptions
of 30 January to 4 February 1981 and 18–23 November
1981 (2 and 5 in Figure 10.5) partly covered older Krafla
lava fields and totalled 18 km2 (Photo 31). The final
eruption on 4 September 1984 (3 in Figure 10.5) inter-
rupted a dormancy of 3 years. Overall, the total area
of the nine Krafla Fire events (Table 5.1) is 36 km2.
Additionally, geodetic measurements by Tryggvason
[1994] indicate that a segment of the Krafla fissure
swarm 80 km long widened up to 9 m at the northern
margin of the Krafla caldera.
Continuous monitoring of the Krafla Fires provided
an insight into the processes of the Krafla fissure swarm
and NVZ as a whole. The 3 km deep magma chamber
[Tryggvason, 1986; Brandsd6ttir et al., 1997; Sigmundsson
et al., 1997] beneath the central volcano was found to
be the main source of activity during the rifting episode,
although a second deeper reservoir (>5 km) likely
accounted for the surplus of magma that made its way
to the surface [Árnadóttir et al., 1998]. Twenty dike
injections and nine high‐temperature (1050–1250°C)
surface eruptions accounted for 0.25 km3 volume of
magma, which occurred as part of an inflation–deflation
process of chamber infill (Figure 10.6) [Björnsson,
1985]. During these 20 cyclic events, the shallow magma
chamber received continuous inflow of magma at
~5 m s−1, causing slow inflation that was followed by
intense deflation during rifting episodes that often
resulted in caldera subsidence of up to 2 m [Björnsson
et al., 1979; Einarsson and Brandsdóttir, 1980; Buck
et al., 2006; Heimisson et al., 2015]. The timing of the
deflation periods is inconsistent, lasting several hours
up to 3 months. It has been determined through
petrology that there is not enough time in periods of
deflation lasting <2 h for significant crystallization
and fractionation to occur during the ascent [Grönvold,
1984]. Deflation episodes were accompanied by
­earthquake activity monitored up to 10 km in depth
[Tryggvasson, 1984], as was the lateral movement of
dike injections along the fissure surfaces. Generally, this
made earthquake monitoring difficult during the Krafla
 Volcanics of the North and Northeastern Regions  97

Figure 10.5 Area of Krafla Fires in proximity to Lake Mývatn. [Design credit Nathan Mennen.]

Fires [Heimisson et al., 2015], however, the largest diver-
gent plate boundary earthquakes (M = 5) were recorded
during caldera subsidence [Einarsson, 1986].
Following the final eruption phase in 1984, the Krafla
magma chamber again inflated, returning to its previous
elevation. From 1989 to 1992 the land surface nearest the
caldera experienced subsidence at a rate of 5 cm year−1,
and then by 2.4 cm year−1 from 1992 to 1995 [Sturkell
et al., 2008; Ali et al., 2014]. Subsidence is typical of
postrifting episodes, and is likely the result of continued
plate spreading and crustal cooling, as well as in
response to geothermal energy production located near
the caldera [Sturkell et al., 2008]. Postrift spreading on
the Krafla fissure swarm was in excess of three times the
average before returning to normal, which was not fore-
seen [Foulger et al., 1992; Heki et al., 1993]. Addi­tionally,
after the Krafla Fires a significant decrease was observed
in earthquake activity along the TFZ (Figure 2.1) until
2000 [Maccaferri et al., 2013]. The TFZ had historically
experienced several earthquakes of M = 6.0–7.0, but as
a result of the Krafla Fires this transform fault was
thought to have formed a rift‐induced stress shadow,
which temporarily modified the way seismic energy in
the area was released [Maccaferri et al., 2013].
98 VOLCANICS

Photo 31 The 1984 Krafla lava field on top of older, grass‐covered, lava flows. [Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]

Figure 10.6 Inflation and deflation model of the geothermal area at Leirbotnar during the Krafla Fires
1975–1984. [Adapted from Ármannsson et al. [1987] and Björnsson [1985]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]

10.2.2. Krafla and Geothermal Energy
Krafla is among the most studied central volcanoes in
the NVZ due to its usefulness in providing geothermal
heat from the shallow (2–3 km deep) magma chamber.
The surface presence of fumaroles and venting steam
first indicated that the 15 km2 caldera may be capable
of supporting geothermal energy for the northeast of
Iceland. Early exploration consisted of ­geological map-
ping, aeromagnetic survey, resistivity measurements,
and chemical analysis of fumarole fluids [Stefánsson,
1980, 1981; Ármansson et al., 1987].
There are two main geothermal fields in the Krafla
volcanic zone: one inside the Krafla caldera at
 Volcanics of the North and Northeastern Regions  99
Leirbotnar (65.7031, −16.7750), and the other,
Námafjall (65.6392, −16.8197), in a high temperature
area ~9 km south; Suðurhídar and Hvíhólar are other
notable geothermal fields near Leirbotnar. The geo-
thermal area of Leirbotnar is situated on the Daleldar
crater row, which was formed ~1000 ka and is among
the youngest eruptive products in the area. Drilling for
geothermal energy began in the early 1950s with the
exploration of the Bjarnarflag field (Námafjall region).
From 1963 to 1970 other exploratory wells for sulfur
and diatomite were drilled in nearby areas but were
mostly unsuccessful [Ólafsson et al., 2013]. As the need
for energy increased in the northeast of the island dur-
ing the 1970s, so did the protests against the expansion
of hydroelectric power plants, particularly those on the
River Skjálfandafljót, which feeds the spectacular
Goðafoss waterfall. In 1974, however, the Icelandic
Parliament passed legislation that allowed the building
of geothermal power plants up to the capacity of
55 MWe [Nielsen et al., 2000]. Soon after, the National
Power Company (Landsvirkjun) began drilling explor-
atory wells and purchased two turbine generators
[Stefánsson, 1981]. The limits on the permit capacity
increased in subsequent years, as the need for electricity
continued to grow with tourism.
The Krafla geothermal station near Leirbotnar
was the first large‐scale commercial power plant in
Iceland, with 33 boreholes and a capability to generate
500 GWe of electricity annually. Construction for the
power plant began in 1974, but was interrupted by
major volcanic eruptions occurring 2 km north when
the Krafla Fires began. This disrupted the building
schedule, but nonetheless the power plant officially
opened in 1978 with 12 completed production wells.
As the wells at Leirbotnar became unusable due to
increased acidity in the water, other fields, namely
Suðurídar and Hvíhólar, provided the necessary
stream capacity [Ármansson et al., 1987]. Additionally,
several of the initial wells in the Leirbotnar field began
to fail. The power plant did not operate at full capacity
until 1984 when volcanic activity subsided, as volcanic
gases severely affected the quality of the geothermal
fluids necessary for production [Nielsen et al., 2000].
Undoubtedly, geothermal energy production located
in a highly active volcanic zone presents hazards and
complex challenges for energy extraction not seen at
other geothermal fields throughout the world [Palmason
et al., 1983]. As an example, the Leirbotnar reservoir
consists of two separate geothermal zones [Nielsen
et al., 2000; Langella et al., 2017]. The shallow zone
(200–1200 m depth) is a water‐dominated area that
hosts temperatures between 190°–220°C; that extending
to 2200 m is vapor‐dominated with temperatures above
300°C. This zoning aligns with changes in subsurface
geology. The shallow zone is characterized by hyaloclas-
tite formations separated by 100–200 m thick basaltic
lava deposits. Below, granophyric intrusions make up
80–100% of the rocks and are connected to deep aquifer
systems where the pH 2–4 is too acidic for the fluid to be
suitable for use [Nielsen et al., 2000]. This zoning may
best illustrate how the area can have extraordinarily dif-
ferent thermodynamic and chemical properties, which
remain in flux due to changes in magmatic movement.
Overall, the Krafla geothermal fields have experi-
enced stable production during the past 30 years of
relative volcanic dormancy. The microseisimicity of
Krafla’s high‐temperature geothermal fields was moni-
tored closely from 2009 to 2012 by Schuler et al. [2016],
who found, as expected, low‐level movement, where
faults and fissures enable the flow of hot geothermal
fluids to the surface. Although seismicity in the area
has not been an issue in geothermal energy production
since 1984, Schuler et al. [2016] found that changes
in seismicity near the geothermal plants coincided
with the intensity of energy production. In addition to
seismic monitoring, readjustment of the ground sur-
face in the area has also been the focus of research.
Modeling by Drouin et al. [2017a] confirmed significant
surface deformation due to geothermal processes in
Leirbotnar and Námafjall areas. They noted that if the
volume of geothermal fluid extracted exceeds the
rechargeability of the reservoir then the reservoir might
become depleted. Drouin et al. [2017a] observed that
since 2004 about 5–8 mm year−1 of subsidence has
occurred in Leirbotnar for a net extraction rate of
6–9 Mtons year−1 of geothermal fluid. They deter-
mined that subsidence at Leirbotnar is higher than at
Hellisheid̄i (see Box 3.1), which subsides about 1 mm
per year. Subsidence of the area is commonly linked to
geothermal energy production as large amounts of
water are extracted during the process [Sturkell et al.,
2008]. The extraction rate at the Krafla geothermal
power plant doubled after 1995 with the installation
of the second turbine, which uses an average of
9 Mtons year−1 [Drouin et al., 2017a]. Another geo-
thermal power plant is currently under construction in
Þeistareykir, 20 km northwest of the Krafla caldera
that has a design capacity between 90 and 200 MWe.
10.3. VOLCANIC FEATURES AT MÝVATN
Some of the initial activity in the Krafla volcanic
zone began shortly after the Last Ice Age during the
Icelandic Lúdent Period (9000–5500 BCE). A major
100 VOLCANICS
event of this period included a phreatomagmatic
eruption that created the Lúdent tuff ring (~6000 BCE).
This was followed by other volcanic eruptions at
Námafjall (65.6394, −16.8206) and Kröfluháls (65.8003,
−16.6039). Likely, the Rauðhólar craters (65.9503,
−16.5336) also formed at the end of the Last Ice Age.
The Mývatn vent system is approximately 6 km long
and is adjacent to a narrow canyon along the River
Jökulsá á Fjöllum and forms part of the Fremrinámur
fissure belt (Figure 5.2). The erosive processes of gla-
cial outburst flooding from this river system have
provided spectacular examples of the more resistant
plugs (1–3 m thick) and dikes (5–8 m thick) exposed in
the central and southern parts of the Rauðhólar row
of cone craters [Friese et al., 2013]. The most common
morphology associated with this cone system is the
clear distinction between colonnade and entablature
cooling patterns established by the presence of water
(Figure 7.7, Photo 32) [Friese et al., 2013]. The exposed
shallow plumbing system described by Friese et al.
[2013] shows that magma pathways through the
volcanic edifice are very complex, with incremental,
repeated intrusions.
Photo 32 Cross‐sectional view of the Raud ̄hólar plug and dike lavas. [Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]
Volcanic activity of ~3800 ka began to alter the
landscape of Mývatn significantly. At this time the
shield volcano Ketildyngja (65.4311, −16.6444), 25 km
southeast of Mývatn on the Fremrinámur fissure belt
(Figure 5.2), produced a lava flow referred to as the
Older Laxá Lava (OLL; Thórarinsson, 1953]. The OLL
flowed down gradient through the Laxárdalur valley to
the Arctic Ocean (50 km) emerging on to the Adaldalur
coastal plain. Thórarinsson [1953] determined the age
and size of this flow through detailed tephrochronol-
ogy, specifically finding the light colored rhyolitic tephra
layer H3, a characteristic deposit from Hekla, below the
OLL. At the time, he suggested that this was the longest
lava flow ever created by a postglacial shield volcano,
with an approximate minimum value of 330 km2, or
4 km3. This lava flow created a dam that initiated the
first Lake Mývatn basin, which had a size similar to that
today. Additionally, an eruption at Jarðbaðshólar pro-
duced a lava field between Reykjahlið and Vogar.
A second major volcanic cycle, sometimes referred
to as the Hverfjall Fires, began ~2500 ka along the
Kafla fissure swarm. During this time, a hydromagmatic
eruption lasting no more than 2–3 days produced the
 Volcanics of the North and Northeastern Regions  101
Photo 33 Hverfjall crater. [Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]
Hverfjall (65.6086, −16.8717) (Photo 33), tuff ring,
which is 1 km in diameter and 140 m deep. Mapping of
the tephra produced from Hverfjall indicated that the
distal extent of the airfall deposits was limited (< 20 km
from the vent) due to the constant presence of water
[Sæmundsson, 1991; Mattsson and Höskuldsson, 2011].
The Ludent tuff‐ring is considered to have formed
under similar conditions. Lui et al. [2017], however,
have determined an absence of lake sediments beneath
these hydromagmatic deposits, which raises the question
of whether proto‐Lake Mývatn extended as far as the
Hverfjall tuff ring. They suggest that the more likely
water source for the hydromagmatic eruption was an
influx of groundwater—Lake Mývatn today is supplied
entirely by the underground system with current dis-
charge rates of ~30 m3 s−1. Simultaneously to the
Hverfjall event, activitivity at another cone complex,
Jarðbaðshólar, began. Mattsson and Höskuldsson [2011]
linked these events from evaluation of sedimentary
structures present in measured stratigraphic profiles
and determined significant change in activity at the
Hverfjall vent when Jarðbaðshólar became active. Liu
et al. [2017] explained that although Jarðbaðshólar was
closer to the magma supply (i.e., Krafla caldera), the
eruption of Hverjall had already caused a reduction in
the overall supply (Figure 10.7).
Around 2300 ka an eruption south of the Kafla fis-
sure swarm created the Þrengslaborgir–Lúdentsborgir
row of cone craters (65.5458, −16.8422) and produced
the Younger Laxá Lava (YLL). The YLL is considered
to represent the largest postglacial lava flow within
the NVZ [Thórarinsson, 1979]: producing a volume of
3–4 km3 over a 200‐km2 area [Guðmundsson, 1996].
During this phase, the YLL entered Lake Mývatn
thereby extending it northwards to form the northern
basin [Liu et al., 2017] and to further develop the basin
shape first created during the ~3800 ka event. The
sequence of these events is important in consideration
of whether the proto‐Lake Mývatn extended as far as
the Hverfjall tuff‐ring, thus supplying the water source
for the phreatomagmatic eruption [Liu et al., 2017].
The YLL, however, is best known for creating the
abundant pseudocraters (>1000) that are a prominent
part of the Mývatn landscape, which range in size
from 2 to 30 m in diameter, and from 1 to 15 m tall
[Thórarinsson, 1953]. In general, they are composed of
102 VOLCANICS
Figure 10.7 Location of Lake Mývatn in relationship to Krafla. Numbers indicate highways. [Design credit
Nathan Mennen.]
lapilli and scoria; xenoliths of glacial substratum,
basalt bombs, and jagged fragmentation are occasion-
ally found in this area. Specifically, the Skutustaðagigar
(65.5719, −16.9647) Craters, an Icelandic National
Monument, were formed on the perimeter of the lake
when the YLL first encountered the new wetland envi-
ronment (Photo 34). Additionally, the Þrengslaborgir
crater rows (65.5458, −16.8442) and Hamarshólar
(65.5336, −17.2506) formed during this time. The
Dimmuborgir pillars (65.5956, −16.9200), are consid-
ered to have formed during the YLL eruption, but this
has recently been questioned [Skelton et al., 2016].
Previously, it was thought that the YLL pooled sub-
aqueously and the pillars formed as water rose through
the molten lava as it cooled. When the pool eventually
drained the pillar formations remained. Recent LiDAR
and ground‐penetrating radar analysis completed by
Skelton et al. [2016] suggests that the pillars instead
represent at least two rootless shield‐like volcanic
structures that were fed by lava tubes along the 3 km
distance of the Lúdentarborgir crater row. Skelton
et al. [2016] describe these features as 1–1.5 km in
diameter, elliptical in shape, ~30 m in height, and each
with a 500‐m‐wide summit depression capable of stor-
ing as much as 3 × 106 m3 of lava. They attribute the
upright and tilted pillars seen at Dimmuborgir as the
result of collapsed sidewalls of the summit depression
on top of the shield during drainage of the lava pond,
as seen at Kı ̄lauea in 2008. Similar features are found
at Höfði (65.5789°N, 16.9558°W), but these pillars
remain standing in the lake water.
The last event prior to the Mývatn Fires was the
Dalseldar Fires (~900 CE), when the southern section
of the Kafla fissure swarm became active to produce
0.2 km3 of lava.
10.3.1. Mývatn Fires of 1724–1729
The Mývatn Fires are part of an eruptive fissure
sequence that occurred between 1724 and 1729. The
most detailed contemporary accounts of the episode
were recorded by Pastor Jón Sæmundsson, a local
 Volcanics of the North and Northeastern Regions  103
Photo 34 Skutustad ̄agigar Craters, an Icelandic National Monument, Mývatn. [Arctic images/Alamy
Stock Photo.]
minister in Reykjahlíð (65.6428°, 16.9101°), and the
description below relies heavily upon a summary
provided by Grönvold [1984].
The events began on 17May 1724 when an explosive
eruption producing an ash column occurred on the
western flanks of Krafla; the eruption has been esti-
mated as a VEI = 2 [Smithsonian Institute, 2019]. This
2‐day event formed the 350 m diameter Storá‐Viti
crater 1.5 km east of Leirhnjukur (Figure 10.7; not to
be confused with the popular geothermal spot, Lake
Viti, near Askja), along with 14 smaller explosion cra-
ters and activation of a fissure swarm south of Krafla.
Despite accounts of a heavy tephra air‐fall that morn-
ing, only a thin tephra layer has been identified in soil
profiles near Mývatn [Thórarinsson, 1979], and none
have been identified from sediment cores collected
from Lake Mýtan [Ólafsson, 1979]. The products from
these explosions, however, were considered to have
been carried southwards from the crater; the deposit
consisted of country rock, ash, and scoria that ranged
in composition from basaltic to acidic [Grönvold, 1984].
Notably, Lake Mýtan experienced drastic water‐level
fluctuations for the next 9 months as a result of seismic
activity and vertical ground movements. A section of
the lake, known as the Ytriflói Basin, completely dried
up during the initial event [Ólafsson, 1979]. In January
of 1725, eruptions along the fissure swarms south of
Krafla triggered a large number of intense earthquakes
(it is not known how many or how large they were)
that damaged houses and notably increased geo-
thermal activity in the area. Additionally, the acidity
of the lake increased to the detriment of the local trout
populations [Ólafsson, 1979]. Although no activity is
recorded for 1726 or the beginning of 1727, it has been
assumed that rifting continued in the northern part of
the fissure swarm, which was located away from local
104 VOLCANICS
communities. The next major phase of the Mývatn
Fires began on 21 August 1727 when four lava erup-
tions, of varying durations, started. The first event cre-
ated a discontinuous row of craters near Leirhnjukur
(65.7219, −16.7878), Hrossadalur (65.2611°, 20.7928°),
and Bjarnarflag (65.6333, −16.8675); there is little
indication of how long the eruption lasted. The second
event followed a strong earthquake swarm occurring
on 18 April 1728, when the fissure at Leirhnjukur
(Figure 10.7) activated. Four hours after the initial
activity began, two eruptions occurred simultaneously:
one at Hrossadalur and the other at Bjarnarflag
(Figure 10.7). On 20 April the valley of Hlidardalur
was filled with lava. Activity lulled until 18 December
1728 when a lava channel extended towards Reykjahlið
(65.6428, −16.9101), a small town on the northern part
of Lake Mývatn (Figure 10.7). This lava channel, now
referred to as the Eldhraun lava field, covered previous
flows, but may be best known for sparing a church on
a hill as the lava flow went around the premises (Photo
35). The final eruptive phase again reactivated fissures
near the Leirhnjukur craters on 30 June 1729. Lava
from this event traveled 15 km south to meet the
Photo 35 The church at Reykjahlid ̄ where the lava flows from the Mývatn Fires spared the structure by
­flowing around the building. [Courtesy of Timothy Wooley.]
northern shores of Lake Mývatn (i.e., Ytriflói Basin),
again forcing farmers to evacuate. The shoreline grew
2.4 km because of this lava flow [Ólafsson, 1979]. This
eruption continued until the end of September 1729.
Over the span of 5 years, about 0.45 km3 of basaltic
lava that erupted from a discontinuous fissure 11 km
long covered a 30 km2 area [Grönvold, 1984]. On 10
July 1746 a powerful but short duration eruption
was recorded at Leirhnjtikur. Since then, the area of
Mývatn has been dormant.
In the absence of scientifically based knowledge on
the succession of the Mývatn Fires, geologists have
relied on evidence gathered from the more recent,
instrumentally monitored, Krafla Fire event (1975–
1984) in order to make comparisons. They are able to
make these assessments with some confidence as the
lavas that erupted from the 11 km long fissure during
the Krafla Fires almost exactly coincides with the
Mývatn Fires; the Krafla Fires extended 7 km further
to the north [Grönvold, 1984]. A petrological study by
Grönvold [1984] analyzed the mineral composition of
rocks produced by both episodes. He concluded that
the range of compositions found in the Krafla Fires
 Volcanics of the North and Northeastern Regions  105

exceeded those from the previous eruption. Moreover,
he found geographical differences in the fissure com-
position of the Krafla Fire event between the northern
and southern sections. Specifically, the samples ana-
lyzed from the southern section more resembled those
produced by the Mývatn Fires (i.e., basaltic); those
from the northern section had a less evolved chemical
composition as compared to the Mývatn Fires and
were similar to postglacial lavas erupted from single
crater events (i.e., phreatomagmatic eruptions including
rhyolitic pumice and basaltic scoria) [Sæmundsson,
1991; Jónasson, 1994]. Perhaps most importantly,
Grönvold [1984] estimated that the difference in
magma temperature between the most and least
evolved was only ~30°C at the time of the eruption,
indicating the close proximity of sources for all
magmas involved.
10.4. TINNÁ CENTRAL VOLCANO AND OTHER
EXTINCT VOLCANOES IN THE REGION
Well before activity at Askja or Krafla, northern
Iceland was a location of significant volcanism during
the Tertiary as evidenced by the extinct structures found
in the landscape today (Figure 7.2) [Jóhannesson and
Sæmundsson, 1998]. The Neogene (5–6 Ma) Tinná
(210 km3; 65.2500, −18.8333) central volcano is located
in the Skagafjörður Valley, (Figure 10.8). The Tinná
central volcano was likely active for between 0.5
and 1 Myr according to the principles outlined by
Gudmundsson [2000]. From various Ar/Ar dating out-
lined by Hjarartason [2003], the volcano was active for
at least three normal polarity subchrons throughout the
late Miocene and beginning of the Pliocene. A ­caldera
collapse occurred during the final stages of volcanic

Figure 10.8 Simplified geology of the Tinná central volcano. The domain of the volcano includes all the acid
and intermediate lavas related to it. The approximate limits of the Skati Dome and the proposed alignment
of the caldera are based on Hjartason [2003]. [Design credit Nathan Mennen.]
106 VOLCANICS
activity before it was buried under younger piles of lava
as it drifted west away from the active NVZ.
The activity at Tinná produced four rhyolitic lava
domes and is thought to have originated on‐rift in the
NVZ. The largest of the four domes (80 km2) is Skati
(500 m tall) and it has been referred to as the most
­voluminous monogenetic rhyolite formation in Iceland
defined in terms of both lava (8 km3) and tephra depo-
sition (18 km3) that were likely deposited simulta-
neously [Hjartarson, 2003]. Although generally rare,
Hjartarson [2003] describes the Skati dome to be an
order of magnitude larger than any other found in
Iceland and argues that the size may have been deter-
mined by a shallow magma chamber thus allowing acid
lavas to easily access the surface; although the absence
of a caldera and high‐temperature alteration may dis-
pute this claim. The initial Plinian eruption was fol-
lowed by intermediate volcanism and later accumulation
of tholeiitic lava piles, which primarily flowed to the
east for over 8 km into the central Tinnárdalur Valley
and to the west 7 km toward Mount Hofsfjall.
Perhaps most significant is the contribution that the
Skati tephra has made as a marker bed in deep‐sea
cores, and hence to the Ocean Drilling Project (ODP).
The ~5.2 Ma Skati tephra has been recovered in 100%
of the cores downwind from Iceland along the north
and northeast coasts. This discrete tephra layer contains
75% SiO2 and has reversed magnetic polarity [Lacasse
and Garbe‐Schönberg, 2001]. Moreover, from further
investigation of the dispersal patterns, thickness, and
grain‐size analysis they concur that the Skati tephra was
derived from one of the largest explosive eruptions that
ever occurred in the Neogene rift zones of Iceland. The
Skati tephra was found in ODP core 907, located 550 km
from the Tinná volcano in the Arctic Ocean, a distance
considered not to have changed much since the time of
the eruption [Hjartarson, 2003].
The Skati tephra is just one of 11 units in the
succession of the Tinná Group that together describe
changes in volcanism of the area over time. The units
range in thickness from 18 to 300 m and compositions
include lignite, tholeiite, andesite, and rhyolite. Within
the succession dike intensity becomes greater with
increasing depth; occupying 10–20% of rock volume at
depth. Individual dikes that penetrate lava piles range
in thickness between 1 and 5 m, although they have
been mapped up to 40 m in thickness. Additionally,
dike swarms have not been found in the Skagafjörður
Valley [Hjartarson, 2003].
Other notable Neogene features include several
extinct volcanoes located in the area between
Borgarfjörður Eystri (65.5475, −13.7366) and
Loðmundarfjöður (65.3883, −13.9536), including
Dyrfjöll, Breiðavík, Kækjuskörð, Herfell, and Álftavík‐
Seydisfjörður. At Dyrfjöll (65.5247, −13.9575) Berg
et al. [2014] determined at least two eruptive centers
and that the volcano had produced at least five erup-
tive phases, including two that were predominately
silica‐rich explosive eruptions. These large eruptions
lead to caldera collapse and the production of large
volumes of ignimbrites. The Neogene volcanoes
became dormant over the course of the next 20 Myr,
as they moved away from the NVZ axial rift system.
Subsequently, these extinct central cones became
buried beneath plateau basalts from fissure eruptions
in the area, which can now be seen as basalt flats across
the northern landscape. The burial metamorphism
that resulted from lava piles in the NVZ produced zeo-
lite zones that were first traced throughout the deposits
by Walker [1960].
 11
Volcanics of the Western Region
Historically, the volcanism on the Snæfellsnes
Peninsula in western Iceland has always been of
interest, featuring anomalous patterns unseen on other
parts of the island. First, the Snæfellsnes syncline rep-
resents an extinct volcanic zone that was active at least
from 16 to 6 Ma (Figure 6.1) [Sæmundsson, 1974;
Jóhannesson, 1980]. The majority of the Holocene
volcanic rocks now exposed at the surface rest uncon-
formably on top of Matuyama–Brunhes transition
Pleistocene basalts (~840 ka produced by this once
active rift zone [Sæmundsson, 1979]. All that otherwise
remains from this period of paleovolcanism are the
centers of three volcanoes, Setberg I (64.0630,
−21.9272), Ellidi (64.8780, −22.9980), and Hrappsey
(65.1191, −22.5997) further to the north (Figure 11.1).
Volcanic activity on this rift ceased after 6 Ma,
although the significant Froda‐Breiðavík (64.8652,
−23.6541; Figure 11.1) intruded between 3.8 and 4 Ma.
The next activity on the Snæfellsnes Peninsula was
evolution of the modern SVB (Figure 2.1), which is
~120 km in length and extends from Nordurárdalur
(64.9777, −23.8969) to Borgarfjórdur (64.3004,
−22.0032). Although still debatable, it is likely that the
SVB was initiated from differential spreading rates
between the northern and southern portions of the
island during the Early Pleistocene (~2.6 Ma)
[Sigurðsson, 1970]. More specifically, during this time
the EVZ was connected to the WVZ via the SISZ and
the MIB transform boundaries in the south, thereby
creating the Hepprar microplate. Simultaneously, the
NVZ was moving away from the KR to create the TFZ
(Figure 2.1). By the late Pleistocene, movement along
the NVZ ceased, while the southern portion continued
Iceland: Tectonics,Volcanics, and Glacial Features, Geophysical Monograph 247, First Edition. Tamie J. Jovanelly.
© 2020 American Geophysical Union. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
107
to rift, as evidenced by locations such as Þingvellir (see
sections 3.4 and 8.5). Sigurðsson [1970] suggests that
the stored energy of the north was then displaced,
which resulted in the transcurrent faulting (sometimes
referred to as the Þingvellir–Langjökull zone) of the
Snæfellsnes Peninsula westwardly to the Icelandic
Shelf (Figure 11.2) where a dense concentration (>8)
of extinct offshore central volcanoes (>6 Ma) have
been mapped by magnetic and gravity reflection data
[Kristjansson, 1979]; essentially, the SVB was a tempo-
rary continuation of the MIB (Figures 2.1 and 11.2).
To date, what remains unexplained by this hypothesis
is the dissipation of activity at the eastern end of the
SVB, along with the question of dormancy versus
extinction of the SVB.
With the onset of the Plio‐Pleistocene, three central
volcanoes were formed along the east–west orientated
SVB: Snæfellsnes, Hellgrindur, and Ljósufjöll (Figures
7.2 and 11.1). Little is known about the deep structure
of the Snæfellsnes Peninsula, although computer mod-
eling suggests that the crustal thickness in the area is
the thinnest on Iceland (15–20 km) [Allen et al., 2002a;
Du et al., 2002] and that the estimated depth to the
Mohorovičić discontinuity beneath the peninsula is
20–24 km [Darbyshire et al., 2000].
Overall contribution of SVB volcanism is minimal
during historic times (0.5%) compared with other
volcanic zones in Iceland [Thordarson and Larsen,
2007]. The estimated total volume of erupted magma
for the SVB is 6.7 km3: composed of 0.2 km3 lava and
6.5 km3 tephra. Each of the three volcanoes on the
peninsula, however, is known to have been active
during the Holocene, depositing both alkaline and
­
Figure 11.1 Paleo central volcanoes (Setberg I, Ellidi, and Hrappsey) of the Snæfellsnes Peninsula, the
Snæfellsnes syncline axis, and the Snæfellsnes, Helgríndur (Lýsuskard), and Ljosufjöll volcanic systems. The
Froda‐Breiðavík intrusion is found between Snæfellsjökull and Helgríndur. [Modified from Hardarson and
Fitton [1991]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]

Figure 11.2 The Langjökull and Þingvellir transform faults are important to the features and activity on the
Snæfellsnes Peninsula. [Modified from Sigurdsson [1970]; design credit Nate Mennen.]
 Volcanics of the Western Region 109

tholeiitic basalts on the surface (Figure 7.1) that con-
tribute significantly to the area’s tephrochronology
record [Jóhannesson et al., 1981]. Specifically, the dom-
inant rhyolitic volcanism found on the peninsula can
be best attributed to at least 10 Holocene eruptions at
both the Snæfellsjökull and Ljósufjöll volcanoes
[Smithsonian Institute, 2019]. Although rifting epi-
sodes are not found on the Snæfellsnes Peninsula,
three distinct, parallel bands of ~60 craters have been
mapped (Figure 11.3). The highest concentration of
craters is found in the extreme west dating to the last
glacial period, indicating reactivation of the early
Pleistocene volcanotectonic line (see transect C–C’,
Figure 11.3) [Sigurðsson, 1970].
11.1. THE SNÆFELLSJÖKULL VOLCANIC SYSTEM:
A JOURNEY TO THE CENTER OF EARTH
The Snæfellsjökull volcano (64.9777, −23.8969) has
played a central role in the Pleistocene volcanic history
of the SVB, which is 30 km in length and covers the
majority of the western peninsula (Figures 6.1 and 11.1).
Pleistocene deposits (hyaloclastites) and interglacial
lava flows (≤ 800 m) that tend to show striations, thus
distinguishing them from postglacial deposits
[Harðarson, 1993], form the easternmost part of the
volcanic system. The ability to delineate strata based
on glacial scouring is particularly important to the
geology of this area, as there is evidence for at least 20

Figure 11.3 Geology of the Snæfellsnes Peninsula highlighting three main areas of volcanic zonation (A‐A’,
Ljosufjöll; B‐B’, Helgrindur; C‐C’, Ljosufjöll) that mimic the parallel relationship of paleocraters. [Modified
from Sigurdsson [1970]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]
110 VOLCANICS
glacial–interglacial episodes in the Icelandic record
over the past 3.1 Myr and on this peninsula evidence
for 10 glaciations have been observed [Jóhannesson
et al., 1981].
Common to the SVB are the numerous subglacially
formed tindars and tuyas (Figure 7.5) that are found
around Snæfellsjökull dating to ~60,000 BCE, or the
last glaciation. Notable examples include: Sandkulur
(844 m; 64.8300, −23.7047), Geldingafell (824 m;
64.8461, −23.7488), and Ólafsvíkurenni (519 m;
64.8580, −23.6722). Temporally equivalent hyaloclas-
tite deposits containing palagonite and columnar
basalts indicating submarine or subglacial eruptions
occur on the southern coast, from Londrangar to
Breiðavík (Figures 7.6 and 11.1) [Harðarson, 1993]. In
contrast to these mafic effusive structures, Pleistocene
rhyolitic (ranging from acidic to intermediate) deposits
also can be found in the SVB. As described by
Jóhnnesson et al. [1981], Maelifell (64.7444, −23.7241)
is a rhyolitic dome of mixed composition that likely
formed during the last glaciation. Skridan (64.8169,
−23.9058) is similar to Maelifell as it is of equivalent
Photo 36 The stratovolcano Snæfellsjökull. [Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]
age and includes hyaloclastites, however, its structure
also incorporates pillow lavas and a lava cap.
Snæfellsjökull (1446 m) is located on the western-
most tip of the peninsula and may be known best for
its fictional description by Jules Verne in the 1864
novel Journey to the Centre of the Earth in which the
central vent is thought to lead scientists into the
underworld. According to Thordarson and Larsen
[2007], Snæfellsjökull (Photo 36) is one of only five
volcanoes in Iceland that fit the classification of stra-
tovolcano (470 km2) as it has a summit crater (200 m
deep) and is lined with a lava dome along the rim.
The horseshoe shape of the crater may indicate an
asymmetrical explosive eruption leading off the
northern flank with characteristics similar to the
1980 Mount St Helens eruption [Jóhannesson et al.,
1981]. Seismic tomography by Obermann et al. [2016]
found three anomalies that reveal the internal struc-
ture of the volcano: a solidified magma chamber at
between 3.3 and 5.5 km depth, a gabbro intrusion
at 2.5 km depth, and a shallow magmatic reservoir at
1.5 km depth.

This 700 ka volcano [Hoernle et al., 2009] is also
sometimes referred to as a stratovolcano–tuya hybrid
as it likely formed under deep deposits of glacial ice
(Figures 7.3 and 7.5), which would explain its com-
plex volcanic history [Hards et al., 2000; Evans et al.,
2016] (Figure 11.4). For example, Snæfellsjökull has
had ~20 explosive and effusive eruptions that have
­produced sizable pyroclastic craters on its flanks (e.g.,
Holatindar, 64.7947, −23.8425), as well as mildly alka-
lic Holocene lava flows that extend over the entire
western side of the volcano and peninsula [Smithsonian
Institute, 2019). It has been estimated that the evolu-
tion of complex magma compositions took ~190 kyr
and more than 300 kyr before trachybasalts (i.e.,
hawaiite) were erupted from the volcano [Harðarson,
1993]. The hawaiite lava flow (referred to as SNB31 in
tephrochronology), which indicates the earliest evolu-
tion of magma in the SVB, can be seen just east of
Olafsvík in Yti Bugur (64.8738, −23.6427).
Figure 11.4 Geology and chronostratigraphy of Snæfell­
sjökull. [Modified from Evans et al. [2016]; design credit
Nathan Mennen.]
Volcanics of the Western Region 111
Harðarson [1993] established that the majority of
Snæfellsjökull rock samples had a phenocryst content
of <20% by volume, which were analyzed in order to
illustrate complex morphologies and zonal patterns
used to provide evidence of disequilibrium conditions
resulting from magma mixing. Interestingly, Martin
and Sigmarsson [2007] found that both basic and acid
magmas from Snæfellsjökull have identical Sr and Nd
isotope compositions, which could indicate that they
were derived from a common source (i.e., fractional
crystallization of magma). Three of the last 10
Holocene eruptions are classified as Plinian style (VEI
estimated to be >4.0), producing trachytic tephra
layers and peralkalic rhyolites similar to those in the
EVZ at Torfajökull [Hards et al., 2000; Jóhannesson
et al., 1982] (Table 7.1). Comparison of the unique
chemical composition of the deposits found in the
SVB with those in the EVZ has enabled an assessment
of silica magma genesis as a function of geographic
location. This comparison further illustrates that
fractional crystallization is linked to off‐rift locations
with lower geothermal gradients (40–60°C km−1) and
to crustal melt processes at on‐rift locations [Martin
and Sigmarsson, 2007].
Three important postglacial rhyolitic tephra deposits
from Snæsfellsjökull have radiocarbon ages of 200 BP,
2010 BP, and 6050 BP, and are often referred to as the
Snæfellsnes Peninsula marker beds, SN‐1, SN‐2, and
SN‐3, respectively [Steinthorsson, 1967; Jóhannesson
et al., 1981]. From tephra isopach maps Jóhannesson
et al. [1981] interpret that the primary axis of deposition
for these three events is orientated to the northeast of
the volcano. Additionally, they found that the thickness
of the deposits reduces with distance from >5 m thick at
the volcano base to 1 cm thick 45 km away. Based on
radiocarbon dating and geochemical analysis, the SN‐2
tephra layer has been identified in central Sweden and is
thought to correlate with a deposit that locally is referred
to as LBA‐2 [Wastegard et al., 2009]. The thickest of
these tephra deposits along the northeast margins have
been mined during the 20th century for building
construction additives [Evans et al., 2016].
The SN‐1 layer is the most investigated unit of the
three as it documents the last eruption occurring at
Snæfellsjökull, which deposited 0.11 km3 of volcanic
material. Investigations of jökulhlaup events associ-
ated with the 200 BP event revealed them to be
relatively small in comparison with the historic floods
of Katla (Figure 9.6) and Grímsvötn [Smith and
Sigmundsson, 2010]. Importantly, from a hazard miti-
gation point of view, they found that the more exten-
sive floods flowed to the north and east out of the
112 VOLCANICS
main outlet glaciers that drain from the caldera. Also
important for hazard mitigation and to evacuation
planning was their recognition of fluvially transported
pumice deposits on the southern and western slopes,
which occurred post‐eruption when rain‐triggered
lahars remobilized the unconsolidated airfall pumice.
The last volcanic eruption on the peninsula occurred
1750 years ago, which is relevant to questions
concerning the repose of the volcano and the SVB.
Currently, the peninsula is not seismically monitored,
nor do historic records suggest seismicity beyond a
low‐level (M <3.0) intraplate earthquake event that
occurred at the easternmost part of the SVB in 1974
[Einarsson et al., 1977]. An extensive study by Fuchs
et al. [2013], however, determined that the southern
and northeast flanks have measureable microseismic
activity (Ml ≤1.0, where ML is is local magnitude) at
depths ranging 8–15 km. They suggest that the seis-
micity is associated with fluid‐induced fracturing in
the shallow, ductile crust, related to one or more
­magmatic reservoirs. It has been postulated that the
seismicity of the peninsula will escalate with increasing
global temperatures that induce glacial melt. Bakker
et al. [2014] used Snæfellsjökull to demonstrate this
hypothesis as the glacier has been measured by
­ interest, the lava samples from Ljósufjöll contained lit-
Jóhannesson et al. [2011] to be melting at
1.25 m.w.e. year−1, where w.e. is water equivalent. Their
study indicates that it is easier for shallow magmatic
fluids to upwell during times of accelerated glacial
retreat as the mantle surface is devoid of stresses and is
undergoing isostatic release of pressure. Moreover,
Harðarson and Fitton [1991] argue that melting of the
glacial ice on Snæfellsjökull causes a reduction of
pressure in the mantle sufficient to affect magma com-
position. This phenomeon may help to answer why
there are regional changes in chemistry along the pen-
insula whereby rocks become more undersaturated
from west to east along the SVB [Harðarson, 1993].
11.2. LJÓSUFJÖLL
Another active volcano on the Snaefellsnes Peninsula
is Ljósufjöll (64.9313, −22.5658; Figure 11.1) of the
Ljósufjöll volcanic zone, which is approximately 90 km
in length and 10–20 km wide. In contrast to the SVB,
there is a fault that runs from Ljósufjöll to a crater
called Grábrók (64.8233, −21.5516). Movement along
the fault seems to coincide with volcanic eruptions,
although the eruptions are less silica rich in composi-
tion as compared with Snæfellsjökull [Jóhannesson,
1982; Sigurddson, 1970]. Harðarson [1993] considers
the variability of alkalinity along the Ljósufjöll
volcanic zone (i.e., greater values in the west) to be the
result of greater mantle partial melting closer to the
SVB in the east.
While smaller in both height (1063 m) and area
(720 km2) than Snæfellsjökull, Ljósufjöll has provided
the most recent volcanic activity on the peninsula,
dating to 960 CE [Fuchs et al., 2013]. Flude et al. [2008]
suggest that this volcano represents the largest outcrop
(by volume) of Quaternary silica material on the penin-
sula. Through field observation and analysis of geo-
chemical signatures, 13 silica units representing separate
eruptive events have been identified in the succession
near Ljósufjöll. Flude et al. [2010] describe the geo-
chemistry of these eruptions further by identifying
them as six peralkaline rhyolites (displaying strong
depletions in Ba, Sr, and Eu), six trachytes, and one
alkalic rhyolite. The geochemistry of these off‐rift
­volcanics has important relevance in the comparison
with similar deposits found for the Torfajökull central
volcano in the SISZ (Figure 2.1) [Martin and Sigmarsson,
2007]. In their study on the petrogenesis of the rhyolites
at Ljósufjöll, Martin and Sigmarsson [2007] determined
that ~95% of the samples formed via fractional
crystallization from a parent basaltic magma. Also of
tle water despite their subglacial origin. These findings
can be compared with the geologic maps of the area
by Jóhannesson and Sæmundsson [1995] that show that
the volcano is surrounded by Pleistocene subglacial to
interglacial lava fields (ranging from basaltic to
intermediate) that were rapidly deposited over the
course of 800–100 ka. Additionally, some of the largest
of these deposits can be found in two valleys, Hitardalur
(64.7786, −22.0650) and Hnappadalur (64.8927,
−22.2488), and they indicate an eruption period 3000–
2000 ka [Einarsson, 1970]. Bersekjahraun (64.9694,
−22.9320), Horgsholtshraun (64.9041, −22.6611), and
Gullborgarhraun (64.8844, −22.2558) are significant
craters associated with the Ljósufjöll volcanic zone.
11.3. HELGRINDUR
The Lýsuskard volcanic system is the smallest of
the three systems depicted in Figure 11.1 and
spans 30 km from Tröllatindar (64.8925, −22.9858)
to Búlandshöfdi (64.9516, −23.4405). The most
significant feature in the Lýsukard system is the vol-
cano Helgrindur (647 m tall, area 220 km2), which
sometimes is referred to as Lýsukard or Lysuhóll.
The flanks of this volcano provide one of the only
places on the Snaefellsnes Peninsula where at least 10
glacial cycles can be identified [Jóhannesson, 1982].

Figure 11.5 Cross‐section and plan view of Vatnshellir Cave system. [Modified from Stefánsson [2010];
design credit Nathan Mennen.]
Craters associated with the Lýsuskard volcanic
system have produced prominent Holocene lava
fields, including Bláfeldarhraun (64.8211, −23.1702)
and Hraunsmulahraun (64.8225, −23.0772).
Additionally, the Grábók Lava Field (64.8022,
−21.5608) is one of the only examples of aa lava in
the Snaefellsnes Peninsula due to the low‐viscosity
magma generated by the event.
11.4. VATNSHELLIR CAVE
The Vatnshellir Cave (64.7483, −23.8177) is a 205 m
long lava system in the SVB that has linear tubes found
on three levels (Figure 11.5). These linear tubes were
formed by the slow movement of low‐viscosity magma
that began to form an exterior crust, thus insulating
the warm magma inside, preventing it from solidifying.
Volcanics of the Western Region 113
Characteristically, the floors of the cave are lined with
pahoehoe flow structures and the lowermost parts of
the walls are lined with benches marking the height of
the last lava flow.
Members of the conservation committee of the
Icelandic Speleological Society have extensively sur-
veyed the cave for the purpose of providing both a safe
access for the visiting public and tourists and a means
of conserving the cave from further destruction
[Stefánsson, 2010]. The middle floor is 12–23 m below
the surface and about 100 m long, and there is a 12 m
vertical lava fall that leads to the lowermost level,
about 35 m below the surface. The cave, one of the
jewels of the Snæfelljsökull National Park, is run by a
local tourist firm (Summitguides) and is now a popular
public and tourist destination on the Snæfellsnes
Peninsula.
Part III: Glacial Features
 12
Overview of Glacial Features in Iceland
12.1. GLACIAL SETTING
As evidenced by the deep fjords, jagged mountain
peaks, tabletop mountains, and U‐shaped valleys
found in Iceland, the alpine landscape has largely been
carved by expansion and retreat of glaciers over
geologic time. Although much is known about the
island’s past glaciations, the Miocene through
Pleistocene terrestrial record in Iceland is considered
to be the most continuous and detailed in the Northern
Hemisphere [Geirsdóttir and Eiríksson, 1996]. The first
tillite can be found in Lower Pliocene (5–3.5 Ma)
deposits [Símonarson, 1980]. This compares with
paleomagnetic stratigraphic records of bracketing lava
flows, and the K–AR dating of sediments, that deter-
mined that glaciation began before the normal polarity
Gauss Chron (~5 Ma) when a small icecap formed
near the center of Iceland [Geirsdóttir and Eiríksson,
1994] (Figure 2.2). This deterioration in climate in the
Late Pliocene prompted a switch in flora from decid-
uous to boreal forest regimes [Einarsson, 1994].
Evidence of this can be found from fossil leaf imprints
of Dryas octopetala, Betula nana and Empetrum
nigrum [Friedrich, 1966; Rungred and Ingólfsson, 1999]
(Photo 37). Similarly, as indicated by the Sleggjulækur
flora in western Iceland and the Pliocene Tjörnes flora
(Box 2.1) in northern Iceland, a later Late Pliocene
transition occurred where Betula and Salix shrubs and
grasses became dominant as the forests declined
[Einarsson, 1994; Rungred and Ingólfsson, 1999].
Although there is evidence for local mountain ice
caps of Miocene age in the southeast [Geirsdóttir and
Eiríksson, 1994], it is considered that the onset of this
extensive glacial period was gradual rather than
Iceland: Tectonics,Volcanics, and Glacial Features, Geophysical Monograph 247, First Edition. Tamie J. Jovanelly.
© 2020 American Geophysical Union. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
117
synchronous over the whole island. At 2.9 Ma the
mean air temperature is estimated to have been at 0°C
[Símonarson, 1980] and the first regional glacier expan-
sion occurred ~2.6 Ma [Geirsdóttir and Eiríksson,
1994]. It took at least 200 kyr thereafter for ice to
extend across Iceland from the north towards the east
and west and, lastly, to the south [Geirsdóttir and
Eiríksson, 1994]. In line with this idea of continued ice‐
sheet growth is the appearance of glacial deposits
found everywhere on the island that date to 2.4 Ma.
From these records it has been established that there
have been at least 15–23 glaciations in Iceland during
the past 3 Myr [Einarsson and Albertsson, 1988]. Since
between 2.2 and 2.0 Ma, effusive eruptions are notable
during interglacial phases, and phases of glacial expan-
sion are represented across the island as tabletop
mountains and pillow lavas.
The offshore record confirms onland glacial expan-
sion, with a dramatic increase in the abundance of ice‐
rafted debris (IRD) deposits being identified in North
Atlantic deep‐sea cores [Shackleton et al, 1984; Raymo
et al., 1989]. The record of initial local onset is fol-
lowed by evidence for onset of global ice expansion at
about 2.6 Ma and establishment of glacial–interglacial
cycles (Figure 2.2; Box 12.1) [Eiríksson and Geirsdóttir,
1991]. Closer to the shore the eroded glacial products
are preserved as cyclothems with sequences indicating
transgressive or regressive sea‐level changes [Einarsson
and Albertsson, 1988].
By the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; ~26 ka) the
Weichselian ice sheet grew to cover the entire island
(Figure 2.2; Figure 12.1). As evidenced by end
(terminal) moraines deposited offshore, during the
LGM the ice sheet expanded towards the shelf slope
118 GLACIAL FEATURES
Photo 37 Small birch trees in Iceland at present are similar to the boreal forest vegetation seen during the
Early Pleistocene climatic transition. [Tim Graham/Alamy Stock Photo.]
break, ~130 km off the coastline of the western fjords
at Breiðafjörður (65.2500, −23.2500) [Olafsdóttir, 1975;
Ingólfsson and Norðdahl, 1994; Andrews et al., 2000].
From trimlines on tabletop mountains formed during
the Saalian (penultimate) glaciation (Figure 12.1),
Einarsson and Albertsson [1988] extrapolated the
maximum altitude of the ice‐sheet surface during this
period to be between 2000 and 2500 m; a value Hubbard
et al. [2006] later confirmed by modeling. Additionally,
Hubbard et al. [2006] estimated the ice‐sheet surface
area covering Iceland during the LGM to be
330,000 km2 or 30 times larger than today.
Starting at about 15 ka, the large and continuous ice
sheet covering Iceland began a step‐wise retreat to its
current size, as indicated from radiocarbon dating
of both glaciomarine deposits and lake sediments
[Ingólfsson and Norðdahl, 1994; Jennings et al., 2000]
(Figure 12.2). The climate in Iceland during the inter-
stadials following the LGM was probably similar to
present, or 5–10°C warmer than the stadials [Símonarson,
1979]. The influence of the Bølling–Allerød Interstadial
(~14,700 ka to ~12,700 ka) in Iceland was significant;
reducing the ice sheet to about 25% of the LGM size by
13.8 ka [Pétursson et al., 2015]. The influence of glacio-
isostatic adjustment (GIA) is also seen through the
transgressive shorelines found at 70 m a.s.l. in the
southwest and 90 m a.s.l. in the northwest [Pétursson
et al., 2015]. Oxygen isotope ratios ­measured in fossil
marine sediments found along the North Atlantic coast-
line from the Bölling–Alleröd Interstadial suggest that
sea‐surface temperatures were similar to present
(Box 12.2). Ruddiman and MacIntyre [1981] proposed
that final deglaciation was initiated by a drastic
change that occurred when the marine polar front
entered the North Atlantic. Specifically, low winter
insolation and the formation of low‐salinity meltwater
caused the density‐driven ocean current system of the
North Atlantic to slow, which resulted in a moisture
starvation of the ice sheet and subsequent disintegra-
tion [Ruddiman and MacIntyre, 1981]. This late
Pleistocene deglaciation is linked to a 30‐fold increase in
volcanism for about 2 kyr [Maclennan et al., 2002].
Interrupting the overall melting trend, however, are
some well‐documented ice‐sheet readvances that have
Box 12.1 The Use of Oxygen Isotopes as Climate Change Indicators
Emily Larrimore
Elucidating details about past climatic changes
often requires the use of climate proxies. One such
proxy is ice rafted debris (IRD), or sediment trans-
ported within icebergs that become entrained in
ocean circulation patterns [Phleger, 1949]. The ice-
bergs eventually degrade, depositing the sediment
on the ocean floor. This sediment often has a
specific mineralogical signature and grain size that
allows its source material to be identified. Although
the IRD usually has a finer grain size distribution
comparable to glacial till, coarser material is an
indicator that the source was likely a glacial
moraine rather than a sandur plain [Grobe, 1987].
Off Iceland, IRD has been used to determine the
distribution of icebergs into the North Atlantic,
the volume of continental erosion caused by ice
movement, and the rate of glacial melting
[Ruddiman, 1977]. The information derived allows
researchers to draw specific conclusions about the
regional and global climate over both recent and
geologic times [Grobe, 1987]. Information from IRD
is especially important regarding Heinrich Events, or
events occurring every 8000–10,000 years, in which
large fluxes of iceberg armadas enter the ocean
circulation, influencing the thermohaline circulation
and, ultimately, global climate [Heinrich, 1988].
During a Heinrich Event, it is possible for enough
meltwater volume (~2.3 million km3) to be intro-
duced to the density‐driven ocean current system to
cause mixing of warm waters to reduce as evidenced
in the North Atlantic during the Last Glacial
Maximum [Roche et al., 2004; Obrochta et al.,
2014]. For this reason, Heinrich Events initiate the
onset of extreme cooling.
To analyze IRD, marine sediment cores are col-
lected in the North Atlantic, Antarctic, or Arctic
Ocean, where glaciers have formed. Material
eroded by the glacier is transported at the base of
the ice where it remains when icebergs are formed
at calving ice margins. The icebergs may become
entrained in sea ice before being released into the
open ocean, but in either state when basal melting
occurs debris in the ice descends to the ocean (or
lake or fjord) floor to be recognized as IRD in sed-
iment cores [Phleger, 1949]. Grain analysis is con-
ducted to evaluate the content of IRD influxes. The
IRD material is typically rounded and too dense to
have been transported by ocean currents, thus it is
concluded the material must have been deposited
from melting icebergs [Heinrich, 1988]. Typically,
a measurement of the total minerogenic grains per
gram of sediment (IRD gsed−1) is used, utilizing siev-
ing to remove coarse material from the sample in
order to reduce noise in the data [Fronval and
Jansen, 1996]. Using this method enables small
pulses of IRD to be determined and the results to
be statistically significant. A high concentration of
IRD is an indicator that icebergs, sea ice, or both
were present at a time interval indicated by the
depositional layer of the sediment [Phleger, 1949].
During the Quaternary, it is estimated that 70% of
the total IRD deposited globally was deposited in the
subpolar North Atlantic, south of Iceland [Ruddiman,
1977]. In terms of volume of IRD, it is estimated that
in the past 3 Ma, approximately 200,000 km3 of
unconsolidated sediment has been moved from
­terrestrial locations to the deep Atlantic [Ruddiman,
1977]. The major ocean currents responsible for
transporting icebergs, and subsequently IRD, to the
mid‐latitude Atlantic are the Labrador Current and
the East Iceland Current [Andrews et al., 2000].
Many ice cores are collected from the North
Icelandic shelf, an area with high oceanographic
sensitivity to climate changes. The location of the
North Icelandic shelf is between the North Atlantic
and Polar oceanographic and atmospheric fronts,
which are very strong fronts that dictate tempera-
ture, salinity, and Arctic conditions. Even small
shifts in the input or output of water masses has a
pronounced effect on the system, and this is
reflected in the sediment found in marine sediment
cores [Knudsen et al., 2009]. Collecting marine
sediment cores from the North Icelandic shelf pro-
vides favorable temporal resolution for past climate
and oceanographic changes because the sedimen-
tation rates of the sedimentary basins located here
are very high [Knudsen et al., 2009]. Also, the
North Icelandic shelf has the distinction of being a
sample area within a volcanically active region.
Tephra layers deposited in the sediment allow for
more reliable age determination and avoid issues
with spatial and temporal increase in the marine
reservoir dating caused by incursions of Arctic
water masses [Knudsen et al., 2009]. The presence
of volcanic and non‐volcanic source material aids
researchers in ascertaining the origin of the IRD
whether it be Iceland, Greenland, or the Arctic
Ocean [Knudsen et al., 2009]. Furthermore,
because the bedrock of Iceland does not contain
sufficient amounts of quartz grains, IRD containing
rounded quartz grains are assigned to a different
source region [Eiríksson et al., 2000].
Figure 12.1 Maximum Weichselian ice sheet extent in Iceland as indicated by end moraines mapped
­offshore, and the Álftanes (A) and Búd ̄i (B) readvance stages. The altitudes of Saalian tabletop mountains
have been used to extrapolate glacial ice thickness. [Modified from Einarsson and Albertsson [1988]; design
credit Nathan Mennen.]

Figure 12.2 Distribution and areal extent of Iceland’s present ice caps. [Design credit Nathan Mennen.]

Box 12.2 Oxygen Isotope Fractionation
Emily Larrimore
Observational data regarding temperature and
­climate are extremely limited prior to 1860 CE
[Schöne et al., 2005]. To extrapolate high‐resolu-
tion and long‐term data about climate, proxies are
used to create more accurate and spatiotemporally
complete climate models [Schöne et al., 2005]. To
quantitatively assess past climates, isotope ratios can
be used as a proxy for air temperature, sea‐surface
temperature, and climate. As an example, oxygen
isotopes are often used for these purposes. The
ratio of O18 to O16 is expressed as δ18O or
Delta‐O‐18, and is measured in units of parts per
thousands, denoted as ‰ [Dansgaard, 1964].
An isotope is two or more elements all with the
same number of protons, but a different number of
neutrons. While O16 is the most abundant oxygen
isotope in nature, two others also exist (O17 and
O18) [Meyer, 2005]. Individual water molecules can
contain different isotopes of oxygen. When a water
molecule contains O18 it is described as being
“heavy” because it has a greater molecular weight
than O17, for example [Dansgaard, 1964]. These
isotopes act as proxies for climate change because
they reflect the amount of heat energy available in
a system. This means that in warmer climates there
is enough energy to evaporate higher concentra-
tions of the heavier O18 water molecules from the
ocean. Once evaporated into the atmosphere, the
O18 water molecules can then be precipitated as
snow onto land thereby creating a “heavy” O18 sig-
nature in ice cores. In turn, the “lighter” O16 is left
in the water column and can then be incorportated
into the exteriors of the microfossils living within
that system [Dansgaard, 1964]. The opposite effect
occurs to the oxygen isotope ratios when the cli-
mate is cool. Additionally, an inverse relationship is
established when comparing oxygen isotope levels
in ice cores to sediment cores.
been studied in Iceland, including the Álftanes Stage
(~12 ka correlating with the Younger Dryas) and,
­following the Bölling–Alleröd Interstadial, the Búði
Stage (~9.8–9.6 ka) (Figure 12.1). These readvances
represent just two of nine (minimum) that occurred
between the LGM and early Preboreal time [Ingólfsson,
OVERVIEW OF GLACIAL FEATURES IN ICELAND 121
Isotopic analysis can be used to determine past
changes in climate by investigating terrestrial and
ocean records. Ice cores are considered a valuable
way to describe the land surface because as
incremental layers of firn accumulate, atmospheric
gases are also trapped in the ice, thereby preserving
a sample of the surface air during the time of
formation [Johnsen et al., 2001]. In addition to using
the water molecules themselves as proxies for cli-
mate change, data for atmospheric carbon dioxide
levels can also be extracted from the ice. Ocean
sediment cores containing microfossils with calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) and siliceous (SiO2) exteriors are
used to describe changes in the ocean because these
organisms are particularly sensitive to sea‐surface
temperatures and salinity. The value of δ18O precipi-
tated by the carbonate microfossils is a function of
the δ18O in the water when the carbonate shell was
formed, and the temperature of the water at the time
of shell formation [Leng and Lewis, 2016]. Isotope
ratio mass spectrometry, or the process of separating
different isotopes based on their mass‐to‐charge
ratios, is used to obtain an accurate isotopic
­
­composition of the sample [Leng and Lewis, 2016].
In Iceland, oxygen isotope ratios were measured
from ice cores extracted from the Hofsjökull glacier,
Iceland’s third largest glacier covering 880 km2 in the
southwest region of the country [Thorsteinsson et al.,
2004]. In the central area of the summit caldera of
Hofsjökull the ice is 750 m thick with an estimated
age of 1000 years old [Thorsteinsson et al., 2004].
An average δ18O of –12.9‰ was found, signaling a
warming climate that corresponds with the settling of
the Víkings [Thorsteinsson et al., 2004]. Furthermore,
it is believed that future ice‐core drilling at Hofsjökull
could yield higher resolution isotopic records to
further explain LIA conditions in the North Atlantic
region [Thorsteinsson et al., 2004].
1988]. Moraine sequences found in southwest Iceland
(64.1006, −22.0290 and 64.8402, −23.3407, respec-
tively) mark readvance limits that define both the
Álftanes and Búði Stages [Einarsson, 1968; Ingólfsson,
1988; Norðahl et al., 2008]. Hagen [1995] concluded
from isotopic analysis and planktonic foraminiferal
122 GLACIAL FEATURES
Figure 12.3 The extent of Iceland’s ice sheet during the Younger Dryas Stadial (~12 ka). [Modified from
Pétursson et al. [2015]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]
assemblages that the usually warm Irminger Current
that sits off the southwest coast of Iceland likely
cooled by 6°C during the Búði Stage.
The Iceland ice sheet grew significantly during
the Younger Dryas Stadial (Figure 12.3). The appearance
of artic molluscs (Portlandia arctica, Buccinum groen-
landicum) in the Fossvogur sedimentary sequence
(64.1166, −21.9333) near the end of the Bölling–Alleröd
Interstadial (~12 ka) illustrates the shifting climate
[Pétursson et al., 2015]. Ice‐contact deltas and truncated
shorelines attributed to the Younger Dryas Stadial are
dated to 12 ka [Ingólfsson et al., 1997]. Ruddiman
and MacIntyre [1981] explains that the Younger Dryas
Stadial is likely the consequence of an influx of tabular
icebergs derived from a disintegrating Arctic ice shelf that
provided cold‐water pulses to the North Atlantic Ocean.
By the onset of the early Holocene, the Younger
Dryas ice sheet had retreated to half its size. The periods
of intense glacial melt led to rapid crustal rebound bet-
ween 9 and 8 ka, as testified by the entire coastline of
Iceland being higher than today due to the glacioiso-
static adjustment (GIA) of a low viscosity mantle
beneath Iceland [Einarsson and Albertsson, 1988;
Pétursson et al., 2015]. The highest shorelines mapped
along the southern coast are 100 m above present sea
level; 30–60 m on other coastlines [Einarsson and
Albertsson, 1988]. Birch trees also began to colonize at
9 ka and persisted until a sudden cold event occurred at
2.5 ka [Einarsson, 1985], leading to the expansion of
mountain glaciers and ice caps that persist today
[Einarsson and Albertsson, 1988]. Paleoceanographic
investigations of the North Atlantic using marine
microfauna assemblages [Andrews and Giraudeau,
2003], drift ice [Massé et al., 2008], and ocean currents
[Eiríksson et al., 2004] indicate a period of fluctuating
sea‐surface and bottom‐water temperatures with an
amplitude of ±3°C for the past 2 kyr [Jiang et al., 2005].
The Víking Ingólfur Arnarson was the first to settle
in Iceland, in 874 CE, but it was likely the onset of the
Medieval Warm Period (~950–1250 CE) that most
influenced settlement of the island. Approximately
3000 Víkings traveled to Iceland in search of new land
and resources, and they found a landscape resembling
their Norse origins [Bryson and Murray, 1977].
The Little Ice Age (LIA; 1850–1930 CE) is the most
documented of the cool periods to occur in Iceland.
The LIA likely arrived in Iceland earlier (~1750–
1800 CE or earlier) [Bradwell et al., 2006], however,
as radiocarbon dates obtained from landscape fea-
tures reflect glacial maximums in the 18th and 19th
centuries. In comparison with Europe, however, the
data reflect the onset of the LIA in Iceland occurring
about 500 years later, which is perplexing due to
its northern latitude [Gordon and Sharp, 1983].
Establishing the LIA glacial maximum on Iceland has
not been straightforward. With only two exceptions,

radiocarbon dates from Vatnajökull outlet glaciers
record a mid‐ to late 19th century date, but inland and
steeper mountain glaciers record a date almost
100 years earlier [Björnsson, 1979; Bradwell et al.,
2006]. Using lichenometry, however, Kirkbride and
Dugmore [2001] found Eyjafjallajökull ice‐cap
moraines in southern Iceland dating from the mid‐
18th century. In addition, even earlier dates (1727–
1755 CE) have been reported using tephrochronolgy
along Eyjafjallajökull’s outlet glaciers: Gigjökull and
Steinholtsjökull. Overall, a late 19th century date for
the LIA glacial maximum in Iceland has been the most
widely accepted [Björnsson, 1979; Gudmundsson, 1997;
Evans et al., 1999; Bradwell et al., 2006].
Undoubtedly, the glaciers and small ice caps in
temperate environments, such as Iceland, are extremely
sensitive indicators of climate change that can seem to
lack the synchrony often seen on larger ice sheets, like
Greenland. As found by Kirkbride and Dugmore [2001]
the lack of temporal agreement found in the LIA records
could reflect unreliable geomorphological preservation
rather than a reliable chronostratigraphy, and earlier
cooling may have occurred as the written record suggests.
Additionally, the situation is complicated by the presence
of subglacial volcanic centers under Öræfajökull,
Eyjafjallajökull, and Mýrdalsjökull that could result in
magma generated ice‐sheet advance or retreat, rather
than a climatic signature of growth or melt.
Regardless of the LIA glacial maximum in Iceland,
historic accounts indicate that the cooling period
severely affected the inhabitants. A poem published
pastor Olafur Einarsson (1573–1659) may best describe
the strife felt by the people during this cool period
[Bryson and Murray, 1977].
Formerly the earth produced all sorts
of fruit, plants and roots.
But now almost nothing grows….
Then the floods, the lakes and the blue waves
Brought abundant fish.
But now hardly one can be seen.
The misery increases more.
The same applies to other goods….
Frost and cold torment people
The good years are rare.
If everything should be put in a verse
Only a few take care of the miserable….
Additionally, thorough investigations by Lamb
[2002] indicate population declines from 77,500 in
1095 to 72,000 in 1311, to 50,000 in 1703, and to 38,000
in 1780. He correlates the falling population to lack of
grain harvested and grown on the island due to the
onset of colder climates [Lamb, 2002].
OVERVIEW OF GLACIAL FEATURES IN ICELAND 123
12.2. MODERN CLIMATE OVERVIEW
Today, approximately 10% of the Earth’s surface is
in a solid liquid state forming a region called the cryo-
sphere. The cryosphere includes all forms of frozen
water including sea ice, lake ice, snow cover, glaciers,
ice caps, ice sheets, and permafrost. The land cover
represented by the cryosphere is small and only ~1.7%
of freshwater frozen within the system represents gla-
cial ice, but this percentage translates into a water
volume of 24,064,000 km3, or 68.7% of the global dis-
tribution of freshwater [Gleick, 1996]. Currently, the
planet is experiencing an interglacial climate phase
when there are small volumes of solid water. Slight
changes in average global temperature (±2°C), how-
ever, or changes in mid‐latitude insolation, can have a
large impact on the glacial–interglacial cycle, as docu-
mented over both historic and geologic time.
Iceland is uniquely positioned at polar latitudes at a
point where both atmospheric and oceanic currents
interact to support Tertiary and Quaternary glacia-
tions, as reflected in the ages of various deposits
(Figure 2.2). Today, along the southwest coast the air
temperature on average is about 2°C, but can rise to
above 11°C during summer months; overall, colder air
temperatures are found in the north. These tempera-
tures correspond with subartic and tundra climatic
regimes (as found in the central highland area) and are
best illustrated by the low diversity of sparse vegeta-
tion found in the landscape (e.g., Festuca spp., Salix
spp., Agrostis spp.). Historically, this has resulted in
little opportunity for agricultural development due to
the infertility of soils beyond the cultivated outwash
plains and paleo ground moraines.
Iceland’s mild maritime climate is due to the warming
of the North Atlantic by the Irminger Oceanic Current
(IOC) (5°–12°C), which travels west along the southern
coastline to eventually collide with the East Greenland
Current (EGC) (<0°C) coming off the Arctic Ocean.
This collision results in the formation of low‐pressure
systems that can bring heavy snowfalls (annual precip-
itation ~500 cm year−1) in mountainous regions, with
the heaviest snowfall occurring in the months of
February and September. At present, the precipitation
on the southern Vatnajökull above the snowline at
1000 m is 400 cm, but on Mýrdalsjökull the precipita-
tion is 600 cm. The colder EGC promotes the formation
of sea ice that can be found along the northern coast-
line, but rarely in the south. In some instances, the
EGC can block the movement of the ICO at the
northwest peninsula, causing the north and east coasts
to be dominated by Arctic seawater [Stefánsson, 1981;
124 GLACIAL FEATURES
Einarsson and Albertsson, 1988]. As this example illus-
trates, it is the dynamic setting of oceanic and atmo-
spheric polar fronts that makes Iceland an ideal setting
to study fluctuations of the Quaternary glacial–inter-
glacial cycles.
Currently, 10% (10,500 km2) of the country is covered
in glacial ice that is predominately in the form of ice
caps (Figure 12.2). Björnsson [2017] suggested that the
amount of glacial ice found on Iceland today repre-
sents the amount of total precipitation over the past
20 years, and if the remaining glacial ice on the island
were to melt, then global sea‐level would increase by
1 cm. The glacial systems on Iceland have been known
to respond rapidly to shifts in climate change [Geirsdóttir
and Eiríksson, 1993], as well as to the influence of geo-
thermal heat and subglacial eruptions that are initiated
by the hot spot currently under Iceland’s largest glacier
(Vatnajökull), which has been in that position for the
past 15 Myr. Approximately 60% of the glacial ice on
Iceland covers active volcanoes [Björnsson, 2017]. The
melting of the glaciers from such activity hasbeen
known to create surges of glacial flooding, called jökul-
hlaups, as seen during historic times at Grímsvötn and
Katla (Figure 9.6) [Björnsson, 2017].
Recent decades, from 1960 to 2010, have been char-
acterized by slow, but continual, melting intermixed
Figure 12.4 Water phase diagram. The diagram shows that all three phases of water can exist under condi-
tions at the Earth’s surface. [Modified from Bierman and Montgomery [2014]; design credit Nathan
Mennen.]
with episodes of glacier readvance [Hannesdóttir et al.,
2014]. The most notable readvance, in the early to mid‐
1990s, is thought to have corresponded with a positive
North Atlantic Oscillation index [Bradwell et al., 2006;
Evans et al., 2017]. As Evans et al. [2017] explain,
Icelandic glaciers are particularly sensitive to interan-
nual variations in summer average air temperatures,
which can quickly induce either accumulation or aba-
lation processes. The pioneering Icelandic glaciologist
Helgi Björnsson, who has conducted research for the
University of Iceland since the 1960s, is quoted as
saying that the modern rate of ice lost in Iceland is
among the highest on Earth’s surface [Katz, 2013].
Moreover, Björnsson predicts that Iceland could lose
30% of its glacial mass by 2050 if climate change
effects continue to intensify [Katz, 2013].
12.3. GLACIAL MORPHOLOGY
12.3.1. Formation of Ice
Ice is unique in that it can be differentiated from
water by its variances in physical properties and
isotopic composition. As the phase diagram for water
illustrates (Figure 12.4), if solid ice is kept at a steady
temperature as pressure increases, then it will undergo

a phenomenon called pressure melting (this often cre-
ates basal sliding at the contact between the base of
the glacier and the bedrock.). Additionally, ice at 0°C
and 1 atm has a volume of 1.0906 cm3 g−1 and a specific
gravity of 0.91689 g cm−3, where both the volume
(1 cm3 g−1) and specific gravity (1 g cm−3) of water is
slightly different. Moreover, there are eight varieties of
crystalline ice that fit the definition of a mineral,
whereby the forms that exist on our planet occur bet-
ween 0°C and −70°C and at atmospheric pressure up
to 2000 atm [Martini et al., 2001]. The isotopic compo-
sition of water and ice will vary depending on the
amounts of hydrogen (H2 or H1) and oxygen (O18, O17,
O16) present during the evaporation or solidification
process, which is often used as a proxy to determine
paleoclimate (Box 12.1).
Water, once solidified, has a specific chemical com-
position that is arranged in an orderly and repetitative
pattern, and is considered a mineral that can go
through processes to change its form into a rock. Ice
rock can be shaped by two main processes: the
concentration of water via freezing or the compaction
of snow from pressure resulting in metamorphism to
produce firn first, then ice (Figure 12.5). Firn is found
Figure 12.5 Transition of unconsolidated snow pack as it
turns into glacial ice. The percentage of air volume is indi-
cated on the right and depth on the left. [Design credit
Nathan Mennen.]
OVERVIEW OF GLACIAL FEATURES IN ICELAND 125
in a transitional zone between snow and ice (typically
20–30 m below surface); having a higher porosity and
lesser density. This is important because as compac-
tion (i.e., metamorphism) continues to reduce the
porosity, the ability for air to move freely between the
grains begins to decrease, reducing the ability for
exchange with atmospheric air. Thus, during the
transition from firn to ice, atmospheric gases impor-
tant to climate change processes (e.g., carbon dioxide)
can be trapped between the pore spaces. As compac-
tion occurs over time, the age of the occluded air
bubble will be less (ranging from a few hundred to sev-
eral thousand years) than the age of the surrounding
ice [Center for Ice and Climate, 2019]. Typically,
empirical models based on Icelandic densification
rates from snow to ice are used to determine the age of
the trapped gases.
12.3.2. Glaciers and Associated Landforms
Glaciers found on Iceland are grouped into three
main categories: ice sheets, ice caps, and valley glaciers.
An ice sheet is an area of glacial ice greater than
50,000 km wide and the last time that there was an ice
sheet covering the island was ~26 ka during the LGM
(Figures 2.2 and 12.3). When an ice sheet recedes, ice
caps (<50,000 km2) are often left behind in moun-
tainous regions. The highest point of an ice cap is
sometimes referred to as the massif or dome, from
which ice flows down gradient (Figure 12.6). The
highest massif in Iceland is Hvannadalshnúkur
­
(64.0158, −16.6747), which forms part of Öræfajökull’s
summit crater. This massif also represents a feature
called a glacial horn, formed when three or more
­glaciers converge on a central point to create a steep,
pyramid‐shaped peak.
Currently, there are six ice‐caps on Iceland
(Figure 12.3) that contain an estimated 3400 km3 of
water: Vatnajökull (64.4220, −16.7902; 8300 km2),
Langjökull (64.6562, −20.1531; 950 km2), Hofsjökull
(64.8167, −18.8167; 923 km2), Mýrdalsjökull (63.6467,
−19.1303; 600 km2), Drangajökull (66.1500, −22.2500;
160 km2), and Eyjafjallajökull (63.6304, −19.6067;
80 km2). Each of these central ice‐caps have several
valley or outlet glaciers, that begin at a high‐elevation
cirque, before it descends down a confined valley
(Photo 38, Figure 12.6). As an example, Vatnajökull
has 11 outlet glaciers that either end at a lake or an
outwash (or sandur) plain (Figure 12.6). Much is
understood about Iceland’s valley glaciers as they have
been systematically monitored since 1930, providing
some ideas of ice‐front fluctuations for 70 years
126 GLACIAL FEATURES
Figure 12.6 Depositional and erosional geomorphologic features as glacial ice retreats towards the massif
or dome. [Design credit Nathan Mennen.]
[Sigurðsson, 1998]. Valley glaciers affect life at a
regional scale, thus influencing the distribution of
hydroelectric power, irrigation, road construction,
and tourism. For example, the reduction in volume of
glaciers in Iceland during the first half of the 20th
century amounted to a reduction in discharge by
20 L s−1 km2, and such a reduction could have pro-
found effects on long‐term energy generation in the
country [Björnsson, 1980].
As glaciers move down gradient, they create both
erosional and depositional features that remain as
indicators of past climate over geologic time. Common
to the southern side of Vatnajökull are U‐shaped
valleys (Photo 39) that result from the scouring
movement of a confined valley glacier. If the initial
topography is steep, like that of northern coastline of
Iceland, then the final result from valley glacier
movement will be a fjord that will be flooded by ocean
water once the glacier has disappeared (Photo 40). The
scouring of bedrock from the weight of a glacier can
also have an impact on the bedrock itself by leaving
striations in the direction of movement (Photo 41).
Additionally, some of the bedrock scoured (and other
landscape debris) will become entrained and carried in
the ice as long as the glacier is advancing.
Once the glacier begins to melt, the material carried
will be deposited either along the sides of the valley
(lateral moraines) or at the toe (terminal moraine)
(Figure 12.6). The elevation of the lateral moraines
presents a proxy to determine an approximate level for
the zone of ablation. Likewise, terminal moraines
(Photo 42) are particularly important in determining
the position of past glacial advance, but often they are
destroyed by outwash streams that discharge meltwater
from a glacier. The terminal moraines found at the six
glaciers remaining in Iceland date back to the maximum
advance of the LIA; those dated from 1890 still have ice
remaining at their centers [Björnsson, 1980]. The size of

Photo 38 Skeid ̄arárjökull valley glacier ending on an outwash plain. [Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]
the terminal moraine will depend on how long the gla-
cial ice‐front had been at that position and, ultimately,
how much debris the ice was carrying. The moraine
sediment is called glacial till and is characterized as
being unconsolidated and poorly sorted with grain
sizes ranging from silt to boulders (Photo 43).
In addition to the volume of debris calculated from
moraine deposits, the erosive capacity of a glacier can
be determined using several other means. Specifically,
the rate of erosion of the basaltic regions southeast of
Vatnajökull has been quantified using sediment load
of glacial meltwater; the land denudation rate esti-
mated from sediment load transport for Vatnajökull is
3.2 mm year−1, but the rate differs in other areas
(Table 12.1) [Björnsson, 1980]. Along the southern
coast the transported sediment load is deposited to
form the broad, low‐lying landscape (average slope
5 m km−1) of the outwash (sandur) delta plains. As
Björnsson [1980] explained, wide glacier margins often
OVERVIEW OF GLACIAL FEATURES IN ICELAND 127
terminate in this area and the heavily laden meltwater
develops into braided fluvial streams that continu-
ously change their position across the outwash plains
from one side to the other. Skeiðarársandur (63.7508,
−17.5319) is the largest outwash plain (1000 km2) in
Iceland, which extends up to 30 km in front of
Skeiðarájökull (Photo 44). The sediment load brought
to this outwash plain is largely the result of jökul-
hlaups from the subglacial volcano Grímsvötn (Figure
12.2). For example, during a 1934 eruption, the total
sediment transport down to Skeiðarársandur was on
the order of 150 × 106 tons [Björnsson, 1980]. To date,
however, Skeiðarársandur is being eroded at the rate
of 8.5 m year−1, which threatens power lines and the
major road (Golden Circle Road, Highway 1) [Landl
et al., 2003]. This is likely due to the formation of pro-
glacial lakes that are trapping sediment within their
basins, such as those in front of Skeiðarájökull and
Breidamerkurjökull.
Photo 39 A U‐shaped valley on the southern side Vatnajökull. [Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]

Photo 40 A glacial fjord on the northern coast of Iceland. [Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]
Photo 41 An example of glacial striations (linear structures) that result from gouges cut into bedrock by
glacial abrasion over time. [Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]

Photo 42 A terminal moraine in front of a glacial snout along the southern coast of Iceland. [Courtesy of
Tamie Jovanelly.]
130 GLACIAL FEATURES

Photo 43 A glacial till deposit next to a glacial lake on the southern coast of Iceland. [Courtesy of Tamie
Jovanelly.]

Table 12.1 Denudation rates estimated for Iceland glaciers the portion of the glacier that is moving plastically.
Typically, the weight of the ice limits the depths of cre-
Glacier Rates of denudation (mm year−1) vasses to <30 m. Crevasses can result from three main
Mýrdalsjökull 4.5 processes: (a) release of stress when two glacial lobes
Vatnajökull 3.2 meet that are moving at different rates; (b) release of
Langjökull 0.4 stress when a glacier is moving over uneven basement
Hofsjökull 0.9 topography; (c) release of stress when a glacier is
Other Glaciers 0.3
expanding to accommodate the width of a valley (i.e.,
Unglaciated areas 0.1
longitudinal crevasses) or the valley is becoming steeper
Note. Modified from Björnsson [1979]. (i.e., transverse crevasses) (Figure 12.7). Additionally,
extensional faulting and heat from magma upwelling
similarly can cause large gaps within glacial walls.
Although understanding of erosional and deposi- Studies of ice fracturing and the formation of cre-
tional processes occurring under the ice provides insight vasses have increased over recent decades with the
into glacier movement, there is also much that can be awareness that these processes can promote ice calving
learned from the exploration of the ice surface itself. at the terminus of glaciers [Mottram and Benn, 2009].
The upper layer undergoes brittle deformation (e.g., Additionally, they may become meltwater paths that
crevasses) as it has not yet become incorporated within can temporarily accelerate flow by providing a conduit
 OVERVIEW OF GLACIAL FEATURES IN ICELAND 131

Photo 44 Skeid ̄arásandur, an example of the southern sandur plain coastline. [Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]

Figure 12.7 Types of crevasses that form on glaciers. [Design credit Nathan Mennen.]
132 GLACIAL FEATURES
for basal lubrication [Benn et al., 2009]. Landl et al.
[2003] explained the impact of calving glaciers by quan-
tifying the volume lost annually (260 × 106 m3 year−1) at
the outlet glacier Breiðamerkurjökull, where it enters
into the Jökulsarlon lagoon (64.0784, −16.2306).
12.3.3. Periglacial Environments
Periglacial environments are found at the edge of
glaciers where saturated ground and freezing tempera-
tures can support the development of permafrost.
Permafrost distribution is primarily controlled by a
constant mean annual air temperature of around 0°C.
Data gathered from regional maps by Etzelműller et al.
[2007] indicate that mountain permafrost found at ele-
vations 800–900 m a.s.l. covers ~8000 km2 of Iceland’s
surface, or about 8% of the country. This does not
include the permafrost locations described by Priesnitz
and Schunke [1978], who focused on that found in the
central highlands, where they estimated that the eleva-
tion of the permafrost was at a lower elevation, 420–
720 m a.s.l., and covered an area of 180 km2. In the
central highlands, geomorphic features related to per-
mafrost development, like palsas, patterned‐ground,
and ice wedges were documented.
12.3.4. Glacial Mass Balance
A glacier is composed of densely packed ice that
forms when the accumulation of snow exceeds ablation
processes, namely sublimation and melting over time
(Figure 12.8). Empirical studies have shown that
Iceland’s glaciers are particularly sensitive to ablation
processes at the annual to decadal scale [Bradwell et al.,
2013]. More specifically, fluctuations in the mass balance
and areal extent are a direct result of the interactions
between radiative flux, ice accumulation through
Figure 12.8 Mass balance of an outlet glacier as it moves down gradient. [Design credit Nathan Mennen.]
snowfall, and ice‐flow rate [Björnsson and Pálsson, 2008;
Bradwell et al., 2013]. As described by Einarrson [1994]
the rate of flow of large valley glaciers in Iceland is
about 1 m day−1, although it is largely dependent on
glacier thickness, slope, and accumulation area.
The mass balance of glaciers and ice sheets is found
by identifying the difference between ice gain
(accumulation) and loss (ablation) over time. Net
accumulation occurs above an area referred to as the
snow line, or equilibrium line, during the winter season
(Figure 12.8). Below the snowline, no matter how
much snow has been deposited over a season, the gla-
cier’s budget in that location will not be net positive.
The position of the snow line is dependent on air tem-
perature and precipitation, whereby it establishes the
division between the firn area of the glacier and that of
ablation. Specifically, melting mainly occurs below the
snowline and becomes more rapid with decreasing ele-
vation [Einarsson, 1994]. On average, melting of firn is
slow, however, if dirt or volcanic ash are intermixed
the process can be increased to induce a loss of 1–2 cm
annually [Einarsson, 1994]. If the snow line does not
change over time, the glacier is in steady state and its
mass balance is stable. If the snow line rises, however,
the glacier will lose mass and retreat or vice versa.
The elevation of the snow line is variable throughout
Iceland. As noted by Einarrson [1994], on the southern
side of Vatnajökull the snow line is between 1000 and
1100 m, while the average height found along the
northern side is between 1300 and 1400 m. The highest
elevation of the snow line on Vatnajökull is in the north
at Hyannadalshnúkur (64.0158, −16.6747; 2109 m).
The higher elevation of the snowline along the northern
edge of Vatnajökull is likely the result of being further
away from coastal precipitation systems that can induce
melting during summer months thereby decreasing
overall glacier growth. It has been seen that an increase

in mean annual temperature of 1°C can influence the
snow line in Iceland to retreat 200 m, with the opposite
effect if cooler [Einarrson, 1994].
To date, the overall mass balance of Iceland’s glaciers
is negative. From 1995 to 2010, the island’s ice caps lost
on average 9.5 ± 1.5 Gt year−1 despite large fluxes in the
interannual variability of precipitation [Björnsson
et al., 2013], which is similar to that estimated by
Gardner et al. [2013] for the period 2003–2009. The
largest ice cap, Vatnajökull, is estimated to have lost
435 km3 of ice from 1890–2004 [Pagli et al., 2007], with
a deglaciation rate of 25.0–82.17 cm year−1; the data for
Iceland’s other glaciers can be found in Table 12.2.
Additionally, between 1890 and 2010 the elevation of
the valley glaciers of Vatnajökull have lowered 150–
270 m near their termini; negligible downwasting was
observed above ~1500–1700 m [Hannesdóttir et al.,
2014]. Other valley glaciers (e.g., Heinabergsjökull,
Hoffellsjökull, and Lambatungnajökull) have experi-
enced significant downwasting during this same time
frame, retreating close to 3 km since the LIA [Einarsson,
1994; Hannesdóttir et al., 2014] (Figure 12.9). As a
consequence of loss of ice mass, Iceland is undergoing
GIA, with uplift rates between 25 and 29 mm year−1
during the 20th century [Árnadóttir et al., 2009; Auriac
et al., 2013] and with 0.23 km3 year−1 of new magma
being produced beneath Iceland [Schmidt et al., 2013].
Table 12.2 A comparison of deglaciation of major Iceland
glaciers 1930 to present day
Glacier Area (km2) Volume loss (km2)
Vatnajökull 8428 458
Hofsjökull 976 76.1
Langjökull 1024 79.9
Eyjafjallajökull 96 7.5
Myrdalsjökull 688 53.7
Smaller glaciers 230 17.9
Total 11 442 693.1
Note. Design credit Nathan Mennen.
Figure 12.9 Cross‐section and longitudinal profiles of Hoffellsjökull indicating glacier thinning related to
retreat. [Modified from Einarsson [1994] and Ahlmann and Thórarinsson [1937]; design credit Nathan
Mennen.]
OVERVIEW OF GLACIAL FEATURES IN ICELAND 133
The rate of uplift is small in comparison to the esti-
mates of subsidence that occurred throughout the
Pleistocene; a glacier 2000 m thick can produce 600 m
isostatic depression [Biessy et al., 2008].
Undoubtedly, understanding the mass balance of
glacial systems is fundamental to the interpretation of
climate change. For example, without looking at the
system as a whole, a glacial advance or surge in
response to shear stress induced by gravity could be
mistaken as glacial growth or a positive accumulation
of ice due to climate. Modeling shows that firn begins
to behave plastically at a depth of 30 km enabling the
system to creep forward, generally in response to
changes in topography at the base of the ice. Basal
sliding, however, is amplified by warming tempera-
tures as meltwater enters at the surface via crevasses to
create a positive feedback cycle. This translates to the
glacier base (and hence ice‐front) moving more quickly
downgradient, thereby resulting in an overall reduction
of ice thickness.
Surge‐type glaciers are characterized by gently slop-
ing surfaces (1.6–4°) that move too slowly to remain in
balance with associated accumulation rates [Björnsson
et al., 2003]. (Surges that occur in glaciers steeper than
3° typically affect only the low‐slope ablation areas
[Björnsson et al., 2003].) All major ice caps in Iceland
contain surge‐type outlet glaciers. Since 1625, about 47
surge advances have been recorded at Vatnajökull, rang-
ing from 0.2 to 10 km (Figure 12.10) [Thórarinsson,
1969; Björnsson et al., 2003]. The majority of
Vatnajökull’s outlet glaciers, however, experienced
surges during a glacial retreat period that occurred bet-
ween 1890 and 1964, which affected ~40% of the ice cap
[Thórarinsson, 1969; Björnsson et al., 2003] (Table 12.2,
Figure 12.10). Thórarinsson [1969] and Björnsson et al.
[2003] agree that these surges are likely associated with
increased basal water lubrication due to warming,
rather than being triggered by seismicity. There have
been 80 surges in total recorded in Iceland since 2003
[Björnsson, 1980]. Through a comparison of 74 years of
134 GLACIAL FEATURES
Figure 12.10 Geographical distribution of known surge‐type glaciers within Vatnajökull and their associ-
ated dates (data from Björnsson et al. [2003]). [Design credit Nathan Mennen.]
data, Thórarinsson [1969] concluded that the surging
glaciers in Iceland typically have flat ablation zones and
shallow concave basins that broaden toward the glacier
terminus. Additionally, he noted that stress is not likely
accumulated along all parts of the glacier, but instead
will build up until it reaches a critical limit before sliding
occurs, which can result in catastrophe. As an example,
over the course of 1 year (1963–1964) the ice front of
Brúarjökull (64.6817, −16.1567) advanced 8 km with
average velocities measured at 5 m h−1; peak flow rate
was 25 m in 24 h [Einarsson, 1994]. This broad‐lobed
outlet glacier also had an episode in 1890 when the toe
advanced 10 km in a surge and created a push moraine
20 m high [Björnsson, 1980].
In general, it is thought that surge frequency cannot
be truly considered cyclical and is not related to size or
mass balance [Björnsson et al., 2003], although historic
observations for some glaciers suggest that surging has
occurred regularly. Siðujökull, (64.1127, −17.8050), a
western lobe on Vatnajökull, is such an example as it
has surged at 30‐year intervals since 1930 (Figure 12.10).
Additionally, Dyngjujökull (64.7641, −16.7775) has
advanced at 20–30‐year intervals, and Brúarjökull
(64.7207, −16.1769) every 80–100 years (Figure 12.10).
More often, however, it is the case that glacier surges
are sporadic. This may be best illustrated by
Breiðamerkurjökull (64.0922, −16.2566), which has
surged 11 times between 1794 and 1969, at intervals of
6–38 years [Björnsson et al., 2003]. Between valley gla-
cier surge events the crevasses that have formed will
close as the glacier retreats until the next phase of for-
ward movement [Einarsson, 1994]. Better monitoring
has revealed that velocity builds over the course of
2–3 years from initial movement in the upper
accumulation zone before its energy is perpetuated
downslope [Sigurðsson, 1998]. It has been determined
that the abrupt movement of ice from the accumulation
zone downward ultimately changes the overall geom-
etry of the glacier, creating new challenges for deter-
mining mass balance.

12.3.5. Glaciation and Volcanics
Glaciovolcanic deposits (e.g., tuyas, tindars; Figure
7.5) of the Late Pleistocene cover about 11,200 km2 of
the surface of Iceland, indicating an abundance of
intraglacial volcanism on the island [Jakobsson and
Gudmundsson, 2008]. Additionally, Jakobsson and
Johnson [2012] estimated the number of Pleistocene
monogenetic volcanoes that started under or within an
ice sheet to be in the thousands. Jakobbson and Johnson
[2012] described three main eruptive phases associated
with intraglacial volcanic events: the formation of
basal pillow lavas in deep‐water; explosive shallow‐
water hyaloclastites; and effusive subaerial capping
lava flows. They further hypothesized that monoge-
netic systems likely were deposited in lakes that were
melted within the ice sheets. Overall, the chemical
composition of the Late Pleistocene intraglacial
volcanic rocks is tholeiitic (Figure 7.1).
Deglaciation following the LGM induced unusually
high volcanic productivity and changes in lava compo-
OVERVIEW OF GLACIAL FEATURES IN ICELAND 135
sition throughout Iceland’s neovolcanic zones,
including the NVZ, WVZ, and EVZ [Eason et al.,
2015] (Figure 2.1). According to Maclennan et al.
[2002], the average eruption rates during the deglacia-
tion period (~12 ka) were 100 times higher than those
during both glacial and recent times. In addition, these
high eruption rates persisted for <1.5 kyr after the
deglaciation of each area.
Increases in volcanic activity can amplify crustal
melting and are sometimes associated with heightened
mantle decompression resulting from glacioisostatic
unloading [Maclennan et al., 2002; Sinton et al., 2005;
Eason et al., 2015]. Maclennan et al. [2002] considered
that postglacial bursts in eruption rates could be used
to estimate the rate of melt transported in the mantle,
and accordingly determined melt extraction velocities
of more than 50 m year−1 for the last deglaciation. This
increase in the rate of both magma melt and transport
results in temporal variations in geochemistry (namely
lower MgO content), which has been observed at
Kraftla and on the Reykjanes Peninsula.
 13
Glacial Features of the Reykjanes Peninsula
and Southwestern Region
During the Late Pleistocene from 26 ka through
~15 ka, the island of Iceland was entirely covered in
glacial ice; this includes the Reykjanes Peninsula and
the WVZ (Figures 2.1 and 2.2). As the ice sheet
retreated the Langjökull and Hofsjökull formed rem-
nant ice caps (Figure 12.3) and are still present today.
Through Ar–Ar dating of lava flows in the area it has
been determined that volcanic activity on the WVZ
during the Pleistocene was relatively steady, but it was
less active than that on the Reykjanes Peninsula
[Jakobsson and Johnson, 2012]. Uniquely, although
Langjökull sits on top of the volcanically active WVZ
there have not been any postglacial eruptions. The sub-
glacial topography beneath Langjökull reflects its
volcanic heritage (Figure 13.1).
A common Pleistocene feature of the WVZ are the
>250 basaltic monogenetic volcanoes that cover an
area of 1350 km2. Although the height of these ­features
that dominate the landscape are typically between 200
and 500 m at modern day, it has been estimated they
have lost 40% of their volume due to glacial and post-
glacial erosive processes. The erosional products have
been deposited either in the ocean or have contributed
to shoreline expansion along the peninsula [Jakobsson
and Johnson, 2012]. Eason et al. [2015], however, points
out that ice‐sheet mechanics can also influence erosion,
as those features created nearest the stable interior of
the ice sheet will erode less than those created towards
the more mobile margins. Similarly, from detailed
investigations of tuyas and tinders in the WVZ,
Jakobsson and Johnson [2012] determined that the
shape of the intraglacial features was dictated by the
thickness of the ice sheet at the time of the eruptions.
Iceland: Tectonics,Volcanics, and Glacial Features, Geophysical Monograph 247, First Edition. Tamie J. Jovanelly.
© 2020 American Geophysical Union. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
137
They identified specific geomorphic characteristics
that they used to separate the tuyas and tindars of the
WVZ into those that formed prior to and after the
Younger Dryas readvance.
Biessy et al. [2008] studied the postglacial rebound
of southwest Iceland since the Younger Dryas in detail
and determined that uplift occured in two major
phases during the Holocene. First, the vertical uplift
of the Reykjanes Peninsula between 10 and 8.5 ka was
determined to be 67.5–157.5 m from global positioning
system (GPS) profiles, morphological observations of
terminal moraines, paleobeaches, glacial striations,
and marine cliff faces. This implies rapid uplift rates of
4.5–10 cm year−1 as a response to the fast‐paced glacial
melting that occurred as climate warmed. This rise in
ground surface stimulated volcanic activity in the area
as two lava domes formed beneath the Langjökull ice
cap, Leggjabrjótur (1010 m; 64.6922, −19.8213) and
Hagafell (920 m; 64.4986, −20.3469). The second
phase starting at 8.5 ka initiated 10–20 m of uplift, but
was more likely the result of tectonic activity occurring
along the WVZ.
13.1. LANGJÖKULL
Today, the Langjökull ice cap (64.6562, −20.1531) is
the second largest in Iceland with an estimated volume
of 195 km3, and a mean ice thickness of 210 m and
maximum of 650 m (Photo 45) [Björnsson and Pálsson,
2008]. The elevation of the ice cap ranges from ~1400 m
at its dome to ~460 m at the base, with the equilibrium
line currently between 1100 and1200 m. Although the
ice cap has continued to shrink in size since the LIA,
138 GLACIAL FEATURES
Figure 13.1 Cross-section of the subglacial topography of Langjökull. [Modified from Bjornsson [2017];
design credit Nathan Mennen.]
Langjökull practically disappeared entirely on two
occasions in the Holocene (namely between 10.2 and
8.7 ka and 7.35–5.5 ka), indicating that temperatures
in south‐central Iceland were warmer than today
[Black, 2008].
The oblong ice cap is oriented SW–NE and is 55 km
long from its snout in Hagavatn (64.4805, −20.2847) to
the northeast terminus in Hundadalur (64.9066,
−19.7836) and 30 km at its widest (Figure 13.2). This
shape is largely dictated by the variability found in the
amounts of precipitation on Langjökull. For example,
less precipitation in the south results in steeper and
faster moving outlet glaciers and north‐flowing glaciers
terminate in broad fronts at higher altitudes [Pope et al.,
2016]. Langjökull is positioned in the Central Highlands
and is at considerably higher elevation than most other
ice caps as the tallest peak is 1450 m. The tuya
Geitlandsjökull (63.6000, −20.6000; 5 km length)
beneath the ice cap is among the tallest peaks at 1395 m.
There are two smaller ice caps nearby that were once
likely contiguous with the Langjökull ice cap: Eírksjökull
(21 km2; 64.7658, −20.4077) and Þórisjökull (25 km2;
64.5455, −20.7147). Unusual for Iceland ice caps,
Eírksjökull has a smooth and convex appearance as it is
the result of a Quaternary volcanic eruption that pro-
duced a palagonite tuya and was then capped by a dol-
erite lava dome; the mountain’s base covers 40 km2
[Björnsson, 2017]. Þórisjökull is also the result of a tuya
formation and is 10 km long from east to west and 6 km
wide. Outlet glaciers on the northwest side of Þórisjökull
make an important contribution to the discharge of the
River Geitá, and to the River Þórisdalur from the east.
Langjökull has 19 outlet glaciers, but there are 6
primary lobes: two on the southern margin—
­
Hagafellsjökull Vestari (137 km2; 64.5066, −20.2619),
Hagafellsjökull Eystri (111 km2; 64.5100, −20.4275);
two on the eastern margin—Norðurjökull (62 km2;
64.5986, −19.9436) and Suðurjökull (54 km2; 64.7547,
−19.8241); and two on the western margin—
Svartárjökull (39 km2; 64.6716, −20.5127) and
Þrístapajökull (104 km2; 64.7400, −20.2002). Of these
six outlet glaciers, three are classified as surging and
have advanced during the past 50 years: Hagafellsjökull
Vestari (1971, 1980), Hagafellsjökull Eystri (1974,
1980), and Suðurjökull (1828–1930, 1994, 1999)
(Figure 13.2, Table 13.1). Although each of these three
outlet glaciers may have had other episodes not
reported here, past surging events have only been con-
firmed at Suðurjökull through varved lake sediments
from nearby Lake Hvitárvatn (Photo 45) [Larsen et al.,
2013]. Eight surge episodes were described by Larsen
et al. [2013] that occurred between 1828 and 1930,
when the glacial front advanced up to 1.6 km per event
before terminating into the lake. The rapid advance of
these specific glaciers is attributed to subglacial
braided‐river‐type channels intermittently distributing
meltwater, as observed by Palmer et al. [2009] and
Björnsson et al. [2003].
 Glacial Features of the Reykjanes Peninsula and Southwestern Region
Photo 45 A view of Langjökull from Lake Hvitárvatn. [Courtesy of Simon Vaughan/Alamy Stock Photo.]
From historic accounts, Norðurjökull and
Suðurjökull have retreated approximately 5000 m since
1900 as they once covered the proglacial lake basin of
Hvitárvatn (64.6069°N, 19.8408°W) [Sigurðsson,
1998]. Unlike the other outlet glaciers of Langjökull,
these two eastern lobes are thought to have maintained
their maximum Holocene extents over the past
400 years instead of experiencing multiple advance
and retreat episodes [Flowers et al., 2007]. The
maximum ice cover of the lake likely occurred between
1800 and 1900 which can either reflect the impact of
the LIA or a glacial surge event [Flowers et al., 2007].
From sonar bathymetry of the lake bottom and
moraines still visible on land, Geirsdóttir et al. [2016]
determined that Norðurjökull retreated at a slower
rate than Suðurjökull, such that the toe of Norðurjökull
remained in the lake until the summer of 2009. The
recessed eastern margin of the glacier has exposed the
14 km long Jarlhettur (64.5308, −20.1158) palagonite
mountain range, which is the product of a 15 km long
fissure vent underneath the glacier during the
Pleistocene. Lake Hvitárvatn (422 m a.s.l.) is 84 m deep
and 36 km2 in area, and is considered an ideal archive
139
for obtaining detailed stratigraphy of glacial activity
and corresponding environmental change over the
past 3 kyr [Larsen et al., 2011]. Varve thicknesses at
Lake Hvitárvatn represent variations in sedimentation
rates determined by local glacial erosion of a large
watershed (~820 km2) that remains partially (~33%)
covered by the Langjökull ice cap [Larsen et al., 2011].
Sedimentation rates at Lake Hvitárvatn have intensi-
fied over time, with the last 300 years (estimated
volume of 1.5 × 1011 kg) [Flowers et al., 2007] repre-
senting 75% of the core [Larsen et al., 2011]. At pre-
sent, the eroded material produced by the ice cap first
passes through Hvítá, an outlet stream that removes
the majority of sediment before reaching the lake, thus
explaining its clear appearance [Black et al., 2004].
About 70% of the lake’s present water budget derives
from Langjökull meltwater, with two‐thirds trans-
ported as groundwater [Flowers et al., 2007]. The high
contribution of meltwater to groundwater flow is sup-
ported by the widespread presence of moulins found
on the surface of outlet glaciers that provide a conduit
to the base of the glacier, and thereby to meltwater
channels [Eyre et al., 2005]. Flowers et al. [2007],
140 GLACIAL FEATURES

Figure 13.2 Location of Langjökull with Lake Hvítárvatn and drainage divides. [Modified from Bjornsson
[2017] and Bjornsson et al. [2003]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]

­ owever, estimated subglacial discharge to ground-

h disappear within 100–150 years (Björnsson, 2017]. This
water to be ~7% greater during the LIA. Following the
gradient of the modern landscape, Lake Hvitárvatn
drains southeast and has an average monthly discharge
of 45 m3 s−1 with an average suspended sediment load
of 35 mg L−1 [Larsen et al., 2011]. Moreover, due to the
area being underlain by porous lava, it is suspected
that subsurface water flow generated from the ice cap
as a whole travels much further south to enter Lake
Þingvallavatn (section 3.4) [Björnsson, 2017].
The area of Langjökull ice cap has been surveyed
since 1890. Björnsson [2017] reported that from 1900 to
2004, Langjökull lost 40 km3 or 21.3% of its current
mass volume, with more intervals of losses than gains
since. Over the past 100 years, the ice cap’s mass
balance has been negative, reducing by more than half
over this interval, from 2000 to 800 mm year−1 [Pálsson
et al., 2012]. This is a reflection of below‐average
winter precipitation (1000–2000 mm) and higher
summer melting (2000–4000 mm) [Björnsson, 2017].
Assuming a rise in temperature of 2.0°C per decade as
projected by the International Panel on Climate Change
[2016], the glaciers of the central highlands will probably
was projected by determining that with each 100 m rise
of the firn line, the mean mass balance of the glacier
shrunks by 0.75 m year−1. Additionally, a map of the
basement topography of Langjökull reveals that only
10% of the mountain tops reach higher than the snow-
line in the current climate [Björnsson and Palson, 2008]
(Figure 13.1). If the Langjökull ice cap were to disap-
pear then it is projected that only minor glaciers would
settle on the highest mountains above a height of
1100–1200 m. The melting of the Langjökull ice cap
would translate to 0.5 mm of eustatic sea‐level rise
[Pálsson et al., 2012].
13.2. HOFSJÖKULL
The Hofsjökull ice cap (1800 m; 64.8313°N,
18.8230°W) is considered the third largest in Iceland
with an area of 925 km2, a volume of ~200 km3, and an
average thickness of 225 m [Björnsson, 2017]. About
two‐thirds of the ice cap is above 1000 m, but at pre-
sent only 10% is above the snow line, which has been
between 1200 and1300 m since 1988 [Björnsson, 1988;
 Glacial Features of the Reykjanes Peninsula and Southwestern Region 141

Table 13.1 Langjökull (total area 8100 km2) reported glacial surge advances
Area Advance Area affected
Glacier (km2) Slope (°) Surge years (km) (km2) Years between surges
Síðujökull 380 1.3 1893, 1934, 1963, 1994 0.5–1.2 500 41, 29, 31
Tungnaárjökull 308 1.4 1920, 1945, 1994 1.2–2.0 550 25, 49
Sylgjujökull 175 2.2 1945, 1996 0.5 150 51
Köldukvjslarjökull 313 2.6 1975, 1992 0.2 100 17
Dyngjujökull 1040 1.6 1900, 1934, 1951, 1977, 1.5 400–800 34, 17, 26, 22
1999
Brúarjökull 1500 1.7 1625, 1730, 1775, 1810, 8–10 1500 105, 45, 35, 80, 73
1890, 1963
Brúarjökull East 1938
Eylabakkajökull 100 2.7 1890, 1894, 1931, 1938, 0.6–2.8 110 4, 37, 37, 34
1972
Skeiðararjökull 1 2.0 1787, 1812, 1857, 1873, 1.0 1200 25, 45, 16, 56, 56, 6
1921, 1985, 1991
Breiðamerkurjökull 540 2.5 1794, 1815, 1821, 1861, 0.4–1.0 600 21, 8, 38, 8, 6, 17,
1869, 1875, 1892, 1912 20, 8, 35, 15
Eastern stream 1919, 1954, 1969
Middle stream 210 3.2 1978
Note. As described by Björnsson et al. [2003]; design credit Nathan Mennen.

Thorsteinsson and Bjornsson, 2012]. The temperate ice
cap at Hofsjökull began to form at 4 ka and has likely
formed at a faster rate than the Langjökull ice cap due
to its higher elevation.
It is unique in that its circular shape covering 925 km2
is dictated by the subglacial caldera 650 m deep
(~40 km2) of Iceland’s largest volcano in terms of
volume [Björnsson, 2017; Thorsteinsson and Bjornsson,
2012] (Figure 12.9). The schistose rhyolitic Hásteinar
mountain (1630 m), which rises up through the glacial
ice on the eastern caldera rim, was described by
Björnsson [2017], who considered that ice was not likely
to have covered the volcano when it formed during the
LGM. Subsequent eruptions have not produced
enough material to infill the caldera thus leaving a deep
cavity now occupied entirely by the ice cap. The topog-
raphy of the caldera on the western edge shows a slight
depression that could occupy a lake should the glacier
melt. Björnsson [2017] describes this scenario as being
similar to the formation of Lake Öskjuvatn in the Askja
caldera (see section 10.1). Basaltic lava fields found on
the north, east, and south sides indicate that the vol-
cano has been active during postglacial times, however,
it is not likely that it has been active since Víking
settlement of the island. Other local peaks include the
two nunataks Gægir and Tanni. A tomography survey
conducted in 1988 revealed basement features of the
volcano including a ravine 250 m deep that is currently
under an outlet glacier [Blautukvíslarjökull). This fea-
ture likely formed by catastrophic jökulhlaup flooding
and helps to explain why the rates of erosion at
Hofsjökull are higher (0.9 mm year−1), than at nearby
Langjökull (0.4 mm year−1) [Björnsson, 1980].
The gently sloping flanks of the shield‐type volcano
(~3.4°) beneath Hofsjökull (Figure 13.3) are conducive
to forming outlet glaciers. Due to this low slope, how-
ever, glacial surges occur only in the flat ablation areas
and have not been observed to propagate upglacier,
which is considered atypical [Björnsson et al., 2003].
The five main outlet glaciers are: Blágnípujökull
(52 km2; 64.8166, −19.1166) and Blautukvíslarjökull
(73 km2; 64.7936, −19.1230) on the southeast side;
Nauthagajökull (9 km2; 64.7580, −19.3069), which
bifurcates to form Mulajökull (91 km2; 64.6627,
−18.7144), in the south; and Sátujökull (72 km2;
64.9522, −18.6269) in the north (Figure 13.4). Of these,
Mulajökull is the largest lobe and descends from the
highest portion of the dome (1800 m a.s.l.) through a
narrow passage 2 km wide between rhyolite peaks, from
where it fans out into the low‐lying Þjórsárver plains
(610 m a.s.l.) as a piedmont glacier. The margin of this
outlet is 12 km‐long, and the last ~1 km has a gradient
between 10 and 12° that flattens to a slope of <3°. At
present, the maximum thickness of the ice lobe is bet-
ween 250 and 100 m, thinning at its snout. Due to its
steep descent, Mulajökull has experienced at least seven
glacial surges between 1924 and 1992 that tend to occur
about every 10 years to affect an area ~10 km2. These
glacial surges have been described in detail from the
sedimentary succession found in the forefield, which is
142 GLACIAL FEATURES

Figure 13.3 Cross‐section of the subglacial topography of Hofsjökull. [Modified from Bjornsson [2017];
design credit Nathan Mennen.]

Figure 13.4 Hofsjökull outlet glaciers and ice divides. [Modified from Bjornsson [2017] and Bjornsson
et al. [2003]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]
 Glacial Features of the Reykjanes Peninsula and Southwestern Region 143

dominated by till layers [Benediktsson et al., 2009]. The
four to five till layers present within drumlins in the
forefield are considered by Benediktsson et al. [2009] to
have been deposited from surge events. Here, it should
be noted, that the Múlajökull drumlin field is unusual
because it is a feature rarely seen at other contemporary
glaciers. These drumlins have provided a modern‐day
analog for glaciologists to make comparisons with
Pleistocene examples [Benediktsson et al., 2009]. This
forefield is also important because it contains evidence
of 10–12 end moraines with 5–20 m spacing that illus-
trate the retreat of the margin in the past 10–12 years
[Benediktsson et al., 2009]; the outermost end moraine,
Arnarfellsmúlar, is 5–10 m tall, 100 m wide, and con-
tains sequences of loess, peat, and tephra [Benediktsson
et al., 2009].
Additionally, the Mulajökull lobe is particularly
important because it contains the headwaters for
Iceland’s longest river, Þjórsá (230 km), which starts at
the Bergvatnskvísl tributary. The River Þjórsá passes
through the Þjórsádalur Valley and alongside a well‐
known Víking homestead inhabited by Stöng (64.1200,
−19.8202). This valley today remains the largest con-
tinuous “oasis of vegetation” in the Icelandic central
highlands and provides a good example of permafrost
features [Björnsson, 2017] (Photo 46). Changes in
Þjórsá River runoff induced by glacial melt are a
­concern due to its use as a hydroelectric power source.
Ye et al. [2003] predict that the meltwater discharge of
Hofsjökull as a whole will increase by 50% near the
end of the this century, and then decline as the glacier
continues to shrink. The firn layer is also expected to
decrease in depth as the temperate glacier is exposed to
higher temperatures. Woul et al. [2006] have empha-
sized the role of the firn layer in delaying water flow
through glaciers and its influence on seasonality.
The near circular shape of Hofsjökull, and in turn,
its radial flow pattern has made this glacier an ideal
candidate for the study of mass‐balance modeling
[Jóhannesson, 1991; Jóhannesson et al., 2006]. Survey
records of the major outlet glaciers extend back to
1937, however, Jóhannesson et al. [2006] did not begin

Photo 46 Stöng homestead alongside the River Þjórsá fed by the runoff of the Hofsjökull glacier, which
passes through the Þjórsádalur Valley. [Courtesy of Imagebroker/Alamy Stock Photo.]
144 GLACIAL FEATURES
annual measurements until in 1988, which have been by
Jóhannesson et al. [2006] and has continued since.
Jóhannesson et al. [2006] reported that the surface area
of Hofsjökull reduced by 3–4 m.w.e. from 1988 to 2005;
the mean annual mass decreases by 0.6 m.w.e. C−1 of
increased global warming. According to Björnsson
[2017] the Hofsjökull glacier has shrunk by 16% (from
996 km2 to 830 km2) over the past 70 years, as evidenced
by the most recent terminal moraines being 2–3 km
from the oldest most distal moraines. This has been
accompanied by an increasing rate of run off, with 25%
higher annual discharge, or by 0.6 m year−1 [Jóhannesson
et al., 2006]. With continued warming, Björnsson [2017]
predicts that by 2100 the surface area of Hofsjökull will
decrease by 50% and Múlajökull will completely disap-
pear, and the ravine at Blautukvíslarjökull will be com-
pletely exposed.
Reducing the firn layer under otherwise likewise
conditions results in almost unchanged total runoff
volumes, but yields a redistribution of discharge within
the year. Early summer discharge (June to mid‐August)
is amplified by roughly 5–10%, whereas late‐summer
to autumn discharge (mid‐August to November) is
reduced by 15–20% as a result of accelerated water
flow through the glacial hydrological system. In
comparison, applying a climate‐model‐based tempera-
ture and precipitation scenario for Iceland until 2050
results in higher runoff throughout the year, increasing
total runoff by roughly one‐third. The results empha-
size the role of the firn layer in delaying water flow
through glaciers, and the influence on discharge sea-
sonality when firn areas shrink in response to climate‐
change‐induced glacier wastage.
13.3. KERLINGARFJÖLL
Explosive activity of the WVZ formed the rhyolitic
Kerlingarfjöll mountains (1500 m; 64.6500, −19.2644)
during the LGM (Figure 7.2). At this time, two calderas
formed: the eastern (17 km2) and western (14 km2).
Currently, the eastern caldera hosts 10 glaciers (total
surface area 3 km2) at an elevation of 1200–1300 m
[Björnsson, 2017]. The largest glaciers are:
Loðmundarjökull Eystri (64.6452, −19.1916), Jökulkinn
(64.6336, −19.1913), and Mænisjökull (64.6525,
−19.3238). The Kerlingarfjöll mountains may best be
known, however, as the divide between the area’s two
major rivers: Hvítá and Þjórsá.
 14
Glacial Features of the South and Southeastern Regions
With the onset of colder temperatures ~5 Ma came
the initial expanse of the Vatnajökull ice cap (Figure 2.2).
The Vatnajökull ice cap (7800 km2) sits on top of a
mantle plume that has been in the approximate same
location for the past 13 Myr and today marks the tri-
ple‐poimt junction between the NVZ, EVZ, and MIB
(Figure 2.1). Since ~3 Ma the EVZ has been propa-
gating eastward at a rate of 2–5 cm year−1 [Einarsson,
1991, 2008], and has both initiated and influenced the
transform movement of the MIB. As explained by
Helgason and Duncan [2001], beginning at 2.6 Ma both
the intensity and frequency of glaciations increased
significantly along the southern portions of
Vatnajökull. Mapping cliff profiles in the Skaftafell
region (64.0704, −16.9752) provided estimated rates of
topographic uplift in the area between 100 m and
2 km, with rapid increases occurring at 0.8 Ma
[Helgason and Duncan, 2001]. The change in elevation
amplified the downgradient movement of the ice cap,
which resulted in deeply eroded valleys that became
permanent ice flow channels during successive glacial
intervals and can still be seen in this region (Photo 40).
As a whole, the 30 outlet glaciers that make up the
Vatnajökull ice cap continued to grow from the time
the Víkings settled in 874 CE through the 19th century
[Björnsson, 2017]. Life along the southern coast was
challenging for the initial Víking settlements as surging
glaciers destroyed newly established farms during the
LIA with their uncontrollable advance of between 10
and 15 km. Lichenometric techniques used on
moraines from one of Vatnajökull’s outlet glaciers,
Lambatungajökull, found that the most extensive
surges were likely in the 1780s [Bradwell et al., 1999].
Iceland: Tectonics,Volcanics, and Glacial Features, Geophysical Monograph 247, First Edition. Tamie J. Jovanelly.
© 2020 American Geophysical Union. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
145
As they discussed, however, with only two exceptions,
the dates of terminal moraines around the Vatnajökull
ice cap are about 100 years younger (1850–1900 CE).
The use of tephrochronology from Vatnajökull’s
southernmost volcano (Öræfajökull) constrained the
LIA maxima to before 1873 CE [McKinzey et al.,
2005].
The debate regarding the timing of deglaciation at
Vatnajökull following the LGM is still ongoing.
Undeniably, identifying the causes of advances and
retreats of Vatnajökull’s outlet glaciers is somewhat
complicated by the presence of subglacial volcanic
centers and the response of the ice to eruptions from
them; thus the possibility of a synchronous retreat
­following the LGM may be unlikely.
It is along the EVZ and MIB that the complicated
story of fire and ice unfolds. Over the past 800 years
approximately 80 subglacial or proglacial volcanic
eruptions have occurred along the EVZ and MIB
[Larsen et al., 1998]. Björnsson and Einarrson [1990]
ascertained from radio echo soundings and earth-
quake and jökulhlaup data that there are six active
volcano systems beneath Vatnajökull: Grímsvötn,
­
Veiðivötn, Bárðarbunga, Kverfjöll, Esjufjöll, and
Öræfajökull (Figure 7.2). These systems are described
by Björnsson and Einarrson [1990], and in Chapters 4
and 9. Bárðarbunga is in the center of a volcanic system
that includes fissure swarms of Veiðivötn; Grímsvötn
is the center of a volcanic system that comprises the
Laki ­fissure swarm in the southwest and extends for
unknown distances to the northeast of the volcano;
the Kverfjöll system extends 10 km southwest of the
central volcano; and Esjufjöll and Öræfajökull behave
146 GLACIAL FEATURES
independently. Of these, Bárðarbunga, Grímsvötn,
and Kverfjöll lie directly on either the EVZ or the MIB
and pose the most threat for phreatic eruptions at pre-
sent (see section 9.1). For example, Bárðarbunga is
considered the second most active volcano throughout
historic time, and Grímsvötn has erupted four times
in the last 15 years (1996, 1998, 2004, 2011) after a 60‐
year repose period. Nearby, there are four other
smaller ice caps found along the southern coast that
are adjacent to the EVZ rift zone and also conceal
active volcanoes beneath the ice (Mýrdalsjökull,
596 km2; Eyjafjallajökull, 78 km2; Tindfjallajökull,
19 km2; Torafajökull, 15 km2; Figure 7.2). The
Mýrdalsjökull ice cap conceals the Katla volcano,
which shares a magma chamber with Eyjfjallajökull.
The last activity at Eyjfjallajökull was in 2010 when a
VEI = 4.0 eruption produced an ash cloud 9 km tall
(see section 9.2). Historically, when Eyjfjallajökull has
erupted, Katla has soon followed.
The retreat of Vatnajökull has been instrumental in
understanding the connections between glacial retreat
and changes in magmatic activity. It has been esti-
mated that during the 20th century Vatnajökull lost
about 10% of its ice mass (~450 km3), which through
modeling has been correlated to an increase in magma
production beneath the glacier of 0.014 km3 year−1
based on present day uplift of 25 mm/year [Pagli and
Sigmundsson, 2008]. The increase in magmatic produc-
tion of 1.4 km3 100 year−1 modeled by Pagli and
Sigmundsson [2008] was comparable with historic
eruption estimates quantified at Vatnajökull by
Thordarson and Larsen [2007]. If glacial retreat con-
tinues Pagli and Sigmundsson [2008] suggest that
increased volcanic activity may be expected at
Vatnajökull in the future. Swindles et al. [2018], how-
ever, determined a lag of ~600 years between Icelandic
volcanism and climate change, which concurs with
Schmidt et al. [2013] who quantified a huge (100–135%)
increase in mantle melt production due to deglaciation
between 1890 and 2010 CE. Schmidt et al. [2013] sug-
gest that the recent increases in volcanic activity on
Iceland may instead be the result of GIA in response
to LIA deglaciation.
Undoubtedly, subglacial eruptions have led to cata-
strophic jökulhlaups. The shear presence of geothermal
heat at the base of these glaciers due to their proximity
to the hot spot, however, creates meltwater that can
accumulate in subglacial lakes and produce outburst
floods (jökulhlaups) in the absence of a volcanic
eruption. Regardless of origin, flooding events over the
past 10,000 years have produced enough sediment to
create the world’s largest sandur plain that extends
from the sea to 25 km inland [Skeiðarársandur,
1000 km2; Photo 44). These outwash plains have
become characteristic of the southern coast where the
wide glacier margins terminate on broad lowland areas
with meltwater discharging to the North Atlantic via
braided river channels (Photo 47). The thickest portion
of the Skeiðarársandur (63.7877, −17.2780) is in the
middle of the outwash plain (200–250 m thick) and it
thins toward the terminus of the glacier.
The meltwater runoff from Vatnajökull feeds the
largest rivers in Iceland, which encompass half the
country’s catchment areas (Figure 12.10). At some
outlet glaciers (e.g., Skeiðarájökull, Breiðamerkurjökull),
the erosive capacity of their discharge, in terms of both
frequency and power, has eroded channels up to 300 m
below sea level [Björnsson, 2017]. As an example, River
Jökulsá á Brú was monitored during a surging event at
Brúarjökull in 1963–1964 that likely was initiated by
the emptying of subglacial melt from the Kverfjöll
ice‐filled caldera [Björnsson and Einarsson, 1990]. The
suspended load of sediment from this event was
upwards of 6470 mg L−1. Additionally, Björnsson [1980]
reported that the total transport of sediment during the
year was 25 × 106 tons and discharge in the order of
10,000 m3 s−1, which corresponded to a denudation rate
of 3.7 mm year−1 (Table 12.1). These values may be low,
however, when compared with the 150 × 106 tons of
sediment estimated to have been transported to
Skeiðarársandur during the 1934 eruption of Grímsvötn
[Björnsson, 1980]. The dynamically changing system of
the Skeiðarársandur limited transport communications
from eastern to western Iceland along the southern
coast until the first main national highway was built in
1974. Unfortunately, however, part of the Skeiðará
Bridge (63.9558, −17.4647; Photo 48) was destroyed in
1996 by large calving icebergs and the extreme river dis-
charge rate of 45,000 m3 s−1. The dramatically reshaped
coastline resulted in US$10 million of damage to the
country’s infrastructure [Russell et al., 2000].
The amount of water from a jökulhlaup event at
Vatnajökull is much greater than the contribution of
seasonal melt runoff in a water budget. Water gener-
ated via seasonal melt, however, is an important factor
in determining the overall mass balance of a glacier
whereby warming temperatures can induce a positive
feedback loop by increasing the amount of meltwater
paths (e.g., crevasses; Figure 12.7). Meltwater follows
drainage divides that have been established for the sur-
face of the glacier from topographic surveys and water
pressure potential maps (Figure 12.10). Steffensen
et al. [2008] modeled the surface climate and energy
balance of the Vatnajökull ice cap from 1980 to 2016,
Photo 47 Braided river channel of a sandur plain discharging meltwater from Vatnajökull into the North
Atlantic. [Courtesy of Imagemaker/Alamy Stock Photo.]

Photo 48 Skeiđará Bridge remains near Skaftafell National Park. [Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]
148 GLACIAL FEATURES
as well as the sensitivity of runoff to the spring snow
cover. They found that the glacial runoff is controlled
mostly by summer weather (mid‐June through August)
when daylight persists for up to 22 h day−1. The amount
of runoff can increase between 22 and 72% if there is
spring snow cover on the ice cap that can contribute to
the water budget. This is because newly accumulated
snow melts faster than that compacted into firn (Figure
12.5). The 37 years of modeled runoff data was
­compared with field observations from flow gauges at
glacial outlet rivers (e.g., Brűarjökull), with analogous
results showing an overall negative mass balance for
Vatnajökull. Likewise, Wittman et al. [2017] calculated
the snow albedo effect in order to predict seasonal
snowmelt and run‐off rates, which were used in calcu-
lating energy budgets at Vatnajökull. They concluded
that impurities in the snow (e.g., dust, ash, loess) from
specific events (e.g., Gjálp eruption of 1996) have
reduced the albedo affect so that heat is absorbed
instead of being reflected off the ice sheet surface.
Since 1991 the glacier has lost ~3% of its mass, or
92.7 km3 of ice volume. Additional modeling c­ ompleted
by Hannesdóttir et al. [2014] using aerial photographs
and digital elevation models from 1890 to 2010 charac-
terized two major periods of high mass loss at
Vatnajökull: 2002–2010 and 1904–1945. Conversely,
data collected for 2014–2015 indicated the first positive
mass balance in over two decades of monitoring
[Gudmundsson et al., 2016]. This was attributed to
higher than normal precipitation during the winter
season, and an unusually cold June and July.
14.1. VATNAJÖKULL
On 7 June 2008, Vatnajökull National Park
(64.4220, −16,7902) was established. With a total
area of 14,141 km2, it covers ~14% of the island and
makes it the second largest national park in Europe.
The focus of the national park is Vatnajökull, which
may best be known as Iceland’s and Europe’s largest
glacier at 7800 km2 (Figures 12.3 and 14.1). At pre-
sent the ice cap covers approximately 8% of the
island. The protected landscapes around the glacier
take up the other 6% of area, including: Jökulsárgljúfur
fjords (see ­section 5.4; 66.0285, −16.4871), Lakagígar
crater rows (see section 9.1; 64.0707, −18.2378),
Langisjor highlands (64.2154, −18.2184), Jökulsárlón
lagoon (64.0784, −16.2306), and Skaftafell (64.0704,
−16.9752).
Being the largest of the remaining ice caps on the
island, Vatnajökull continues to provide the most
detailed and continuous ice record as maximum
thickness has been maintained at ~1000 m, although
the average thickness is closer to 400 m. Using adio
echo soundings Björnsson [1982] and Eythórsson
[1952] revealed that the central ice mass of Vatnajökull
is resting on a highland plateau at 700–800 m altitude
with only a few peaks rising above 1100 m (e.g.,
Hvannadalshnúkur, 2110 m; 64.0147°N, 16.6749°W).
Due to its expanse and basement topography domi-
nated by volcanoes, the undulating Vatnajökull ice
cap has four main domes: Bárðarbunga (2000 m),
Kverkfjöll (1920 m), Breiðabunga (1500 m), and
Háabunga (1730 m).
Vatnajökull has at least 30 outlet glaciers, but the
following 11 are the major lobes separated by topog-
raphy and/or drainage divides: Bárðarbunga
(1000 km2; 64.6410, −17.5280), Dyngjujökull
(500 km2; 66.1500, −22.2500), Brúarjökull (1600 km2;
64.6817, −16.1567°), Eyjabakkajökull (109 km2;
63.6304, −19.6067), Breiðamerkurjökull (1700 km2;
64.1531, −16.4000), Öræfajökull (356 km2; 63.9822,
−16.6536), Skeiðarárjökull (1300 km2; 64.0558,
−17.2081), Siðujökull (500 km2; 64.1178, −17.8525),
Tungnaárjökull (235 km2; 64.3186, −18.0222)
Sylgjujökull (300 km2; 64.4472, −17.9205),
Köldukvíslarjökull (200 km2; 64.5350, −17.8438)
(Figure 12.10; Table 14.1). Here it should be clarified
that the popular tourist destination of Skaftafellsjökull
National Park is a subset, or arm, of the larger
Skeiðarárjökull (Figure 12.10). Of those listed above,
the glaciers can be categorized as surge, nonsurge,
and mixed types. Those outlets encompassed by
Eyjabakkajökull on the southeast margin are smaller,
steeper, and surge at a rate of about once every 35 years
[Sigurðsson, 1998]. Eyjabakkajökull’s advance/retreat
record, however, may not be as reliable as other surg-
ing lobes on Vatnajökull because two different systems
meet here to influence the flux patterns (i.e., valley
­glacier meets outlet glacier [Björnsson, 1998]).
The outlet glaciers of southeast Vatnajökull are
located in the warmest and wettest area of Iceland
and descend down to the lowlands. Results from ice
dynamics and hydrology models indicate that these
glaciers are the most sensitive to future warming of all
the outlets of Vatnajökull [Hannesdóttir et al., 2014].
In particular, Hannesdóttir et al. [2014] consider that
they are especially vulnerable to warming climate
conditions because their beds lie 100–300 m below the
elevation of the current terminus. Of these, the most
popularly visited is Skeiðarájökull, which is easily
viewed from Highway 1. Its 12 km wide base spreads
onto the Skeiðarársandur plain and makes it the larg-
est lobe of Vatnajökull.
 Glacial Features of the South and Southeastern Regions  149

Figure 14.1 Details of the Vatnajökull ice cap including location of the Grimsvotn, Kverfjöll, and Bárđabunga
volcanoes. [Modified from Bjornsson (1979]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]

Table 14.1 Vatnajökull lobes and their associated surge events by date
Glacial lobe Volume (km2) Surge dates
Bárdarbunga 1000 –
Dyngjujökull 500 1900, 1934, 1951, 1977, 1999
Brúarjökull 1600 1625, 1730, 1775, 1810, 1890, 1963
Eyjabakkajökull 109 1890, 1894, 1931, 1938, 1972
Breidamerkurjökull 1700 1794, 1815, 1823, 1861, 1869, 1875, 1892, 1912, 1919, 1954, 1969, 1978
Oræfajökull 356 –
Skeidarárjökull 1300 1787, 1812, 1857, 1873, 1929, 1985, 1991
Sidujökull 500 1893, 1934, 1963, 1994
Tungnaárj ökull 235 1920, 1945, 1994
Sylgiujökull 300 1945, 1996
Köldulvíslarjökull 200 1975, 1992
150 GLACIAL FEATURES
The Öræfajökull glacier covers the largest stratovol-
cano in Iceland (Figure 12.10), and is a noticeable
landmark viewed from sea‐level at the Skeiðarársandur.
The ice‐filled caldera (400 m deep) is 4–5 km in diam-
eter and has a surface area of 14 km2 and is capped
with ~ 550 m of ice. Öræfajökull provides a unique sce-
nario in that during eruptions downgradient slides of
ice are often promoted [Björnsson, 2003]. Öræfajökull’s
highest peak, Hvannadalshnúkur (2110 m; 64.0147,
−16.6749), is located on the northwest edge of the
­caldera rim although this is just one of six peaks above
1700 m. Although listed above as part of Vatnajökull,
Öræfajökull is sometimes considered to be an
independent ice cap that has merged with the south
side of Vatnajökull, on the eastern side of
Breiðamerkurjökull (Figure 12.10).
Breiðamerkurjökull is separated by two distinct
medial moraines, with the eastern branch entering
Breiðárlón (64.0680, −16.3713) proglacial lagoon and
the western branch terminating at Jökulsárlón (64.0816,
−16.2319 tidal lagoon (Photo 49). As described by
Sigurðsson [1998], the two medial moraines have led to
the development of three different meltwater channels
Photo 49 Jökulsárlón glacial tidal lagoon in front of the main glacier. [Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]
(Skeiðará, Gígja or Sandgígjukvísl, and Súla). Of the
three rivers, Skeiðará has the largest average summer
flow (200–400 m3 s−1) and runs along the snout of the
glacier before connecting with Gígja and discharging
into sea. To date, Breiðamerkurjökull has retreated
4 km since 1890 and areas beneath 200 m of glacial ice
in 1904 are now ice free [Björnsson et al., 2001].
Skaftafellsjökull (64.0654, −16.8635) is another pop-
ularly visited outlet glacier of Vatnajökull because of
the proximity of Skaftafell National Park located east
of its snout. In total, Skaftafellsjökull has retreated
~2300 m since 1904, when the first terminus approxima-
tions were derived from early topographic maps. Annual
field measurements began in 1932, with increasing
­precision and consistency beginning in 1942. The data
indicate that the average rate of retreat was 72 m year−1
from 1932 to 1942, reducing to 30 m year−1 from 1942 to
1970. The subsequent 50 years reflects a complicated
history of advance and retreat at Skaftafellsjökull:
1971–1988 the glacier advanced 96 m; 1989–1995 the
glacier retreated 136 m; 1996–1998 the glacier advanced
90 m; 1999 to present the glacier has retreated on average
53 m year−1 [Marren and Toomath, 2014].
 Glacial Features of the South and Southeastern Regions  151
14.2. FJALLSARLÓN, BREIÐÁRLÓN,
AND JÖKULSÁRLÓN
Today, there are three proglacial lakes in front of
Breiðamerkurjökull: Fjallsarlón (4 km2; 64.0163,
−16.4002), Breiðárlón (9 km2; 64.0605, −16.3663), and
Jökulsárlón (25 km2; 64.0686, −16.2255) (Figure 12.10).
The basins for Breiðárlón and Jökulsárlón were likely
created as the glacier retreated during the LIA [Boulton
et al., 1982]. Breiðárlón filled during the early 1920s
with influx from the River Breiðá. During 1954 the
course of the river moved west to feed Fjallsarlón
(Photo 50). According to Björnsson [2017], the first
appearance of Jökulsárlón was in 1934 when the glacier
snout was about 1 km from the Atlantic Ocean; today
the distance is 8 km. Of the three lakes, Jökulsárlón is
the largest and has consistently grown in area since
1960. In 1992, a nearby small (2 km2) glacial lake called
Stemmulón converged with Jökulsárlón thereby
combining discharge through all of Breiðamerkurjökull’s
central and eastern drainage systems including: Vestri‐
Stemma, Eystri‐Stemma, Brennhólakvísl, and Veðurá.
Photo 50 Fjallsarlón lagoon discharging into the ocean via a braided river system. [Courtesy of Tamie
Jovanelly.]
Discharge of these influent streams caused rapid
expanse of the lake from 2000–2009, such that
Jökulsárlón increased by 6 km2 [Schomacker, 2010].
With a continued trend of negative net mass balance at
Breiðamerkurjökull into the future, Canas et al. [2015]
project that Jökulsárlón will continue to expand, reach-
ing 56.3 km2 by 2055.
As the base of Breiðamerkurjökull is on unlithified
sediment, rather than bedrock, pronounced ice‐
marginal overdeepening has developed at Jökulsárlón
[Boulton et al., 1982; Tweed et al., 2005]. Thus, glacial
retreat and influx from rivers has caused deep under-
cutting into the lake bottom, resulting in a basin depth
of ~300 m below sea level. Björnsson [1992] confirmed
this in 1991 using radio echo sounding to map a deep
trench 2–5 km wide by 20 km in length at the toe of
Breiðamerkurjökull. Jökulsárlón is considered the
deepest lake in Iceland and provides a sink for sedi-
ment entering via the river systems, which recently has
become a problem because the coastline is not being
renourished. According to Björnsson [1998] the
­coastline is eroding at a rate of 8.5 m year−1, which is a
152 GLACIAL FEATURES
concern to Icelanders as it threatens the location of
Highway 1 and electricity infrastructure.
During the 1990s the rate at which icebergs were
calving notably increased and was quantified as a
loss of 600 m year−1 from the glacier terminus, which
caused the lake area to expand by 0.5 km2 year−1
[Björnsson et al., 2001; Björnsson, 2017]. For added
context, the height of the glacial snout at the
Breiðamerkurjökull terminus is about 30 m above
sea level, with an additional 60 m below the surface.
In addition to being larger than the other two lakes,
Jökulsárlón is the only lake connected to the ocean
and is thereby influenced by brackish conditions and
tidal fluctuations, which produces great variability in
salinity distribution (vertically and spatially) at dif-
ferent times of the year [Landl et al., 2003]. As an
example, during spring the maximum value of
salinity at the bottom of the lake is 12%, but during
the summer months the meltwater flushes the salt-
water out of the lake, thereby decreasing the salinity
to 5%. As previously mentioned, because the coast-
line is continually eroding the distance between
Jökulsárlón and the ocean is decreasing, resulting in
increasing amounts of seawater being able to flow
into the lake at high tide [Landl et al., 2003]. This is
a concern as the denser seawater sinks below the less
dense lake water and density driven systems can
cause stratification in the water column, which can
affect flow conditions. Ultimately, the connection
with the sea, or lack thereof, affects the appearance
of the lakes. For example, Jökulsárlón is clear
because suspended sediment is continually moved
out of the basin by the tide, whereas Breiðárlón and
Fjallsarlón are turbid.
14.3. LAKES UNDER THE ICE: GRÍMSVÖTN,
KVERJÖKULL, AND BARÐARBUNGA
Radio echo soundings first revealed several surface
depressions on Vatnajökull that are created by subgla-
cial geothermal activity and are underlain by water‐
filled vaults that accumulate until drained by a
jökulhlaup [Björnsson, 1974, 1975, 1977, 1980]. As
described by Björnsson [2003] the release of meltwater
from subglacial lakes can occur by three different
mechanisms: (a) rapid meltwater accumulation via
proximal volcanic activity; (b) the lake level can rise
until the ice dam is penetrated; (c) drainage can begin
on the lake bottom when the water begins to melt con-
duits that slowly expand with friction and contact with
water. Although a stratified temperature column is
typically observed in a subglacial lake, the temperature
remains within a few degrees of freezing until the lake
bottom is approached. Within 10 m of the caldera
floor, the temperature of the water can increase
­between 1° and 6°C [Jóhannesson et al., 2007]. The
movement and distribution of the accumulated melt-
water in a caldera is not uniform, but has been
described to move in convection patterns [Jóhannesson
et al., 2007]. Data on mixing are important because
temperature of the meltwater controls basal melting
and further widening of subglacial conduits, and hence
can induce flooding. Increases in the temperature of
the meltwater can cause an ice cauldron to form, which
is a surface depression causing circular surface cracks
in the ice above the subglacial lake prior to, or just
after, a subglacial lake is drained (Figure 14.2). If the
formation of a cauldron is spotted early by noticing
the described surficial changes in the ice, it can be used
as a warning indicator that a flooding and/or a volcanic
event may soon occur. As an example, rapid
(50 cm day−1) observations of glacial surface subsi-
dence above the Bárdarbunga cauldron just before the
caldera collapsed on 16 August 2014. At Vatnajökull
there are three known active subglacial lakes:
Grímvotn, Kverjökull, and Barðarbunga (Figure 14.1).
Of the three, Grímsvötn has the largest subglacial
lake with a caldera 10 km in diameter and depth of
300 m. The caldera is confined by Mount Grímsfjall
on the south and west, but the lake can expand to the
north and northeast as the water level rises. The
volcanic structure of Grímsvötn creates a localized
topographic high for the ice cap, thus causing a dome
effect that will influence drainage patterns. The
majority of the subglacial flow drains south onto the
Skeiðarársandur plain (Figure 14.1). Three other
smaller ice cauldrons (i.e., Skaftár cauldrons) in the
Grímsvötn volcanic zone, however, drain elsewhere;
two on the eastern side drain to the River Skaftá and
the westernmost ice cauldron drains to proglacial Lake
Hamarslón, which feeds River Kaldakvísl [Björnsson,
1982, 1988]. Today, the ice above the Grímsotn lake is
~260 m thick and has grown continuously in size and
volume since the 1960s owing to an overall decrease in
area geothermal activity [Björnsson and Einarsson,
1990; Björnsson and Gudmundsson, 1993]. In turn, the
total volume of water discharging from the lake has
also decreased over the past 60 years.
In historic times, the Grímsvötn volcanic zone has
had the highest frequency of eruptions in Iceland, with
at least 40 eruptions occurring since 905 CE
[Thóraarinsson, 1974; Björnsson and Einarsson, 1990].
Of these events, half have been accompanied by a
jökulhlaup [Björnsson and Einarsson, 1990]. As described
 Glacial Features of the South and Southeastern Regions  153

Figure 14.2 Formation of ice cauldron: a depression at the surface of a glacier can be formed when ice
melts at the glacier base to form a subglacial lake. [Modified from Bjornsson [2003]; design credit Nathan
Mennen.]

Figure 14.3 Discharge relating to jökulhlaups as distributed onto the Skeiđararsandur. [Modified from
Bjornsson [2017] design credit Nathan Mennen.]

by Björnsson [2003], in general, the longer the subgla-
cial eruption the more meltwater will be produced.
Caldera eruptions do not cause jökulhlaups because
the water level does not rise in the lake when the floating
ice cover melts. At Grimsvotn, however, nearby fissure
eruptions under >500 m of ice have caused meltwater
to quickly fill up the caldera lake. This is what hap-
pened at Grímsvötn in 1996 to produce the most rapid
jökulhlaup ever recorded when 3.2 km3 of water drained
from the lake within a period of 40 h (Figure 14.3)
[Björnsson, 2003]. Most surprising was a tsunami‐type
wave that inundated Skeiðarársandur after 10.5 h of
initial meltwater release and caused a washout of the
main road (Photo 47). The peak d ­ ischarge reached
4 × 104 m3 s−1 in 16 h and fell to zero 27 h later [Björnsson,
2003]. Also unusual, this rapid discharge of water initi-
ated surficial changes to the ice sheet whereby the roof
of a subglacial tunnel collapsed resulting in a canyon‐
like feature 100 m deep, 800 m wide, and 6 km long
[Aðalgeirsdóttir et al., 2000].
154 GLACIAL FEATURES
Volcanic‐induced flooding, however, is not the pri-
mary mechanism at Grímvötn. Instead, geothermal
heating continuously generates meltwater within the
subglacial lake. At Grímsvötn, once the meltwater
reaches a critical level, typically when it rises 80–110 m,
it will breach the basin, thereby producing a flood
event (Figure 14.4) [Björnsson, 2002]. The initial emp-
tying of the lake is accompanied by icequakes, subsi-
dence of the ice cap above the lake, and a sulfurous
odor at the glacial margin where the water is discharged
[Björnsson, 2002]. The majority of the Grímsvötn
jökulhlaups will flow ~50 km beneath the glacier to
reach the outwash plain at Skeiðarársandur. After the
flooding event, systematically, the remaining ice will
dam the flow and the cycle will start again. At
Grímsvötn, the subglacial lake tends to regenerate
itself every 5 years, leading to another flood event
[Björnsson, 1992, 1998; Gudmundsson et al., 1995]. The
flooding events can last between 2 days and 4 weeks
with peak discharge ranging from 600 to 4 × 104 m3 s−1
at the terminus. The shorter, outburst floods discharge
through a subglacial tunnel at the glacier’s base. If the
discharge exceeds 3000 m3 s−1 the extra meltwater will
be accommodated by other tunnels at the central part
of the terminus and join the River Gígja.
According to Björnsson [2002], the largest and most
catastrophic jökulhlaups in Iceland may be caused by
eruptions in the voluminous ice‐filled calderas of
Bárdarbunga (64.6411, −17.5280) and Kverkfjöll
(64.6725, −16.6902) (Figures 2.1 and 14.1). This is
­particularly important to discussions of past climate
change as it is thought that jökulhlaups that have a
capacity of >1.0 × 106 m3 s−1 could have the potential
to trigger temporary, but abrupt, changes in climate as
seen by events disrupting the North Atlantic thermo-
haline circulation [Manabe and Stouffer, 1995;
Rahmstorf, 1997; Carrivick and Twigg, 2005]. In this
Figure 14.4 Changes in water levels in Lake Grímsvötn. [Modified from Bjornsson [2017]; design credit
Nathan Mennen.]
case, the major rivers (e.g., Jökulsá á Fjöllum) flow
north to provide a major pulse of freshwater and sedi-
ment onto the North Icelandic Shelf and Arctic Ocean.
Historically, Bárdarbunga is the second most active
volcano in Iceland with about five eruptions every 100
years since 7.6 ka, as identified from the 87 tephra
layers around Vatnajökull [Thordarson and Larsen,
2007; Óladóttir et al., 2011]. At least 13 jökulhlaups
relating to Bárdarbunga have been identified in the
depositional record since 900 CE [Björnsson and
Einarsson, 1990]. Its radial drainage pattern enables
meltwater to flow in all directions off the volcanic
peak (2118 m), and thence to enter the Jökulsá á
Fjöllum, Skjálfandafljót, Köldukvísl, Tungnaá, and
Skaftá rivers, or even find subglacial routes towards
Grímsvötn and out to the Skeiðarársandur, as was
observed in 1996 [Björnsson, 2017].
Kverkfjöll is further away from the hot spot and
therefore has been relatively docile volcanically during
historic time; zero to three eruptions every100 years. it
has two relatively small calderas (8 km long and 5 km
wide), however, where vigorous geothermal activity is
suppressed under the Gengissig (100 m deep) and
Galtarlón (500 m deep) ice‐dammed lakes, called. As
both Bárdabunga and Kverkfjöll are on the northern
side of Vatnajökull where the drainage divide directs
water toward the Central Highlands, it is likely that
subglacial eruptions of either could produce associ-
ated flooding events via the River Jökulsá á Fjöllum.
Carrivick and Twigg [2005] used geomorphological
and sedimentological evidence at the Kverkfjöll ice
margin to identify possible jökulhlaup flowpaths. This
included erosional features (gorges, cataracts, spill-
ways) and depositional features (wash limits, boulder
bars, terraces) found in the proglacial area of
Kverkfjallarani (64.7755, −16.4866). Carrivick et al.
[2004] have compared these geomorphologic features,
 Glacial Features of the South and Southeastern Regions  155
which often relate to intense flooding events, with
those related to well‐documented jökulhlaups in
Iceland. They found that the Kverkfjöll flooding events
tend to behave as more turbulent and supercritical
flows, with higher amounts of sediment concentra-
tions and spatially variable hydraulic properties. In
addition, from stratigraphical relationships between
jökulhlaup surfaces and other landforms at Kverkfjöll
they concluded that there have been at least three
events during the Holocene [Carrivick et al., 2004]. As
described by Carrivick et al. [2002] the individual flood
deposits are up to 50 cm thick and moderately well
sorted. Similarly, Helgason [1987] suggested as many
as four paleojökulhlaups with discharges upwards of
4 × 106 m3 s−1. From historic records, Thórarinsson
[1959] suggested many smaller magnitude events have
occurred and more recently in 2002 a jökulhlaup was
observed on Jökulsá á Fjöllum originating from
Kverkfjöll [Sigurðsson et al., 1992].
The question remains as to whether or not meltwater
events at Bárðarbunga or Kverkfjöll could have had
the capacity to erode the Jökulsárgljúfur canyon at
~9 ka (section 5.4, Figure 5.3, Photo 14). According to
Carrivick [2007], the Holocene flooding at Kverkfjöll
was comparable to the Missoula, Bonneville, and Altai
“megafloods” (Table 14.2). Although the comparative
study shows that the flow depth, flow width, and dis-
charges were orders of magnitudes less than the floods
mentioned, the geomorphology of the area seemingly
made up for it. Specifically, if the source water was
generated at the high‐elevation (1600 m) cauldron(s)
and then descended down the steep flanking sides
(900 m over 6 km) of the Kverkfjöll stratovolcano in a
confined canyon (like Hraundalur) then it may be pos-
sible. Equally, the Bárdarbunga caldera is known to
produce a greater volume of meltwater due to its sheer
size (caldera width 10 km, 700 m deep) and minimum
850 m thick ice cover.
Table 14.2 Comparison of the hydraulic parameters of the largest Kverkfjöll jökulhlaup with recent estimates of the
largest known terrestrial megafloods
Missoula flood
Width (km) 6 NR
Depth (m) 150
Velocity (m s−1) 25
Discharge (m3 s−1) 17 × 106
Bed Shear Stress (N m−2) 1 × 104
Stream power (W m−2) 2.5 × 105
Channel Slope 0.01
Roughness (Manning’s n) 0.04–0.1
Note. Modified from Carrivick [2007]; design credit Nathan Mennen.
14.4. MÝRDALSJÖKULL
Mýrdalsjökull is the fourth largest ice cap in Iceland
(590 km2) rising to an elevation of 1480 m a.s.l. Today,
only about 20% of the ice cap lies between the firn line
of 1000 m and 1200 m, which largely influences the
amount of meltwater discharge at its steep outlet gla-
ciers (Figure 12.8) [Björnsson, 2017] .This ice cap situ-
ated at the southern end of the EVZ may best be
known for the Katla volcano that resides beneath it
(section 9.2). The 700 m deep caldera is centered under
Mýrdalsjökull and spans 10 km in diameter. Owing to
the shallowness of Katla’s magma chamber (<3 km),
hydrothermal activity is common as a result of the
interaction of ice with the upwelling magma.
Few would refute that Katla, although hidden from
view beneath 400 m of ice, is the most dangerous vol-
cano in Iceland. The glaciated Katla volcano has
exploded 20 times since the settlement of the Víkings
in 874 CE [Larsen, 2000]. With a recurrence interval of
two eruptions per century, the Katla volcano delivers
some of the largest ever recorded releases in terms of
volumes of ash (Figures 9.5 and 9.6) and discharge
produced (i.e., 1.0 × 105 to 3.0 × 105 m3 s−1 for the 1918
jökulhlaup event) [Björnsson, 2003; Tómasson, 2002;
Russell et al., 2010]. Katla, however, is different to
those calderas that host glacial lakes like Grimsvotn,
Bardabunga, and Kverkfjöll (section 14.3). According
to Björnsson [2003], at Katla faults within the caldera
facilitate rapid vertical transport of meltwater before it
is able to collect in the depression; although there are
12 small (20–50 m deep, 500–1000 m wide) ice caul-
drons on Mýrdalsjökull where water can accumulate
over time (Figure 14.5). The cauldrons are unequally
distributed over the three major catchment basins that
supply water to the outwash plains Mýrdalssandur,
Sólheimasandí, and Markarfljót (Figure 14.5).
Although the meltwater accumulates in the cauldrons,
Bonneville flood Altai flood Kverkfjöll Jökulhlaup
2.5 1.6
156 400–500 5.9
41 20–45 15
1 × 106 18 × 106 2 × 105
2.9 × 103 2 × 105 1 × 104
1.2 × 105 1 × 106 1 × 105
0.0095 0.01 0.02–0.36
0.03–0.006 0.03–0.07 0.03–0.07
156 GLACIAL FEATURES
Figure 14.5 Details of features on Mýrdalsjökull. [Modified from Bjornsson [2003]; design credit Nathan
Mennen.]
eventually draining as small jökulhlaup events
[Björnsson et al., 2000; Russell et al., 2000], a persistent
hydrogen sulfide odor at Sólheimasandí also indicates
that meltwater is continuously released there. The mas-
sive meltwater releases that Katla is known for then are
initiated by powerful eruptions that can break through
the 400 m of ice cover within 1–2 h [Björnsson, 2003]
to produce water‐transported volcanic debris up to
2 × 109 tons per event [Tómasson, 1996; Larsen, 2000].
Additionally, computer models predict that the volume
of water produced by glacial outbursts could generate
tsunami‐like waves entering into the North Atlantic
and traveling towards the Vestmannaeyjar Islands with
wave heights of 2–3 m [Elíasson, 2008].
Mýrdalsjökull has four notable outlet glaciers:
Sólheimajökull (44 km2; 63.5569, −19.3028), Kötlujökull
(133 km2, 63.5661, −18.8672), Sléttjökull (72 km2;
63.7202, −19.0188) and Öldufellsjökull (40 km2; 63.5969,
−18.8811) (Figure 14.5). Of these, the gently sloping
northern outlets of Sléttjökull and Öldufellsjökull are
considered surge‐type glaciers, with both advancing in
1992; surges on Öldufellsjökull have occurred approxi-
mately every 10 years since 1974. The more frequent
advance of Öldufellsjökull is likely due to its confinement
in a valley, whereas Sléttjökull is a broad‐lobed piedmont
glacier spanning 12 km across. Uniquely, those surges
observed on the northern side of Mýrdalsjökull ice cap
appear to be generated as localized movements starting
near the glacier snout. In turn, deformation of the ice was
not seen throughout the entire outlet glacier or near the
central ice divides. This may be attributable to the
basement substrate beneath Sléttjökull and Öldufellsjökull
being porous lavas [Björnsson et al., 2003].
Sólheimajökull and Kötlujökull are steep valley gla-
ciers that flow off the caldera and emerge onto the
southern coastline. These two outlet glaciers hace been
studied extensively because over the past six centuries
all major jökulhlaups generated from Katla eruptions
have been released through them [Sigurðsson, 1998;
Russell et al., 2000] (Figure 9.6). As an example, the last
eruption in 1918 transported enough sediment to
extend the coastline of Mýrdalssandur by 3.0 km sea-
ward [Tómasson, 1996]. A similar process of meltwater
generation occurs at these lobe systems as described at
Breiðamerkurjökull in section 14.2, which also termi-
nates on the southern coastline. At these outlet glaciers,
25% of the meltwater is generated at higher elevations
within the accumulation zone (Figure 12.8) thus pro-
ducing large amounts of water to be transported great
distances downgradient to the ablation areas.
 Glacial Features of the South and Southeastern Regions  157
Like outlet glaciers at Vatnajökull, Sólheimajökull
has had an extreme history of glacial advance and
retreat since 1960. In particular, between 1960 and
1996 the glacier advanced 400 m and increased in area
by 0.61 km2, but has since retreated 450 m [Staines
et al., 2015]. The influence of glacier advance and
retreat on proglacial landscapes in this area has been
documented to reveal the significant interplay between
glacial meltwater runoff regimes, glacier terminus
position, sediment supply, and episodic fluvial flood-
ing events [Staines et al., 2015]. The proglacial systems
of Sólheimajökull were relatively stable from 1960–
1999 before the area was disturbed by a jökulhlaup
event. The flooding that took place in 1999 along the
River Jökulsá smoothed the longitudinal profile of
meltwater channels and changed both the channel
slope and reach‐based volume. Staines et al. [2015]
also highlight increased channel braiding and down-
stream incision from 2001 to 2010 as a result of
increased stream power due to glacial ablation and a
reduction of sediment supply with the development of
an ice‐marginal lake. Likewise, as a result of the sedi-
ment starvation the number of channel bars decreased
by 50% [Staines et al., 2015]. Russell [2018] considered
rates of incision and aggradation of the River Jökulsá
during the LIA and although many scenarios could
have evolved, they suggest that during periods of gla-
cial advance damming effects of proglacial moraine
and ridges can place constraints on channelized water
and sediment flows thereby also reducing aggradation.
This is important because glaciofluvial deposits in the
area prior to the LIA may not have been buried or
eroded from the paleorecord.
14.5. EYJAFJALLAJÖKULL
Eyjafjallajökull (63.6200, −19.6133), a smaller
(80 km2) ice‐capped stratovolcano to the west of
Mýrdalsjökull, is also located in the EVZ (Figure 2.1,
section 9.2). The caldera basin is 2.5 km in diameter
and is covered by a maximum glacial thickness of
400 m in the eastern part, but about 200 m in the west-
ern part (where the 2010 eruption took place). The cal-
dera has two main peaks: Hámundur (1650 m; 63.6205,
−19.6108) and Guðnasteinn (1500 m, 63.6366,
−19.6113). Steep cliff faces present on the southside of
Eyjafjallajökull provide evidence of wave‐scoured
benches denoting sea levels during the Holocene
[Björnsson, 2017]. Three popular waterfalls, Skógafoss
(63.5319, −19.5113), Seljalandsfoss (63.6188,
−19.9883), and Gljúfuráfoss (63.6841, −19.9750), flow
down these cliff faces, which are now ~5 km from the
ocean. The Eyjafjöll sandur plain separates the cliff
face from the ocean. Additionally, there are 10 small
outlet glaciers that descend from 1200 to 900 m, of
which the two most studied are Gigjökull (7.5 km2;
63.6256, −19.6790) and Steinholtsjökull (3 km2;
63.5941, −19.5333). Gigjökull originates from the sum-
mit where a breach in the caldera wall creates an 800 m
gap for ice to flow downgradient; the average slope
changes from 14° between 1000 and 800 m, to 26° from
800 to 200 m. Gígjökulslón proglacial lake is situated
in front of the glacier snout. Similar to Mýrdalsjökull,
the firn line is ~1100 m, but has a greater impact on this
glacier due to its lower overall elevation. The east–west
trending Fimmvörðuháls ridge (1100 m, 63.6316,
−19.4420) connects the Eyjafjallajökull and
Mýrdalsjökull ice caps. Although Fimmvörðuháls
maintained a glaciated surface throughout the 19th
century, current warming climates and ascending firn
line make this glacier unstable and consequently is an
area closely monitored by glaciologists.
The most recent and well‐documented eruptive activity
of Eyjafjallajökull began on 20 March 2010 with a lat-
eral ejection from the main caldera and, concurrently, a
500 m fissure opened up in an ice‐free area on
Fimmvörðuháls 2–3 km away. As described by Oddson
et al. [2016], an early indicator was the formation of ice
cauldrons around the active vents in the western part of
the ice‐filled caldera where the ice was 200 m thick.
Subsequently, from 18 April to 4 May, a subglacial lava
flow 3.2 km long (0.55 km2) occurred on the northern
flanks of Gígjökull. As described by Oddson et al. [2016],
during the first 6 days the subglacial lava flow piled
80–100 m thick below the ice and advanced at
<100 m day–1. By day 7, the surface ice above the lava
flow completely melted and an ice canyon formed on
Gígjökull. Uniquely, the ice–magma contact produced a
very fine trachyandesitic ash that became a hazard for air
travel as it became entrained in the eastward jet stream
towards Europe (Figure 9.4) [Gislason et al., 2011].
The distribution of meltwater during this event was
unusual because five new flowpaths were formed in
areas that had pre‐existing crevasses above bedrock
undulations [Oddson et al., 2016]. As suggested by
Magnússon et al. [2012], this likely occurred because
the event began during the Icelandic winter season
when the main meltwater channels under Gígjökull
were still blocked with ice. Episodically, as the melt-
water began to infill the caldera basin, it was released
in hyperconcentrated flows of pyroclastic mixtures
beneath Gígjökull to inundate Gígjökulslón proglacial
lake before being directed to the Markarfljót sandur
plain. The largest of the jökulhlaup events occurred
158 GLACIAL FEATURES
Photo 51 Farmstead at the base of Eyjafjallajökull during the 2010 eruption. [Courtesy of Arctic Images/
Alamy Stock Photo.]
during the first 3 days of subglacial lava movement
and waned in discharge and sediment transport there-
after. The total volume of ice melt is estimated to be
10–13 × 107 m3 [Odsson et al., 2016] and the peak dis-
charge monitored during the event was ~2000 m3 s−1
[Björnsson, 2017]. About 800 inhabitants of the local
farmsteads (Photo 51) were evacuated during this
event and no lives were lost.
Three other Holocene flooding events in
the Markarfljót Valley have been described and are
thought to have had a dominant role in creating the
terraces and surface sediments in the area [Smith and
Dugmore, 2006]. Additionally, the jökulhlaup events
that occurred after human settlement likely had a role
in deciding the lack of settlement on the northern side
of Eyjafjallajökull.
 15
Glacial Features of the Northern and Western Regions
The complicated story of Iceland during the LGM
continues with the exploration of Iceland’s peninsulas
in the north (Vestfirðir, Skagi, and Tröllaskagi) and
west (Snæfellsnes) (Figure 15.1). The pattern of degla­
ciation from the LGM ice sheet maximum, especially
in the north, is not well constrained spatially as glacial
geological studies that provided indirect dating from
sediment cores lack chronological control due to the
absence of volcanic ash in the record to provide marker
beds [Geirsdóttir et al., 2007, 2009,]. Hence, challeng­
ing questions remain about the configuration, thick­
ness, and ice dynamics of the area. The situation has
been improved upon with the application of cosmo­
genic exposure dating, which estimates how long a
rock surface has been exposed to cosmic radiation on
the Earth’s surface. Here it should be noted that gener­
ally 36Cl is the only nuclide applied on Icelandic basalt
except if it contains substantial olivine phenocrysts
that enable 3He to be applied.
Norðdahl [1981] divides the Weichselian glaciation in
northern Iceland into three main stages.
1. The maximum stage when the ice sheet covered the
island of Grímsey (66.5423, −17.9961) with 100 m
(minimum) of ice. This remote island is 40 km north of
Iceland marks the maximum ice‐sheet extent, as evidenced
by glacial striae and till described by Hoppe [1968].
2. The ice‐lake stage when a series of ice‐dammed
lakes formed in Fnjóskadalur (65.7563, −17.8994) dur­
ing a period of glacial retreat. This acts as an indicator
as the formation of lakes dammed by ice is usually a
result of the thickening or advance of the damming ice
margin, which acts as a physical barrier whereby trap­
ping meltwater.
Iceland: Tectonics,Volcanics, and Glacial Features, Geophysical Monograph 247, First Edition. Tamie J. Jovanelly.
© 2020 American Geophysical Union. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
159
3. The Langhóll Stadial ~8000 BCE, which represents a
readvance of the ice sheet in the valleys adjacent to the
Eyjafjördur (Figure 15.1). Brynjólfsson et al. [2015] dated
an outer moraine at the Leirufjördur (Figure 15.1) using
36
Cl to reveal a similar age. They suggested that ice‐sheet
growth was a response to a cooler climate forced by a
reduction of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning
Circulation (AMOC). The AMOC supplies the higher
latitudes of the Atlantic with warmer surface ocean water
which makes the North Atlantic climate relatively mild,
considering its high latitude. This final, although local­
ized, stadial event marked the termination of the LGM in
northern Iceland.
There is an ongoing debate as to whether the LGM
ice sheet extended to cover the whole of Vestfirðir
Peninsula or if the peninsula maintained an
independent ice cap, similar to Öræfajökull at present
(section 14.4, Figure 14.5). Furthermore, glacial con­
ditions in northern Iceland in the LGM are also
debated, which is important to the discussion as to
whether the ice sheet was cold based and nonerosive or
warm based with movement induced by basal sliding;
at present all Icelandic glaciers are considered warm
based and all have surge‐type outlet glaciers [Björnsson
and Pálsson, 2008; Brynjólfsson, 2015]. Quantification
of geomorphological erosional patterns and density of
ice‐scour lakes found on Vestfirðir Peninsula by
Principato and Johnson [2009] support previous views
[Hoppe, 1982; Norðahl, 1990] that there were two
independent ice sheets present on Iceland during the
LGM: one forming on the mainland and one forming
on Vestfirðir Peninsula. Specifically, glacially scoured
and nonscoured landscapes represent the presence or
160 GLACIAL FEATURES
Figure 15.1 Location of Vesfird ī r, Snæfellsnes, Skagi, and Trollaskagi Peninsulas with associated fjord
l­ocations. [Design credit Nathan Mennen.]
absence, respectively, of moving ice, and the density of
lake basins are commonly used as a proxy for the
occurrence of glacial scouring. Norðahl [1990] initially
proposed localized and alpine glaciation centers in
northern Iceland (i.e., Tröllaskagi and Flateyjarskagi
mountains) on the basis of: (a) trimlines that distin­
guish ice‐free zones from nunataks; and (b) areas with
dendritic glacial drainage patterns could not have been
occupied by glaciers from an inland ice sheet. In these
northern mountain plateaus ~24 ka ice thinning and
deglaciation likely began and continued gradually,
albeit asynchronously, until 12 ka; the majority of the
outlets at Iceland’s northernmost glacier, Drangajökull,
were occupied until 7 ka [Brynjólfsson, 2015].
If, and the extent to which, parts of Iceland were ice‐
free ~21 Ma has implications for estimates of the
overall thickness of the ice sheet covering Iceland.
Hubbard et al. [2006] estimated that the mean thick­
ness of the ice sheet was 940 m, with a plateau eleva­
tion of ~2000 m that was likely breached by nunataks,
as described by Norðahl [1990]. Offshore evidence
acquired by seismic stratigraphy and accelerator mass
spectrometry radiocarbon dating by Andrews et al.
[2000] and Norðdahl and Pétursson [2005] c­onfirms
that the LGM ice‐sheet extended into the Arctic Ocean,
~90 km from the Eyjafjördur (Figure 15.1). Optimal
LGM modeling completed by Hubbard et al. [2006]
suggests that the overextension of the ice sheet across
the northern shelf (Figure 2.2) occurred due to extreme
aridity across the region and that further advance may
have been limited by the topography of the continental
shelf‐break.
The latitudinal position of the Polar Front continu­
ally fluctuated throughout the Holocene, and conse­
quently both the cooler waters of the sea‐ice‐bearing
Arctic Ocean and the warm Atlantic currents have
influenced Iceland’s climate (Figure 15.2). Although at
present the Irminger Current dominates surface waters
along the northern and western coastlines, the winds
affecting these peninsulas mostly come out of the
northeast where cooler, polar waters dominate, thus
making nearby sea‐surface temperatures ~2°C cooler
than those of the south at any given time of the year.
Historically, this has translated to an overall thinner
layer of glacial ice in the northern and western
portions of Iceland due to less precipitation
(~3000 mm year−1) from the direction of the Arctic
Circle than that from the warmer waters of the North
 Glacial Features of the Northern and Western Regions  161
Figure 15.2 Present ocean current systems around Iceland. [Design credit Nathan Mennen.]
Atlantic. Additionally, despite cold periods persisting
through to the 20th century, such as the LIA, precipi­
tation in the northern and western regions was not
sufficient to maintain glacier expansion as it did in the
south at Vatnajökull [Björnsson, 2017]. Due to the
colder air temperatures in the western fjords, however,
glacier limits extend down to 600–700 m altitude,
which are the lowest in the country [Björnsson and
Pálsson, 2008].
Major differences between the landscapes of the
northern and western coasts versus those of the
southern coast are the presence of glacial fjords (gen­
erally <50 m deep) and the absence of proglacial lakes
and sandur plains (Photo 40). A fjord is formed when
a glaciated U‐shaped valley that is carved below sea
level becomes flooded during, and after, ice retreat
[Martini et al., 2001]. As a geomorphological feature,
fjords are considered immature, nonsteady‐state sys­
tems, evolving and changing over relatively short time­
scales; like those formed here since the LGM [Syvitski
et al., 1987]. Additionally, as Syvitski et al. [1987]
describes, whether presently associated with glaciers or
not, fjords are also immature estuaries, and hence
natural sites of net sediment accumulation. Sedimentary
infill of fjords, however, is relatively absent in the north
and west of Iceland. Unlike on the southern coast
(section 14.3, Figures 9.6 and 14.2), the fjords of the
northern peninsulas described here are not located at
or near active volcanic zones, with Vestfirðir penin­
sula being the furthest away at more than 150 km.
Thus there is an absence of sediment‐laden jökulhlaup
events to transport sediment down glacial valleys to
the coast, hence the low sediment supply to these
fjords. Often an underwater ridge at the mouth of
the fjord forms a subbasin in front of the glacial toe,
which acts as a shallow barrier to the open ocean
(Figure 15.3). This barrier forms when the glacier
­terminates at the ocean, reducing its ability to erode.
Often, deposition of glacial sediment on top of the
bedrock ridge can cause it to heighten over time,
which may provide challenges to large ship traffic.
Additionally, icebergs can be trapped behind the ridge.
As with all estuaries, fjords are transitional regions
between land and open ocean, such that stratification
of the water column can result as freshwater from
glacial melt cannot easily mix.
162 GLACIAL FEATURES
Figure 15.3 Longitudinal profile of a glacial fjord. [After Martini et al. [2001]; design credit Nathan
Mennen.]
Also cirques, arȇtes, and nunataks are more com­
monly found on the northern and western peninsulas
(Photo 52), where they are accentuated by the area’s
climatic regime. Snow can accumulate in valleys through
avalanches or snow‐blow drifts and begin to pile up in
valley ravines. Increases in summer temperatures do not
cause ablation so readily in these deep valleys, especially
if they are facing northward where they are shaded from
direct sunlight. Perennial snowfields typically occur on
the leeward sides of mountains or ridges sheltered from
the northeasterly winds across each peninsula. These
features are found on the northern tip of Vestfirðir
Peninsula at Hornstranðir (66.3719, −22.5583), and
about 150 valley and cirque glaciers are located on the
Tröllaskagi Peninsula in central north Iceland. One of
the most photographed locations in Iceland is Kirkjufell
Mountain (463 m, 64.9422, −23.3061), a nunatak on the
Snæfellsnes Peninsula near Grundarfjodur (Figure 15.1).
Here, during the LGM, two glaciers converged to erode
either side of the steep mountain that now survives.
The four major areas important to understanding
past glacial activity in the north and west are
the,Vestfirðir (22,271 km2), Tröllaskagi, (1,622 km2),
Skagi (1,300 km2), and Snæfellsnes (2,540 km2;
Figure 15.1) peninsulas.
15.1. VESTFIRÐIR PENINSULA
AND DRANGAJÖKULL
Vestfirðir Peninsula is connected to the mainland by
an isthmus that is less than 10 km wide but it compli­
cates the passage of ocean currents. The warm and
saline Irminger Current follows the west coast, whereas
the cooler, lower‐salinity East Greenland and East
Iceland currents control the waters to the north and
east (Figure 15.2). Vestfirðir Peninsula is known for its
30 fjords formed during past glaciations; the two fjords
on the east and west of the isthmus are Gilsfjörður and
Bitrufjörður. The largest fjord is called Ísafjarðardjúp
(66.1200, −23.0763), which dissects the center of the
Vestfirðir Peninsula and is thought to have contained
an ice stream during the LGM [Bourgeois et al., 2000;
Geirsdóttir et al., 2002] (Figure 15.1). This fjord sep­
arates two upland plateaus with mean elevations
between ~400 and ~800 m a.s.l., with peaks at
1200 m a.s.l. As described by Principato and Johnson
[2009], the geomorphology of the uplands, valleys, and
fjords on Vestfirðir Peninsula is typical of Icelandic
glacial terrain, which is an area of ice accumulation on
a high plateau that drains down steep icefalls into
valleys that dissect the plateau. There are 10 cirque gla­
ciers on the peninsula rising to a height of 600–700 m.
Included in this number is the Drangajökull ice cap
(66.1494, −22.2497) on the eastern plateau. There are
three nunataks rising through the Drangajökull ice
cap: Hrolleifsborg (851 m), Hljóðabunga (825 m), and
Reyðarbunga (778 m). The highest portion of the
western plateau at Glama (65.8402, −22.9961) does
not currently have permanent ice. Vestfirðir Peninsula,
also referred to as the Western Fjords of Iceland, is
among the most northern latitudes of the island and is
separated from Greenland by the Denmark Strait.
Historic data of glacial activity has been chronicled
in church books and local annuals at Drangajökull for
 Glacial Features of the Northern and Western Regions  163
Photo 52 Glacial nunatuk Kirkjufell on the Snæfellsnes Peninsula near Grundarfjordur. [Courtesy of Tamie
Jovanelly.]
the past three centuries. This archive has proven to be
important in discussions of climate change near the
Arctic Circle, as it has documented unique surging
behavior different to all other ice caps in Iceland.
Additionally, due to the remoteness of Drangajökull,
few field studies had been performed until more recent
years, so there is heavy reliance on human documenta­
tion in this area of the country.
Iceland’s northernmost ice cap, Drangajökull (925
m; 66.1500, −22.2500), is located on the eastern high­
land plateau of the Vestfirðir Peninsula and has had a
dynamic history since the Late Weichselian glacial
stage to present (Figure 15.4). According to
Brynjólfsson [2015], during the LGM the mountains
beneath Drangajökull were likely covered by cold‐
based nonerosive sectors of the ice sheet, while fjords
and valleys were occupied by warm‐based ice prone to
erosive basal sliding. Hence, the ice sheet is considered
to have been polythermal in that it contained both cold
ice below its pressure melting temperature, and
temperate ice, which is a two‐phase mixture of ice and
water at the melting temperature, as defined by Hewitt
and Schoof [2016]. The subsequent Holocene history
of the Drangajökull ice cap is poorly known. It is
thought that the melting of ice shelf areas off of
Vestfirðir Peninsula was likely synchronous with that
of the Iceland ice sheet as a whole, in response to
warming ocean currents and rapidly rising sea levels
[Norðdahl and Ingólfsson, 2015]. Records of IRD in
sediment cores collected in the fjords indicate contin­
uous deposition until ~10,000 BCE when the ice sheet
retreated onto land [Geirsdóttir et al., 2002]. This cor­
responds to data suggesting ice streams flowing out of
major fjords, like Isafjardardjúp, and then perhaps
reaching as far as the submarine trench, Djúpáll
[Stokes and Clark, 2001]. Dating of the Saksunarvatn
tephra in Lake Skoravatn (177 m a.s.l.; 66.2563,
−22.3244) at ~8000 BCE indicates that at this time the
northern limit of Drangajökull had receded to the size
seen at present, or smaller [Schomacker et al., 2016].
This is significant because it suggests that unlike
Langjökull (section 13.1) and Vatnajökull (section 14.1)
in the south, which were considerably smaller by
~7000 BCE, Drangajökull maintained its size into the
164 GLACIAL FEATURES
Figure 15.4 Details and location of Drangajökull ice cap. [Modified from Bjornsson and Palsson [2008];
design credit Nathan Mennen.]
Holocene Thermal Maximum. Harning et al. [2016]
produced a multiproxy record dating back to 3 ka.
They dated terminal moraines, lacustrine deposits
from proglacial lakes (e.g., Skeifuvatn, Djúpipollur,
Ljótárvatn), and vegetation that had newly emerged
during Drangajökull’s present recession in order to
determine recent growth and decline of the ice sheet.
Their research revealed that the ice cap went through
numerous stages of advance (~320 BCE, 180 CE,
560 CE, 950 CE, 1400 CE to LIA) and retreat
(~450 CE, 1250 CE, 1850 CE). Through geomorpho­
logical mapping and the use of aerial photography it
has been estimated that the size of the ice sheet in the
LIA maximum was approximately 25–50% larger than
today [Sigurðsson et al., 2013; Harning et al., 2016].
At present, the dome‐shaped Drangajökull ice cap is
Iceland’s fifth largest by area at 160 km2 and has a
maximum ice thickness of 284 m (at Kaldalónsjökull)
and an average ice thickness of 107 m [Magnússon
et al., 2016]. Interestingly, the majority of the ice (71%)
is stored on the western side of the ice cap. This is due
to unevenly distributed rainfall patterns and the domi­
nance of northeasterly winds. The northeast coast of
Vestfirðir Peninsula receives about 1100 mm annual
average precipitation, whereas the west coast of the ice
cap receives about 580 mm, reflecting an orographic
effect on the peninsula [Crochet et al., 2007;
Brynjólfsson, 2015]. Snow accumulation in the west,
however, is the result of the accumulation of drifting
snow driven by northeasterly winds. Also unique to
Drangajökull ice cap is the fact that it is the only one
in Icelandic to lie completely below an altitude of
1000 m, terminating just below 200 m; the average
equilibrium line altitude (ELA) is between 550–
650 m a.s.l. (Figure 12.8); ELA limits at other Icelandic
ice caps usually lie above 1100 m a.s.l. To date, 70% of
the ice cap’s surface area is above 600 m a.s.l. It is the
overall colder temperatures on Vestfirðir Peninsula
(annual average temperature 2.5–4°C; summer 6–8°C)
due to its proximity to Greenland and the cold polar
East Greenland Current (Figure 15.2), its low insola­
tion during summer months, and high precipitation in
the area, which have sustained the ice cap at lower alti­
tudes. Together with the Breiðamerkurjökull outlet of
Vatnajökull (Figure 12.10), Drangajökull extends
closest to the sea of any of the country’s glaciers.
Drangajökull has three major surging outlet glaciers
that have been monitored by locals since 1886.
Eythórsson (1935) began scientific monitoring in 1931
with the installation of permanent markers at the ter­
mini of Leirufjarðarjökull (27 km2; 66.1588, −22.1569),
Kaldalónsjökull (37 km2; 66.1936, −22.1903), and
Reykjarðarjökull (22 km2; 66.1938, −22.1972;
Figure 15.4). In contrast to most other surge‐type
 Glacial Features of the Northern and Western Regions  165
­ utlets from Iceland ice caps, those at Drangajökull
o Leirufjarðarjökull occurred with about 10‐year intervals
are confined within valleys, which affect the forefield
geomorphology and can contain glaciofluvial land­
forms, moraines (10–15 m high), flutes (up to 100 m
long), and boulder fields (up to 1 m diameter)
[Brynjólfsson et al., 2014]. The absence of other glacial
structures typical of forefields (e.g., crevasse‐fill ridges,
eskers) is likely due to the impermeable Neogene pla­
teau basalt strata beneath the Drangajökull ice cap
[Ingólfsson, 2013]. All three outlet glaciers surged asyn­
chronously between 1700 and 1846 CE to meet their
LIA maximum extents, which are well constrained by
end moraines and historic data around the northern
perimeter of the ice cap. At Kaldalónsjökull, rock
exposure dating of the most distal end moraines
yielded 36Cl ages of 9700 BCE, correlating them to the
Younger Dryas Stadial [Principato et al., 2006].
Measurements made from the maximum LIA terminal
moraines indicate an overall retreat between 3000 and
4000 m.
According to Brynjólfsson [2015], the amount of
times the outlet glaciers have surged, the duration of
surging events, and the intervals between surge events
at the Drangajökull ice cap tend to resemble character­
istics of Svalbard surge‐type glaciers (where 25% gla­
ciers are surging at speeds rarely seen in other parts of
the world) rather than the surges of the larger ice caps
in central and southern Iceland. The reasons for differ­
ences in surge propagation are still unknown, but
Brynjólfsson [2015] attributes the high alpine relief
setting of northern Drangajökull compared to the flat
highland plateau of Vatnajökull as a main contributor.
Categorically, all These three of outlet glaciers at
Drangajökull have been recognized historically as
surging between two and four times, however,
Brynjólfsson [2015] reconstructed five surges at
Reykjarðarjökull, six surges at Kaldalónsjökull, and
seven surges at Leirufjarðarjökull. The most recent
events that have been monitored in detail occurred
from 1995 to 2000 at Leirufjarðarjökull and
Kaldalónsjökull, and 2002–2006 at Reykjarðarjökull
(Figure 15.5) [Sigurðsson, 1998, 2003]. Details of
advances and net losses for Leirufjarðarjökull,
Kaldalónsjökull, and Reykjarðarjökull, respectively,
are as follows: 1150 m, −0.205 ± 0.074 km3; 150 m, not
available; 227 m, −0.076 ± 0.053 km3 [Brynjólfsson
et al., 2016]. Also, rather than surge events lasting bet­
ween 1 and 2 years, these outlet glaciers experience
surge durations of 4–7 years with periods of inactivity
lasting much longer (50–140 years) than is considered
typical behavior [Dowdeswell et al., 1991; Björnsson
and Pálsson, 2008]. As an example, surges at
during the period of ~1840 to 1898 CE, but140 years
passed with no surge recorded from 1700 to 1840 CE,
which could reflect a lack of preservation rather than
inactivity.
Notwithstanding longer surge durations, the flow
velocities of Svalbard glaciers are considerably (flow
rates at Svalbard glaciers have been observed to be bet­
ween 0.1 m day−1 and 7.0 m day−1), i.e., at least 10
times, and as much as 100 times, faster than normal
glaciers. As an example, the highest annual average
advance rate of the Leirufjarðarjökull margin was
measured in 1995 at 2.0 m day−1; the rate at
Reykjarfjarðarjökull peaked at 0.2 m day−1 in 2003
[Sigurðsson, 1998]. This means that mass is transferred
downglacier more quickly, and over a considerably
longer period. Brynjólfsson [2015] observed a distinct
ice discharge pattern that occurs during surges at
Drangajökull, where the zones of accumulation
undergo surface thinning between 10 and 30 m and the
ablation areas can thicken between 10 and 120 m
(Figure 12.8). Here a comparison can be drawn to the
1963–1964 surge of Brúarjökull, an outlet glacier of
Vatnajökull, that flowed up to 125 m day−1 (Chapter 14).
Although moving at a much faster pace, the event was
limited and induced by a jökulhlaup that would prove
to be one of the largest recorded in Iceland.
It is the long quiescent phases of these Svalbard
surge‐type glaciers at Drangajökull that makes corre­
lating climate to this glacial landscape difficult. For
this reason, Brynjólfsson [2015] does not indicate clear
relationships between surge initiation or periodicity
and climate. Conversely, all outlets did increase surge
frequency during the 19th and early 20th centuries
compared with the relatively cool 18th century, and the
warmer late 20th century. Again, it is worth noting
that this may reflect incomplete data, rather than a
lengthy pause in surge movement. At present the
­glaciers are thought to be in an inactive phase, with
thickening of accumulation areas 0.5–0.7 m year−1
[Brynjólfsson, 2015]. According to Brynjólfsson [2015],
new contributions to reservoir areas may be steepening
the overall profile of the glacier with the potential that
this could initiate future surges, in 45–65 years time; an
unstable glacier could lead to hazardous snow ava­
lanches or debris flows (Figure 15.6, see Box 15.1).
The area of Drangajökull, except the three surging
outlets, appears to have been relatively stable during the
past 50–80 years, which appears to be in stark contrast to
the negative mass balance of Iceland’s other glaciers
[Brynjólfsson et al., 2014]. Nonetheless, the total ice‐cap
volume from 1946 to 2011 (about half of which was lost
166 GLACIAL FEATURES

Figure 15.5 Fluctuations of the three Drangajökull surge‐type outlet glaciers over recent times. [Modified
from Brynjólfsson et al. [2016]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]

Figure 15.6 Snow avalanche (left) and debris flow (right) maps of Vestfird ̄ir Peninsula. [Modified from
Decaulne [2007]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]

between 1994 and 2011) was reduced from 18 km3 to
15 km3 [Magnússon et al., 2016], with a mean mass
balance rate of ice‐cap depletion over those 65 years at
−0.25 ± 0.04 m.w.e. year−1. Magnússon et al. [2016] also
observed high decadal variability, however, with positive
mass balance rates in 1975–1985 (0.07 ± 0.08 m.w.e. year−1)
and 1985–1994 (0.26 ± 0.11 m.w.e. year−1), which does
not match the trend of increasing air and sea‐surface
temperatures recorded in the Arctic. Starting with the
estimated size of Drangajökull during the LIA it has
been determined that the ice cap is thinning and its sur­
face area has decreased by ~55 km2 over the previous
century [Jóhannesson et al., 2013; Brynjólfsson et al.,
2014, 2015; Magnússon et al., 2016].
 Glacial Features of the Northern and Western Regions  167
Box 15.1 Snow avalanches and debris flows
Throughout the past 1000 years snow avalanches
have caused more fatalities than any other single
type of natural hazard in Iceland [Bjornsson, 1980].
Jónsson and Rist [1972] combined the first data
sets in 1957 from annuals that have recorded ava-
lanche scenarios since the 13th century, making it
among the longest natural disaster chronology in
the country.
Vestfirðir, also known as the Westernfjords, is
considered one of the five primary locations prone
to snow avalanches and debris flows in Iceland
(Figure 15.6) [Gundmundsson, 1997]. Here, about
25% of all reported avalanche deaths in Iceland
have been recorded and it is estimated that 65% of
the inhabitants on Vestfirðir live in proximity to
these hazardous conditions. Catastrophic ava-
lanches occurred in two villages in 1995, Súðavík
and Flateyri, resulting in the deaths of 34 people
[Decaulne, 2007]. An earlier avalanche in 1994 at
Seljalandsdalur (66.0702, −23.2419) in Isafjordur
(Figure 15.1) caused one death and destroyed 40
homes. Overall, during the 20th century slope haz-
ards have led to the loss of 193 lives; 166 of which
are due to snow avalanches [Sæmundsson et al.,
2003]. The financial cost to Iceland between 1974
and 2000 amounted to 3.3 billion IKR or US$27000,
15.2. SKAGI AND TRÖLLASKAGI PENINSULAS
AND NORÐURLANDSJÖKLAR
Two peninsulas that are important discussion of cli­
mate change are presented in this section (Skagi and
Tröllaskagi), along with the ice caps known collectively
as Norðurlandsjöklar (Figure 15.7). Skagi (66.2327,
−21.4566) is a northern peninsula connected to the
mainland of Iceland and is located across Húnaflói
Bay, ~50 km east of Vestfirðir Peninsula. The
Tröllaskagi Peninsula (66.2111, −18.9330) is east of
the Skagi Peninsula, between two fjords Eyjafjörður
and Skagafjörður (Figure 15.1). These two fjords were
likely carved by valley head glaciers that originated
from Hofsjökull (section 13.2) in central Iceland dur­
ing the Weischselian glaciation. Tröllaskagi Peninsula
is divided into two regions (south and north) that have
clearly different topographies. The uplifted and steep
topography of the southern region supports ice caps
and fosters dendritic watershed patterns that become a
dominant feature in the landscape. Whereas the
which mostly included the clearing and rebuilding
of roads, and the replacement of infrastructure for
heat and electricity [IMO, 2019b].
Predicting downslope movement of glacial ice in
the fjords is important to the local communities
because of the known snow‐avalanche and debris‐
flow hazards in the area. As described by Bjornsson
[1980], 80–90% of avalanches in Iceland fall
within what is referred to as an “avalanche cycle,”
i.e., within a period of a few days a large number
of avalanches occur in avalanche‐hazard areas.
The cycle is directly linked to wind direction,
snowfall, and slope instability. Thus, once a cycle
begins, an alert can be issued by the IMO. The IMO
recognizes, however, that avalanche protective
measures or land‐use changes are necessary for a
permanent solution to this problem. As an example,
supporting structures for preventing snow ava-
lanches have been installed at Siglufjörður
(66.2052, −18.9061) and Ólasvík (64.8975,
−23.7091). The support structures are built up
slope with the intention of trapping the falling
material behind walls, thereby protecting the low‐
lying communities. In trial runs held in Tvisteinahlið
the support structures held back 5000–10,000 m3
of snow.
majority of the southern region is not glaciated today,
the movement of past glaciers is evidenced by stria­
tions (Photo 41) that can be seen along valley slopes
from 1000 m down to sea level where the valley ends in
the low relief of the northern region, nearest the coast­
line, which hosts numerous isolated lake basins.
Figure 15.7 Location of Nord ̄urlandsjöklar. [Modified from
Bjornsson and Palsson [2008]; design credit Nathan
Mennen.]
168 GLACIAL FEATURES
The mountain range within the Norðurlandsjöklar
region spanning the fjords of the Tröllaskagi Peninsula
form the largest highlands section in the country, from
85 km north to south and 35 km east to west. Within
this mountain range there are numerous alpine cirques
containing between 100 and 250 small glaciers (40–
100 km2) that are predominately categorized as debris‐
covered or rock glaciers, and for which the timing of
origin (pre‐LIA or during) is under debate [Hamilton
and Whalley, 1995; Kellerer‐Pirklbauer et al., 2008].
This is the highest concentration of these types of gla­
ciers in the country, and practically the only area of
Iceland where they exist [Andrés et al., 2016]. The
presence of rock glaciers makes it more challenging to
reconstruct paleoclimate in the north as these glaciers
are not often associated with terminal moraine deposi­
tion. In most cases, the glaciers are found on the north‐
facing slope where they are sheltered by steep mountain
slopes that reduce the incoming solar radiation, which
can be intense on the black Tertiary plateau basalts.
Typically, the lower valley heads are the main locations
of snow accumulation that result from avalanches
(Figure 15.6, Box 15.1) and snow drifts. A group of ice
caps in the area that have been continuously monitored
include: Gljúfurárjökull (3 km2; 65.7175, −18.6611),
Hálsjökull (0.5 km2; 65.8563, −17.7625), Tungnahry­
ggsjökull (4 km2; 65.7186, −18.8522), Barkárdalsjökull
(3 km2; 65.6708, −18.8327), Bægisárjökull (3 km2;
65.6122, −18.3627), and Grímslandsjökull (2 km2;
65.9047, −17.7625) (Figure 15.7). Of these peaks,
Gljúfurárjökull (1300 m a.s.l.) has the longest valley
glacier as it descends down to 580 m with a maximum
ice thickness of 120 m [Björnsson, 2017]. Similar to the
glaciers in central Iceland, Caseldine [1985] established
that LIA maximum extents at Gljúfurárjökull and
Tungnahryggsjökull occurred in the later part of
the 19th century, although they were asynchronous
(1898–1903 and 1868, respectively). During this time
the estimated area of these two glaciers combined was
18 km2, or more than double of that today [Andrés et al.,
2016]. Different to the outlet glaciers of Drangajökull
ice cap, there have only been four reported surges from
three glaciers in the Norðurlandsjöklar area [Björnsson
et al., 2012].
As well documented, all of these relatively small ice
caps respond quickly, and dramatically, to fluctuations
in the climate making it nearly impossible to quantity
their change using a mass balance approach as applied
to Iceland’s major glaciers (Vatnajökull, Drangajökull,
etc.). At present the northern fjords receive consider­
ably more precipitation (2000–3000 mm year−1) than
the nearby Vestfirðir Peninsula. The warm summers at
the lower latitudes, however, typically melts any
accumulation; the ELA limit of the glaciers in the
northern region is usually between 1000 and 800 m
(Figure 12.8), where permafrost features are com­
monly found. In some years, heavy precipitation
­coming off the Arctic Ocean can deposit snow along
the entire mountain chain, thereby expanding the
accumulation zone as seen for 3 years between 1965
and 1968. Conversely, the warm temperatures of 1984
caused entire ice caps in the Norðurlandsjöklar region
to completely melt.
As summarized by Andrés et al. [2016], the northern
region of Iceland was likely deglaciated for a longer
period of time during the Pleistocene and Holocene
than any other part of Iceland, leading to an alpine
landscape predisposed to eolian and periglacial
processes, in addition to glaciation. Extensive research
in the 20th century on pollen [Einarsson, 1963], vegeta­
tion biodiversity [Steindorsson, 1963], and geomor­
phology [Sigbjarnsson, 1983] indicated ice‐free or
ice‐limited situations for the peninsulas’ summit peaks
during the LGM. Norðdahl [1990, 1991] emphasized
that the largest valleys on the peninsula are north–
south trending outlets that could easily facilitate flow
away from the highland areas. By the Bølling‐Allerød
Interstadial (12,700–10,700 BCE), however, it was
mostly agreed that the northern region was already
deglaciated, with estimates of mean annual tempera­
tures reaching as high as 10°C [Andrés et al., 2016].
The immediately succeeding Younger Dryas Stadial
initiated new ice accumulation and the readvance of
any of the remaining ice caps from the uplands, which
reached the limits of the present coastline and fjords;
in many cases obstructing tributary valleys and form­
ing lakes [Geirsdóttir et al., 2002; Norðdahl and
Pétursson, 2005]. After glacial retreat at the end of
Younger Dryas, glaciers readvanced toward the coast
one more time in the Early Preboreal Stage, around
9200 BCE [Ingólfsson et al., 1997]. This correlates with
isolated lake‐basin stratigraphy on the Skagi Peninsula
recorded by Rundgren et al. [1997], who determined a
relative sea‐level fall of 45 m, which is still evident
today by the presence of relict marine terraces and
raised beaches seen along the coastline (Photo 53).
This transgression was somewhat counteracted by a
mean absolute uplift rate of 6.9 cm year−1 that
Ingólfsson et al. [1995] ascribes to a combination of
rapid Preboreal deglaciation and low asthenosphere
viscosities below Iceland. According to historic docu­
mentation, the area’s ice sheet during the LIA was suf­
ficiently stable that hiking trails were preferred as the
main transit between the fjords rather than travel
 Glacial Features of the Northern and Western Regions  169
Photo 53 Marine terraces along the eastern coast of Iceland. [Courtesy of Tamie Jovanelly.]
by boat (Björnsson, 2017]. Modeling by Fernández‐
Fernández et al [2018] indicates an overall reduction in
area (25%) and volume (33%) of the Norðurlandsjöklar
glaciers as a result of the warming that began at the
end of the LIA.
15.3. SNÆSFELLNES PENINSULA
AND SNÆFELLSJÖKULL
The Snæfellsnes Peninsula is 160 km north of
Reykjavík and Breðafjordur, which joins the Arctic
Ocean, and Faxaflói, which joins the North Atlantic
Ocean (Figure 15.1). Similar to Mýrdalsjökull (sec­
tion 14.4), the Snæsfellsjökull ice cap covers the
summit (11 km2) and fills the caldera of an active
­stratovolcano that reaches a maximum elevation of
1446 m. The volcanic materials that create the slopes
(~22°) of Snæsfellsjökull are prone to rapid postdepo­
sitional weathering, especially at altitudes where
freeze–thaw is prevalent [Evans et al., 2016] which is
just below the ELA at 1200–1000 m. At present, only
10% of the glacier remains above 1200 m, while 40% of
the glacier remains at 1000 m [Gudmundsson et al.,
2017]. Although small in size, it is one of the most
visited glaciers in Iceland due to its proximity to
Reykjavík, and on a clear day the volcano can be seen
across the bay. The volcano is located at the western
end of the Snæfellsnes Peninsula (Figure 2.1, section 11.1)
and hosts five major outlet glaciers: Hyrningsjökull
(2 km2; 64.7994, −23.7491), Jökulháls (2.5 km2;64.7944,
−23.7552), Norðurkinn (1.5 km2; 64.8255, −23.7625),
Blágilsjökull (3 km2; 64.7980, −23.8000), and
Hólatindajökull (1 km2; 64.8075, −23.8100) (Figure 15.8).
Of these outlet glaciers, perhaps the most reliable for
indicating climate change is Hyrningsjökull because it is
a nonsurging type that has been monitored since the
1930s [Sigurðsson et al., 2007]. Variations in glacial ter­
mini at Hyrningsjökull from 1930 to 2005 have been
compared with four other nonsurging glaciers on
Vatnajökull and Oræfajökull (section 14.1), and
Mýrdalsjökull (section 14.4) (Figure 15.9). As shown in
Figure 15.9 the major shifts in advances and retreats are
more or less synchronous for all the glaciers [Sigurðsson
et al., 2007]. Additionally, Sigurðsson et al. [2007] compared
170 GLACIAL FEATURES

the mass balance of Hyrningsjökull with Sólheimajökull,

an outlet glacier at Mýrdalsjökull, and found both were
highly correlated in time. They related this link to the
predominant influence of summer temperatures, which
affect rates of accumulation or ablation over short
periods of time that lag by only a few years. Interestingly,
a comparison of temperature and precipitation data
shows that there had been more annual and decadal
variations in precipitation than in temperature over the
past 75 years on the western peninsula [Sigurðsson et al.,
2007]. Weather from the North Atlantic Ocean is the
moisture source for Snæsfellsjökull and annually has
produced 800 mm on average since 1930 when moni­
toring began [Jóhannesson et al., 2011]. It is thought that
these weather patterns developed during the LIA when
the ice cap is estimated to have been double its current
size. Prominent ice‐cored moraines found at all of the
outlet glaciers represent the glacial maximum of the
LIA, however, the exact age of these is not known.
Meltwater channels likely extended past the LIA limits
onto existing and newly developed sandur plains [Evans
et al., 2016].
Figure 15.8 Outlet glaciers on Snæsfellsjökull. [Design credit
Nathan Mennen.]

Figure 15.9 Glacier variations at Snæfellsjökull from 1930 to 1995. [Modified from Sigurdsson [1998];
design credit Nathan Mennen.]
 Glacial Features of the Northern and Western Regions  171

Figure 15.10 Cumulative variations of the termini of five nonsurge‐type glaciers during the period 1930–
2005. [Modified from Sigurdsson et al. [2007]; design credit Nathan Mennen.]

Although the country is concerned about the
influence of climate change on all of its glaciers, the
impact that a continued warming trend could have on
Snæsfellsjökull may mean its demise within the next
few decades. According to maps of Iceland published
in 1910, the area of the ice cap was estimated to be
22 km2 in 1910. If this value is considered correct, then
Snæsfellsjökull has lost 50% of its ice volume since the
beginning of the 20th century [Jóhannesson et al.,
2011]. Additionally, all glacial outlets at Snæsfellsjökull
have retreated between 600 and 800 m over the past
100 years [Björnsson, 2017]. This is not to say that the
extent of this ice cap has not been variable: a rapid
retreat was documented during a warm period from
1930 to 1965, and was followed by an advance during
a cooler period from 1970 to 1995, that created push
moraines still present in the landscape (Figure 15.10).
Since 1995, however, the ice cap has continued to
shrink rapidly at 1.25 m.w.e. year−1. A detailed map­
ping project using airborne LiDAR imagery estimated
that the ice cap lowered 14.0 m from 1999 to 2008
[Jóhannesson et al., 2011]. Additionally, radio echo
soundings completed in 2003 revealed that the average
ice thickness of this glacier is 50 m or less, which
emphasizes the sensitivity of its mass balance. As
expected, the thickest ice is in the caldera (70 m) and
around the crater rim (100 m). Thicker ice can also be
found on the main outlets to the west and east of the
summit (e.g., Blágilsjökull, Jökulháls, and Hyrningsjökull)
where average ice thickness is between 40 and 50 m.
The concern, however, is that thinner portions of the
ice sheet will melt first, causing downwasting and ice‐
free zones as had occurred between 2002 and 2008 on
the northern flank [Jóhannesson et al., 2011].
Climate change can also have an impact on the
landscape and volcanism at Snæfellsjökull. As
described by Bakker et al. [2014a,b], glacial unloading
may have two major effects. First, it may lead to
significant stress release at the base of the volcanic edi­
fice that could destabilize the flanks and generate land­
slides (Box 15.1). Next, they considered that pressure
changes around the magma chamber could lead to
volcanic unrest. In particular, melting of the ice cap
could trigger movement in the shallow magma chamber
as it responds to isostatic rebound. The last eruptions
were about 4000 years ago.
GLOSSARY
aa: Hawaiian name for mafic lava flows, such as basalt,
that characteristically form rough and fragmented
surfaces
anastomosing river: a type of river typically consisting
of multithreaded, clay‐ and slit‐based channels that
occur in a low‐gradient environment
aphanitic: a type of texture used to describe igneous
rocks that cooled quickly (extrusively) and thus
composed of fine grains
asthenosphere: upper layer of Earth’s mantle that lies
below the lithosphere and contains convection cells
which allow it to be ductile and have fluid motion
basalt: a mafic, aphanitic igneous rock that comprises
oceanic crust and is characteristic of nonviolent
volcanic eruptions, such as those found in Hawaii
bookshelf faulting: occurs when stress is released in
transform fault zones during strike‐slip earthquakes,
causing the transform fault to be transverse to the
fault zone and blocks between the fault zones to sub-
sequently rotate
Bowen’s reaction series: a Y‐shaped diagram that
explains the temperature of crystallization (cooling
magma) of common silicate minerals out of magma
such as olivine, biotite, plagioclase, and quartz;
describes the temperatures at which mafic,
intermediate, and felsic magma are found within
Earth
braided river: a river channel typically comprising a
network of small channels separated by smaller
islands called bars that are characterized by a high
stream and channel gradient and a high sediment
load
cinder‐cone volcano: also known as scoria cone, a type
of volcano that is formed from large mounds of
pyroclastic material, such as cinders and volcano
ash, that has been built up around a volcanic vent by
violent eruptions
cirque: amphitheater‐shaped basin with steep walls
found at the head of a glacial valley formed by
erosion at the base of a glacier
climate change: any long‐term shift in global or
regional weather patterns
Iceland: Tectonics,Volcanics, and Glacial Features, Geophysical Monograph 247, First Edition. Tamie J. Jovanelly.
© 2020 American Geophysical Union. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
173
cold‐based glacier: glaciers in polar regions where the
temperature of the snow fall is at or below 0°C and
the ice of the glacier remains at below zero
throughout the year; stays frozen to the bedrock all
year with little ice movement and little erosion
columnar basalt: a type of basalt structure formed by
the rapid cooling of a thick lava flow with an exten-
sive fracture network that causes columns to form
composite volcano: also known as a stratovolcano, a
type of volcano characterized by steep sides and a
large height that is formed by the build up of several
layers of hardened lava, tephra, and pumice over
time; also characterized by violent/explosive erup-
tions and felsic lava
country rock: any rock native to an area
crater: a circular‐shaped depression in the ground
formed by volcanic activity or meteor impact
crust: the outermost layer of Earth
diatreme: a fracture in Earth’s crust formed in
conjunction with a maar when magma makes
contact with a body of ground water, increasing
pressure and causing rapid expansion of gases and a
series of explosions
dike: a type of igneous intrusion that cuts vertically
into older rock layers
drumlin: an oval‐shaped (streamlined) hill formed by
the movement of glaciers over rock debris, charac-
terized by a steep, upglacier (stoss) side and a more
gentle, downglacier side, thus indicating the direction
of ice movement
edifice: a volcano’s cone‐shaped structure built over-
time by the accumulation of erupted lava, pyro-
clastic flows, tephra, and other volcanic deposits
around a central vent system
esker: a sinuous ridge, typically composed of gravel
and finer sediment that is left after the retreat of a
glacier or ice sheet
fault: a fracture or discontinuity in a rock/sediment
caused by extensional, compressional, and rota-
tional movement, e.g., related to plate tectonics,
magmatic or diapiric intrusions, sediment flow, and
gravity loading
174 GLOSSARY
felsic magma: high‐silica magma that is formed at shal-
low depths in the Earth leading to violent/explosive
eruptions resulting in pyroclastic flows, pumice, and
volcanic ash; also creates light‐colored igneous rocks
such as pumice and rhyolite
firn: granular snow found on the upper part of a gla-
cier where it has yet to be compressed into ice
fissure swarm: an area composing several fissures, or
fractures in the bedrock, due to tensional forces
within volcanic regions; usually sites of geothermal
energy systems
gabbro: a mafic, phaneritic igneous rock usually dark
green to black in color and is the most abundant
rock in the deep oceanic crust
geologic time: the period of time since the formation of
Earth; divided into eons, eras, periods, and epochs
geologic time eras: the second largest geologic subdivi-
sion of time that typically spans a few hundred
­million years in length; marked by extinctions or
other major geologic events
geologic time periods: a subdivision of geologic time
often associated with formation of a particular rock
system; typically spans tens of millions of years
geysir: a hot spring that discharges water and steam
intermittedly
glacial flow: downglacier movement of ice due to gravity
glacial surging: cyclic glacial flow characterized by
switches between fast (active) and slow (quiescent)
phases
glacial till: unsorted sediment (diamicton) deposited
by ice and derived from the erosion of material by a
glacier
glacier: persistent body of dense ice formed when the
accumulation of snow exceeds the melt of the snow
(ablation) that is continuously moving under its own
weight
glacio‐isostatic rebound: readjustment of Earth’s crust
following depression by loading imposed by ice
sheets during glaciations
global warming: gradual increase in average tempera-
ture of Earth’s atmosphere and its oceans that per-
manently changes the climate
ground moraine: till‐covered areas with irregular topog-
raphy and no ridges that often form gently rolling
hills or plains; accumulated a the base of ice or
deposited as a glacier retreats
horst and graben: regions that lie between normal
faults; the horst is the uplifted area and the graben is
the downfaulted area
hot spot: portion of the surface of the earth that expe-
riences volcano activity due to a rising mantle plume
in conjunction with plate tectonics
hyaloclastite: hydrated tuff‐like breccia rich in black
volcanic glass, formed during volcanic eruptions
under water, under ice, or where subaerial flows
reach bodies of water; appearance of angular flat
fragments
ice‐cored moraine: a transitional landform of glacial
sediment cored by glacial ice
ice‐rafted debris (IRD): various clasts embedded in
ice that are transported until the ice melts when
they are then deposited; a primary characteristic
of subaqueous deposition during glacial
episodes
igneous rock: one of the three main rock types; formed
by the cooling and solidification of magma
inner core: the innermost part of Earth, believed to be
solid and composed of an iron–nickel alloy
intraplate volcanic belt: a chain of hot spots within
tectonic plate interiors rather than on the plate
­
boundaries
isotopic dating: technique used to date materials such
as rocks or carbon through the decay of radioactive
elements
jökulhlaup: Icelandic word for “glacier run;” a type of
glacial outburst flood triggered by geothermal
heating or a volcanic subglacial eruption
Kaiser effect: describes the absence of acoustic
emission or seismic events until the initial seismic
response load is exceeded in a body of rock
kettle lake: a shallow, body of water formed by retreat-
ing glaciers, especially by melting of buried ice
knickpoints: a sharp change in the channel slope of a
river, such as a lake or waterfall, possibly caused by
erosion from glaciation or variance in lithology
lateral moraine: product of rock fall onto the margin
of a glacier caused by rock slope failure in response
to frost weathering of the rock wall and oversteepen-
ing of cliffs by glacial erosion; melting of the glacier
leaves a ridge/bench of blocky debris on the flank of
the valley
lava: magma that reaches the surface of Earth
lignite: a sedimentary rock formed of alternating layers
of decomposed organic matter, such as compressed
peat—the first stage in coalification
lithosphere: rigid outer part of Earth divided into tec-
tonic plates that contains the crust and the upper
mantle; lies above the asthenosphere
maar volcano: a broad, low‐relief volcanic crater
caused by an explosion that results in groundwater
coming into contact with magma (phreatomagmatic
eruption) to form a relatively shallow crater lake
mafic magma: magma that lies deep below the surface
of Earth and results in gentle, nonviolent volcanic

eruptions; also creates dark‐colored igneous rocks
such as basalt and olivine
magma: mixture of molten rock, volatiles, and solids
that is found beneath Earth’s surface
mantle: the thickest layer of Earth found between the
crust and outer core; it is both solid and plastic and
divided into the upper and lower mantle
marker bed: a bed of rock readily distinguishable by its
physical characteristics and traceable over large
horizontal distances; also known as a key bed
meandering river: a river that flows over gently sloping
gound and begins to curve back and forth across a
landscape; erodes sediment from the outer curve of
each meander bend and deposits it on an inner curve
further down stream
mid‐ocean ridge: underwater mountain range formed
by plate tectonics; center of seafloor spreading
möberg ridge: long ridges produced by fissure erup-
tions beneath ice
moulin: a vertical cavity within a glacier that serves as
a tunnel for surface meltwater
negative feedback cycle: a system that contains a
function that is fed back into the system in way that
reduces the magnitude of the output
normal fault: a fault where rock drops down on one side
relative to the other side; characteristic of extensional
movement such as at divergent plate boundaries
nunatak: a mountain peak or ridge that is nor covered
by a glacier or ice sheet
obsidian: volcanic glass formed as an extrusive igneous
rock; produced when lava from a volcano cools rapidly
olivine: a rock‐forming mineral that is typically found
in mafic igneous rocks such as basalt, gabbro, dunite,
diabase, and peridotite where plagioclase and
pyroxene are also present; usually green in color
outer core: a fluid layer of Earth composed of mostly
iron and nickel that lies above the solid inner core
and below the mantle
outwash plain: the flat area found in the forefield of a
glacier where large quantities of water have flowed
from the melting glacier ice depositing layers of sand
and other fine sediments
pahoe pahoe: Hawaiian name for mafic lava flows, such
as basalt, that characteristically form smooth ropy
masses
Pangea: a supercontinent that was formed of all
Earth’s continents more than 300 Ma and began to
break apart about 160 Myr later
phaneritic: a type of texture used to describe coarse‐
grained igneous rocks that cooled slowly (intrusively)
palagonite: alteration product resulting from inter-
actions of water with basalt melt or basaltic glass
GLOSSARY 175
palsa: a periglacial feature of earth that has been
pushed up into a mound in which perennial ice is
formed
permafrost: a layer of soil that remains frozen for two
or more years
piedmont glacier: formed by merging valley glaciers as
they emerge from mountains
pillow basalt: lavas that contain characteristic thick
sequences of pillow‐shaped structures caused by the
extrusion of lava under water
plate tectonics: the theory explaining the structure of
Earth’s crust and associated phenomena resulting
from the interaction of rigid lithospheric plates as
they move slowly over the underlying mantle
positive feedback cycle: a system that contains a
function that is fed back into the system in way that
increases the magnitude of the output
pumice: extremely light weight porous, felsic igneous
rock formed from explosive magma that cools
almost instantaneously; typical of pyroclastic
flows
pyroclastic flow: a destructive fast‐flowing mass com-
posed of hot ash, lava fragments, and toxic gases
from an explosive volcanic eruption
quartz: the most abundant mineral found at Earth’s
surface; the simplest silicate composed of one part
silicon and two parts oxygen (SiO2)
regressive boundary: sedimentary rock sequence dis-
playing a decrease in sea level over time
reverse fault: a fault where the rock on one side is
uplifted; characteristic of convergent movement
such as at plate boundaries
rhyolite: a felsic igneous rock with a glassy to aphanitic
texture; typically faint pink/salmon in color
ridge jump: caused by a propagating rift; in a ridge–
transform–ridge system propagation can occur from
a dying ridge to an active ridge, perhaps jumping
from one plate to the other
rift valley: a linear valley formed by faulting on a diver-
gent plate boundary
rock cycle: the process in which igneous, sedimentary,
and metamorphic rocks are formed and deformed;
igneous rocks are eroded into sediment to be lithi-
fied into sedimentary rocks or transformed by heat
and pressure into metamorphic rocks; metamorphic
rocks melt into magma which then cools to form
igneous rocks
rock glacier: a mass of rock, ice, snow, mud, and/or
water that moves slowly downslope due to gravity
rootless cone: volcanic landform that resemble a
volcanic crater but does not contain an actual
volcanic vent and therefore lacks a magma conduit
176 GLOSSARY
connecting beneath the surface; formed by steam
explosions as flowing lava crosses a wet surface and
creates a crater
sag ponds: depressions form along a strike‐slip fault
where freshwater collects in the lowest portion to
create a permanent pond
scoria: highly vesicular, mafic igneous rock formed
when magma containing abundant dissolved gas
flows from a volcano and cools; typically dark brown
to red in color
sea‐floor spreading: process that occurs at mid‐ocean
ridges where new oceanic crust is formed through
volcanic activity and gradually moves away from the
ridge causing new crust to be found at the center of
the ridge and old crust to be found at the edges near
continents; this explains continental drift in the
theory of plate tectonics
sedimentary rock: lithified accumulations of nonor-
ganic minerals and rock fragments, organic material,
and chemical precipitates
shield volcano: a large, gently sloping volcano that usu-
ally erupts very fluid, mafic, basaltic lava
sill: an igneous intrusion that forms parallel to existing
bedrock (see also dike)
sinter: siliceous or calcareous deposits created by
springs, accumulating around the vent of a geyser
solfataras: a volcanic steam vent characterized by
hot vapors and high concentrations of sulfur
gases
steam explosion: eruption caused by violent boiling of
water into steam from contact with flowing lava
strath terraces: the former valley flat of a rock‐floored
river valley that remains following downcutting into
the bedrock by the river
stratigraphy: the sequential ordering of rock strata; particularly
strata classification and sequence relationships
sulfur: a bright yellow mineral, light in weight, com-
posed of elemental sulfur (atomic number 16) with a
distinct “rotten‐egg” odor
tephra: any airborne rock fragment or particle, such as
ash/lapilli/volcanic bombs, that is ejected by an
erupting volcano
thrust fault: a low‐angle (between the fault and horizontal
plane) reverse fault that results from thrusting
tillite: a lithified glacial till
tombolo: one or more sandbars occurring in shallow
waters that connect an island to the mainland
transgressive boundary: sedimentary rock sequence dis-
playing an increase in sea level over time
triple point junction: a point where three tectonic plate
margins (of variable type) intersect
tumulus: a mound commonly found on pahoehoe
surfaces, formed by the buckling of crust as slow‐
moving magma upwells and increases pressure
beneath the crust
u‐shaped valley: a valley with a cross‐section resembling
the letter “U”; formed by glacial erosion resulting in
steep sides and a flat bottom
viscosity: a liquid’s resistance to flow; informally
referred to as “thickness”
warm‐based glacier: glaciers in which water is present
throughout the ice mass for a period of the year or
all year and allows for much greater rates of
movement and thus more erosion
waterfall: vertical descent of water; often formed where
rocks are exposed with different resistances to erosion
xenolith: a fragment of pre‐existing rock contained
within an igneous body
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INDEX

Note: Page numbers followed by f indicate figures; t indicate tables; b indicate boxes; p indicate photos.
Aa lava flow, 50–52, 51p, 93, 113 Bølling‐Allerød Interstadial, 118, 121–22
Ablation zones, 126, 132–34, 165 Bookshelf faulting, 15, 17f, 27–28
Active fissures, 33f, 65, 66f, 77 Boreal forest vegetation, 11b, 117, 118p
Adaldalur costal plain, 34, 100 Borgarfjorður Anticline, 40–41, 41f
Aegir Ridge, 3 Braided river channels, 146, 147p, 151p
Airline travel, 67–68, 70f, 78 Breccia, 20, 55, 64
Air quality, 48b–49b, 70f Breiðamerkurjökull outlet glacier
Álftanes Stage, 121 features of, 127, 132, 134, 141t
Almannagjá tensional fracture, 21–22, 22p south region and, 146, 148, 150–52, 156
Alpha Ridge, 3 Breiðárlón basin, 151–52, 151p
AlÞing, 22 Brennisteinsfjöll rift zone, 15, 16f, 62
AMOC. See Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation British Isles, 8, 28, 65
Andesite, 8–9, 28t Brúarjökull outlet glacier, 134, 141t, 146, 148,
rhyolite lava, 10, 30 149t, 165
volcanics and, 36, 45, 80–81, 106 Bryophytes, 85
Anticline, 40–41, 41f Búði Stage, 121
Ar‐Ar dating, 62, 105, 137
Arctic Circle, 3, 160–61, 163 Calcite crystals, 10
Arctic Mendelev Ridge, 3 Carbon emissions, 48b, 81. See also Gases
Arȇtes, 162 Chronostratigraphy, 111f, 123
Arnarson, Ingólfur, 122 The Churn. See Strokkur
Ash dispersal, 65, 68f, 73–74, 73f, 92 Cinder cone, 50f
Askja volcanic system, 31, 33f Cirque, 125, 162, 168
eruption of 1874–1876, 91–93, 92f–93f, 92t Climate change
eruption of 1961, 93–94 isotope indicators, 118, 119b, 121b
VEI of, 88, 90t, 91 modern climate and, 123–25
volcanics and, 88–94, 89f, 90t, 91p, 92f–93f, 92t north region and, 163, 167, 169–71
Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), Reykjanes Peninsula and, 133, 140
159 south region and, 146, 154
Avalanche, 162, 165, 166f, 167b Columnar basalts, 55, 57f
Aviation zones, 67–68, 70f, 141, 157 Corifting, 29–30
Axarfjördur, 34–36 Crater rows
Lakagígar crater, 148
Bakkaflói beach, 89 Lúdentarborgir, 102
Bárðarbunga, 29 of north region, 34, 36–37, 99
glacial features, 145–48, 152, 155 Rauðhólar fissure and, 36–37
volcanics and, 49, 66f, 68–71 Reykjanes Peninsula and, 20, 62
Basaltic magma, 56, 90, 94, 112 tectonics and, 20, 52, 56, 78p
Bathymetry, 139 Crevasses, 130, 131f, 133–34, 146, 157
Bersekjahraun crater, 112 Cyclothems, 117
Birch trees, 118p, 122
Birds, 85 Dalseldar Fires, 102
Bjarnarflag field, 99, 104 Dalvík Zone (DZ), 32–34
Björnsson, Helgi, 124 Dark basalt (blágrýtismyndun), 8
Blágrýtismyndun (dark basalt), 8 Deflation, 90, 94, 96, 98f

Iceland: Tectonics,Volcanics, and Glacial Features, Geophysical Monograph 247, First Edition. Tamie J. Jovanelly.
© 2020 American Geophysical Union. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
199
200 Index

Deglaciation, 118, 133–34, 133t Hverfjall, 100–101

in north region, 159–60, 168 Krafla, 34–36, 36t
in south region, 145–46 of 1975–1984, 96–97, 97f–98f, 98p
Denmark Strait, 161f, 162 Laki, 77–78, 78p
Dense rock equivalent (DRE), 58–59 Mývatn of 1724–1729, 102–5, 103p–4p
in north region, 87–88, 92, 92t, 94 Reykjanes, 62
in south region, 70, 77 Firn layer, 143–44
Denudation rates, 127, 130t, 146 Fish, 82, 103, 123
Dettifoss waterfall, 36–37, 37f, 37p Fissure swarms
Diatreme pipes, 83–84 Grímsvötn, 145–46, 149f
Dike intrusions, 92, 94, 96, 100, 100p, 106 Hengill‐Langjökull, 64
Dimmuborgir pillars, 102 Krafla, 94–102, 95p, 95t, 97f–98f, 98p
Drangajökull ice cap, 162–66, 164f, 166f Laki, 70, 145
DRE. See Dense rock equivalent of NVZ, 31–37, 33f, 87–91, 100–104, 100p
Dryhólaey lava cave, 78–79, 79p of SISZ, 66–68, 71
Dyngjufjöll massif complex, 88–91. See also Askja volcanic tectonics of, 15, 18p, 27, 45–47
system Fjallsarlón lagoon, 151–52, 151p
Dyngjujökull outlet glacier, 134, 141t, 148, 149t Flateyjarskagi peninsula, 32–34, 33f
DZ. See Dalvík Zone Fljót, 81
Flooding. See Jökulhlaup flooding
Early Pleistocene, 8f, 9t, 11, 16, 82, 107, 118p Fluorine poisoning, 76, 81
Earthquake, 96–97, 103–4, 112, 145 Fossils, 10b–11b, 117–18, 121b
swarms, 15, 33–36, 75–76, 93, 104 Fossvogur sedimentary, 122
East Greenland Current (EGC), 123 Fremrinámar central volcano, 31, 32f, 87
East Volcanic Zone (EVZ), 7, 8f, 27–28, 31, 32f Fremrinámur fissure belt, 33f, 100
Vatnajökull glacier and, 65, 68 Froda‐Breiðavík intrusion, 107, 108f
EGC. See East Greenland Current Fumaroles, 17, 69, 92, 98
Egilsstaðir, 29p, 30
Eiríksjökull, 61 Gabbro intrusion, 63, 110
ELA. See Equilibrium line altitude Gases, 24, 81, 99, 125
Eldgjá Fires, 76–78, 78p isotope fractionation and, 121b
Eldhraun lava field, 104 volcanoes and, 48b–49b
Eldvörp‐Svartsengi rift zone, 15, 16f, 62 Gateway to Hell. See Hekla
Ellesmere Island, 3 Gauss Chron, 117
Enriched mid‐ocean ridge basalts (EMORB), 45 Geitahlid tabletop ridge, 16
Equilibrium line altitude (ELA), 132f, 164, 168–69 Geitlandsjökull tuya, 138
Esja mountain complex, 63 Geothermal energy, 17, 20, 33, 97–100
Eurasia Plate, 3, 20–21, 21p, 28, 65 for Reykjavík, 23, 23p, 24b, 64
Europe, 3, 10b, 21–22, 48b, 73 GIA. See Glacioisostatic adjustment
air travel and, 68, 70f, 157 Gigjökull outlet glacier, 123
Hekla and, 79–80 Gjástykki graben, 96
largest glacier of, 148 Glacial fjord, 128p, 161, 162f
LIA and, 122 Glacial till, 119b, 127, 130p
livestock mortality and, 77 Glaciers. See also Tectonics
Evacuations, 49, 69–70, 104, 112, 158 associated landforms and, 125–32, 126f, 127p–31p, 130t,
EVZ. See East Volcanic Zone 131f
Eyjafjallajökull volcano, 71–77, 76p denudation rates, 127, 130t, 146
eruption of, 48b, 49, 54, 67, 70, 70f ice formation and, 124–25, 124f–25f
stratovolcano, 157–58, 158p mass balance and, 132–34, 132f–34f, 133t
Eyjafjöll sandur plain, 65, 157 modern climate and, 123–24
setting of, 117–23, 118p, 120f, 122f
Fagradalsfjall rift zone, 15, 16f, 62 striations of, 109, 126, 129p, 137, 167
Faroe Islands, 8, 28, 74 volcanics and, 135
Fimmvörðuháls ridge, 157 Glaciofluvial deposits, 8, 157, 165
Fires Glacioisostatic adjustment (GIA), 118, 122, 133, 135, 146
Dalseldar, 102 Global Positioning System (GPS) data, 27–28, 137
Eldgjá, 76–78, 78p Global warming, 112, 123–24, 140, 144
 Index 201

Goðabunga rise, 75 Hrafntinnuhryggur ridge, 94–95

Goðafoss waterfall, 99 Hreðavatn horizon, 41
Golden Circle Road, 127 Hreppar Formation, 82
Golden Waterfall. See Gulfoss Hreppar microplate, 3, 27–28
GOR. See Grímsey Oblique Rift Hrossadalur craters, 104
GPS. See Global Positioning System Hrútagjá shield volcano, 62
Grábók Lava Field, 113 Húsavík‐Flatey Fault (HHF), 33–34
Grænvatn, 17, 19p Hveragerði town, 24b, 28
Great Geysir. See Stóri Geysir Hverfjall Fires, 100–101
Greenland, 3, 8, 10b, 28, 73, 162 Hverfjall tuff ring, 101, 101p
Grensdalur central volcano, 22–23 Hvíhólar geothermal field, 99
Grey Basalt Formation, 8 Hvítá River, 25, 144
Grímsey Oblique Rift (GOR), 33–34 Hyalobasalt, 82
Grímsvötn volcanic system, 65–71, 66f, 71p, 111 Hyaloclastite, 89, 94, 99, 109–10, 135
eruption of, 27, 54–55, 58 deposits, 16, 78
fissure swarm, 145–46, 149f ridges, 15, 31, 36, 67, 87, 96
Gulfoss (Golden Waterfall), 23–26, 25p–26p Hyannadalshnúkur, 132
Gullborgarhraun crater, 112 Hydrogen sulfide, 20, 77–78, 82, 156

Hafragilsfoss waterfall, 36 Ice‐cored moraine, 170

Hagafell lava dome, 137 Ice‐core drilling, 119b, 121b
Hágöng dome, 94 Ice formation, 124–25, 124f–25f
Hamarshólar crater, 102 Iceland. See also North regions; South regions; Tectonics
Hásteinar mountain, 141 background geology of, 7–13, 9t, 10b–11b, 12f, 13p
Hawaiian‐type eruption, 46t, 58, 93 climate of, 8, 9t, 123–24
Hawaiite lava flow, 111 glacial features of
Hazard mitigation, 58, 111–12 associated landforms and, 125–32, 126f, 127p–31p,
Haze Famine, 77–78, 78p 130t, 131f
Heimaey Island, 82 glaciovolcanic deposits, 135
Heinrich Event, it, 119b ice formation and, 124–25, 124f–25f
Hekla (The Queen), 27, 47, 52, 53p, 58 mass balance and, 132–34, 132f–34f, 133t
ash dispersal from, 65, 68f periglacial environments, 132
eruption events of, 80–82, 80f setting of, 117–23, 118p, 120f, 122f
tephrochronology of, 69t, 79–81, 80f Meteorological Office of, 40
Heklugjá fissure system, 79 Parliament of, 99
Helgrindur volcano, 112–13 present setting of, 7, 8f, 117, 120f
3
He chronology, 54, 159 southwestern region of, 61–64, 63p
Hellisheiði Geothermal Power Station, 23, 23p, 24b, 64, 99 tectonic context of, 3, 4f
Hengill‐Langjökull rift zone, 15, 16f, 20, 24b, 62, 64 Icelandic Lúdent Period, 99–100
HHF. See Húsavík‐Flatey Fault Icelandic National Monument, 102, 103p
Hljóðaklettar fissure, 36–37 Icelandic Speleological Society, 113
Höfði, 102 Ice rafted debris (IRD), 117, 119b
Hofsjökull glacier, 121b, 167 Ignimbrites, 73–74, 106
ice cap, 140–44, 142f, 143p Inflation and deflation model, 96, 98f
Holocene Interbasaltic beds, 8–10, 11b
lava shields, 87 Interglacial lava flows, 82, 109, 112
north region and, 89, 95, 163–64, 168 IRD. See Ice rafted debris
Plio‐Pleistocene deposits, 40, 41f Irminger Oceanic Current, 122–23, 160, 162
Reykjanes Peninsula and, 137–39 Iron‐rich basalts, 67
south region and, 155, 157–58
tectonics and, 8, 9t, 11, 16, 27, 36, 39, 89 Jarðbaðshólar volcano, 34, 100–101
volcanic eruptions of, 61–62 Jarlhettur mountain range, 139
western region and, 107–9, 113 Jökulhlaup flooding, 111, 141, 161, 165
Holocene Thermal Maximum, 163–64 in south region, 145–46, 152–58, 153f, 155t
Horgsholtshraun crater, 112 tectonics and, 26, 36, 71p, 74f
Hrafnabjörg, 22 volcanics and, 69–70, 71p, 74–76, 74f
Hrafnagjá, 21 Jökulsá á Fjöllum river, 36–37
202 Index

Jökulsárgljúfur canyon, 36, 37f, 37p, 148, 155 Lapilli, 52, 83, 101–2
Jökulsárlón lagoon, 132, 148, 150p–51p, 151–52 Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), 121, 125
Jónsson, Björn, 23 of north region, 159–63, 168
Journey to the Centre of the Earth (Verne), 110 Reykjanes Peninsula and, 141, 144
of south region, 145
Katla Geopark, 49b Weichselian glacial stage, 12f, 117–18, 120f
Katla volcano, 47–49, 55, 58, 71–77, 72p, 73f–74f, 73t of western region, 159–63, 168
Kerlingarfjöll central volcano, 61–62 Lateral flow hypothesis, 87–88, 88f
Kerlingarfjöll mountains, 144 Laugarfjall mountain, 25
Ketildyngja volcano, 34, 90, 100 Lava dome, 50f, 106, 110, 137–38
Kirkjufell mountain, 162, 163p Laxárdalur Valley, 34, 100
Kistufell tabletop ridge, 16 Leggjabrjótur lava dome, 137
Kı ̄lauea, Hawaii, 102 Leirbotnar geothermal field, 98–99
Knickpoint, 36, 37p Leirhnjúkur craters, 34, 36, 96, 102f, 103–4
Kolbeinsey ridge (KR), 3, 8f, 31–33, 39 Leirufjördur moraine, 159, 160f
Kollafjörður volcanic system, 63 Leitahraun lava flow, 64
Kollóttadyngja volcano shield, 90 LGM. See Last Glacial Maximum
Kollur volcanic edifice, 88, 90 LIA. See Little Ice Age
Kötlujökull Pass, 74–75 Lichenometry, 123, 145
KR. See Kolbeinsey ridge LiDAR imagery, 102, 171
Krafla Lignite, 10b–11b, 106
fires, 34–36, 36t Lithology, 8, 10, 26, 28t, 37f
of 1975–1984, 96–97, 97f–98f, 98p log of, 92, 93f
fissure swarm, 94–99, 95p, 95t, 97f–98f, 98p Little Ice Age (LIA), 122–23, 126, 137–40
geothermal energy and, 98–99 maximum, 161, 164–66, 168–70
lava field, 96, 98p Livestock mortality, 76–77, 81
tectonics of, 33f, 34–36 Ljósufjöll volcanic system, 39, 108f–9f, 109, 112
Kröfluháls volcano, 100 Lock, William George, 88
Krýsuvík rift zone, 15, 16f, 62 Loddavötn area, 81
Krýsuvík Valley, 16–17, 18p Lofthellir lava cave, 52
Kverkfjökull volcano, 66f, 68 Lúdentarborgir crater row, 102
Kverkfjöll central volcano, 31, 32f Lúdent Cycle, 34
Kverkfjöll jökulhlaup, 155, 155t Lúdent tuff ring, 100–101
Lýsuskard volcanic system, 39, 108f, 112–13
Lagarfljót, 29p, 30
Lakagígar crater rows, 148 Maar volcano, 17, 19p, 50f
Lakes Mactra Zone, 10b–11b
Elliðavatn, 64 Maelifell dome, 110
Hvitárvatn, 138–40, 139p, 140f Mafic lava. See Aa
Jökulsárlón, 150p–51p, 151–52 MAR. See Mid‐Atlantic Ridge
Kleifarvatn, 16–17, 18p–19p Marine terrace, 168, 169p
Mývatn, 34, 35p, 97f, 100–104, 102f Markarfljót Valley, 158
Öskjuvatn, 93–94, 141 Mass balance, 132–34, 132f–34f, 133t
proglacial, 127, 139, 152, 157, 161, 164 in north region, 165–66, 168–71
Sandvatn, 34 Massif, 88–91, 125, 126f
Skoravatn, 163 Matuyama‐Brunhes transition, 107
subglacial, 69, 146, 152–54, 153f–54f, 155t Medieval Warm Period, 122
Þingvallavatn, 21–22, 140 Megafloods, 70, 155, 155t
Laki fissure swarm, 27, 70, 145 Meltwater, 89
fires, 77–78, 78p of north region, 159, 170
Lambatungajökull outlet glacier, 145 overview of, 126–27, 138–39
Landbrotshólar, 64 of Reykjanes Peninsula, 138–39
Landslides, 90, 167b, 171 of south region, 68–75, 146, 147p, 150–57
Landsvirkjun, 99 MIB. See Mid‐Iceland Belt
Langjökull, 29f Mid‐Atlantic Ridge (MAR), 3, 4f, 7, 20, 31, 45
ice cap, 137–40, 138f, 139p, 140f, 141t Mid‐Iceland Belt (MIB), 7, 8f, 27
 Index 203

Miocene, 9t, 105, 117 Mývatn vent system, 99–105, 100p–101p, 102f,
fossils of, 10b–11b 103p–4p
Móberg Formation, 8–11, 62 Norðurlandsjöklar, 167–69, 167f, 169p
Möberg ridge, 12f, 13p, 34, 55, 55f, 90 Snæfellsnes Peninsula, 169–71, 170f–71f
Mohorovičić discontinuity, 39, 107 TFZ and, 87, 91, 95, 97
Molluscs, 10b–11b, 122 Tinná central volcano, 105–6, 105f
Mortality, 48b–49b, 76–77, 81 Vestfirðir Peninsula, 162–68, 163p, 164f, 166f, 167b
Móskarðshnúka, 63 waterfalls of, 36–37, 37f, 37p
Mounts North Volcanic Zone (NVZ)
Esja, 63 fissure swarms and, 87–91, 94–97, 95t, 100–104
Hafnafjall, 41 of northeast region, 31–32, 32f–33f
Hengill, 63p, 64 tectonics of, 7, 8f
Hofsfjall, 106 Vatnajökull and, 65, 67
Húsavíkurfjall, 33 Nunataks, 141, 160, 162, 163p
St Helens, 110 NVZ. See North Volcanic Zone
Skjaldbreiður, 22 Nýjahraun lava field, 91
Vindbelgur, 34
Múlajökull lobe, 141–43 Obsidian, 56, 94
Mýrdalsjökull, 71–72, 74 Ocean Drilling Project (ODP), 106
ice cap, 155–57, 156f Olafsvík, 111
Mýrdalssandur coast, 74–75, 155, 156f Older Laxá Lava (OLL), 100
Mýrdalur sandur plain, 74f Oligocene, 3, 9t, 11b
Mývatn Fires, 34–36, 95–96 Olivine basalt, 28t, 39, 45, 82
of 1724–1729, 102–5, 103p–4p OLL. See Older Laxá Lava
volcanic features and, 99–102, 100p–101p, 102f Öræfajökull
glacial lobe, 145–46, 148–50, 149t
Námafjall geothermal field, 33, 98–100 stratovolcano, 49, 50f
National Power Company (Landsvirkjun), 99 Öskjuvatn caldera, 90–94
Neogene volcanoes, 105–6 Outwash plain, 62, 123, 127, 127p, 146, 154–55
Neovolcanic zones, 7, 13, 65, 135. See also East Volcanic Oxygen isotopes, 118, 119b, 121b, 125
Zone; North Volcanic Zone; South Iceland Seismic
Zone; West Volcanic Zone Pahoehoe flows, 50–52, 51p, 52p, 56, 113
Nesjavellir geothermal field, 23, 24b, 64 Peralkalic rhyolites, 111
Nonsurge‐type glacier, 148, 169, 171f Permafrost, 123, 132, 143, 168
Norðurlandsjöklar, 167–69, 167f, 169p Phenocrysts, 82, 91, 93, 111, 159
North America, 3, 10b, 77 Phreatic eruptions, 55–56, 63–64, 82, 146
tectonics and, 20–21, 21p, 28, 45 Phreatomagmatic eruption
North Atlantic Ocean, 3–4, 4f, 20, 73, 82 overview of, 45, 54–55
currents of, 160–61, 161f of south region, 69, 74, 82
deep‐sea cores from, 117 of western region, 100–101, 105
IOC and, 122–23 Pillow lava, 12f, 20, 84f
oxygen isotopes and, 118, 119b, 121b glacial features and, 117, 135
Snæfellsnes Peninsula and, 169–70 ridges, 89
thermohaline circulation of, 154, 156 volcanics and, 55, 56p, 62, 64, 89, 110
North Atlantic Oscillation index, 124 Plagioclase, 82, 91, 96
North regions Plants, 11b, 85, 122–23
Askja volcano, 88–94, 89f, 90t, 91p, 92f–93f, 92t Pleistocene, 54, 55, 62, 72, 117–18
Drangajökull ice cap, 162–66, 164f, 166f deposits, 109–10
Dynáufjöll massif complex, 88–94, 89f, 90t, 91p, 92f–93f, Early, 8f, 9t, 11, 16, 82, 107, 118p
92t möberg ridge, 90
Krafla fires and, 34–36, 35p, 36t Reykjanes Peninsula and, 135, 137, 139, 143
Krafla fissure swarm, 94–99, 95p, 95t, 97f–98f, 98p rhyolitic, 110
lateral flow hypothesis and, 87–88, 88f Upper, 8, 9t, 32
LGM, 159–63, 168 volcanotectonic line, 109
mass balance and, 165–66, 168–71 Plinian eruption, 45, 73–74, 80–81, 106
MOR regions of, 87–88, 88f at Askja, 88, 91–92, 92t
204 Index

Pliocene, 63, 105, 117 Hvítá, 25, 144

fossils of, 10b–11b, 11, 13 Jökulsá, 157
Plio‐Pleistocene deposits, 9f, 11, 40, 41f, 79, 107 Jökulsá á Brú, 146
Plume‐origin hypothesis, 3–4 Jökulsá á Fjöllum, 100, 154–55
Polar Front, 118, 124, 160 Skeiðará, 69–70
Pompeii of Iceland. See Þjórsárdalur Valley Skjálfandafljót, 99
Porphyritic basalt, 8, 28t Þjórsá, 82, 144
Proglacial lake, 127, 139, 152, 157, 161, 164 Þórisdalur, 138
Proto‐Lake Mývatn, 101 Rootless cone (pseudocrater), 34, 35p, 54p, 56, 63–64,
Pseudocrater. See Rootless cone 77, 101
Pseudo‐islands, 83–84 RR. See Reykjanes Ridge
Pyroclastic debris, 83–84, 111 RVB. See Reykjanes Volcanic Belt
flow, 28t, 49, 50f, 59, 73, 92
Pyroxene, 45, 91 Saalian glaciation, 118, 120f
Sandfellshæð, 62
Quaternary period, 9t, 112, 119b Sandur plain, 127, 131p, 146, 147p, 170
glaciations, 123–24 Scandinavia, 68, 92. See also Viking settlements
ice sheet growth, 12f Scoria cone, 52, 62, 77, 101–5
The Queen. See Hekla Scotland, 68
Selfoss waterfall, 36–37
Radiocarbon dating, 88, 111, 118, 122–23, 160 Seljavellir farm, 77
Radio echo measurement, 66, 68, 71, 145, 151–52, 171 Sellandafjall, 34
Rauðhólar fissure, 36–37, 100, 100p Seltún drill site, 17
Rauðhólar rootless cone complex, 63–64 Shield volcanoes, 49–52, 50f, 51p, 62
Repose time, 58, 69t Sideromelane, 82, 84
Respiratory hazards, 48b–49b Siðujökull lobe, 134
Reydarfjördur, 28f, 29–30 Silica magma, 45, 65, 80–81, 111
Reykjahíð town, 34, 104p Silica tephra, 65, 77, 79–81, 80f
Reykjanes Fires, 62 SILK deposits, 73
Reykjanes Peninsula SISZ. See South Iceland Seismic Zone
Blue Lagoon, 17–20, 19p Skaðsá town, 23
Hofsjökull ice cap, 140–44, 142f, 143p Skagafjörður, 81
Kerlingarfjöll mountains, 144 fjord, 160f, 167
Krýsuvík Valley, 16–17, 18p–19p valley, 34, 105–6, 105f
Lake Hvitárvatn, 138–40, 139p, 140f Skati Dome, 105f, 106
Langjökull ice cap, 137–40, 138f, 139p, 140f, 141t Skeiðará River, 69–70
MAR in, 4f, 20 bridge of, 71p, 146, 147p
Stóri Geysir, 23–26, 25p–26p Skeiðarárjökull
tectonics of, 15–26, 16f–17f, 21p–23p outlet glacier, 69, 134f, 141t, 148
volcanism of, 61–64, 63p valley, 127, 149f, 149t
Þingvellir National Park, 9t, 20–23, 23p, 24b Skeiðarársandur plain, 127, 131p, 146, 148, 150–54
Reykjanes Ridge (RR), 3, 4f, 7, 8f, 15–16, 20 Skjaldbreiður shield volcano, 22, 49, 51p
Reykjanesviti, 20 Skjálfandi Bay, 34
Reykjanes Volcanic Belt (RVB), 8f, 15, 16f, 46, 61–62 Skógar tephra, 73
Reykjavík city, 24b, 39, 63–64, 169 Skridan dome, 110
Reykjavík Energy, 24b Skutustaðagigar craters, 102, 103p
Reynisfjara Beach, 79 Snæfellsjökull volcanic system, 39–40, 40p
Rhyolite lavas, 8–10, 28t, 30, 106 glacial features of, 109–12, 110p, 111f
magma and, 65, 80, 89, 96 Snæfellsnes Peninsula, 39, 40p
Rifting episodes, 31, 36, 39 active volcanos, 15, 16f
in north region, 87, 91, 95, 95t glacial features of, 159, 160f, 162, 163p, 169–71,
in southwest region, 62, 66–67 170f–71f
Ring Road, 70, 71p volcanics of, 107–9, 108f–9f
Rivers Snæfellsnes Syncline, 40–41, 41f
channel and, 146, 147p, 151p Snæfellsnes‐Vatnsnes Rift Zone, 40–41, 41f
Elliðaár, 64 Snæfellsnes Volcanic Belt (SVB), 7, 8f, 39, 41f, 46, 47f,
Geitá, 138 107–13

Snagahraun lava field, 96
Snow avalanche, 162, 165, 166f, 167b
Snow pack, 125f
Solfataras, 20, 93
Sólheimar ignimbrite, 73
South Iceland Seismic Zone (SISZ)
fissure swarms and, 65–68, 71
tectonics of, 7, 8f, 16–17, 20, 27–32
volcanics of, 61, 65–67, 107, 112
western region and, 107, 112
South regions
Bárðarbunga volcano, 66f, 68–71
Breiðárlón basin, 151–52, 151p
Dryhólaey, 78–79, 79p
Eyjafjallajökull stratovolcano, 157–58, 158p
Eyjafjallajökull volcano, 71–77, 76p
fires of, 77–78, 78p
Grímsvötn volcano, 65, 66f, 67–71, 71p
Hekla, 79–81, 80f
Jökulsárlón lake, 150p–51p, 151–52
Katla volcano, 71–77, 72p, 73f–74f, 73t
meltwater in, 68–75, 146, 147p, 150–57
Mýrdasjökull ice cap, 155–57, 156f
subglacial lakes of, 152–55, 153f, 154f, 155t
Surtsey volcanic island, 82–85, 83f–85f
tectonics of, 145–46, 152–58, 153f, 155t
Vatnajökull National Park, 146–50, 149f,
149t, 150p
Þjórsárdalur Valley, 82–83
Spatter cone, 53p, 62, 77
Stardalur volcanic system, 63
Steam vents, 20, 61
Steinholtsjökull outlet glacier, 123
Stöng farmstead, 81–82
Stóra‐Laxá volcano, 82
Stóri Geysir, 23–26, 25p–26p
Strath terrace, 36, 37p
Stratovolcanoes
Eyjafjallajökull, 157–58, 158p
Öræfajökull, 49, 50f
Snæfellsjökull, 39–40, 40p, 110p
of south region, 75, 76p
tectonics and, 49–50, 52
tuya hybrid, 111
Strokkur (The Churn), 25, 25p
Subglacial eruptions, 54–56, 56p, 57f
Subglacial lakes, 69, 146, 152–54, 153f–54f,
155t
Suðurhídar geothermal field, 99
Sulfur fog, 77–78
Surge‐type glaciers, 133, 134f, 156, 165, 166f
Surtsey Research Progress Reports, 82
Surtsey volcanic island, 78, 82–85, 83f–85f
Svalbard glaciers, 165
Svartsengi geothermal plant, 17, 20
SVB. See Snæfellsnes Volcanic Belt
Sveinagja graben, 91
Index 205
S‐wave shadowing, 96
Syncline, 40–41, 41f, 107, 108f
Tabletop mountains, 13, 13p, 55, 117–18, 120f
Tapes Zone, 10b
Tectonics
subglacial eruptions and, 54–56, 55f, 57f
tephrochronology and, 46t, 56–58
VEI and, 45, 46t, 58–59
volcanic morphology and, 49–54, 50f, 51p–55p
volcanic repose, 58
volcanic setting and, 45–49, 46f–47f, 46t, 48b–49b
Tephra, 30, 80–84
from Askja, 92–93, 92t
deposits, 65, 67f, 73–74, 80, 106, 119b
dispersal, 57, 59, 68, 76
from Dyngjufjöll, 89–90
silica and, 65, 73, 77, 79–81, 80f
volume, 46t, 69t, 73t, 92, 92t
Tephrochronology, 46t, 56–58
Terminal moraine, 117, 126, 129p
of northern region, 164–65, 168
of Reykjanes Peninsula, 137, 144
of south region, 145
Tertiary Basalt Formation, 8–11, 28, 29f, 40
Tertiary period, 10–11
faults of, 20f–30f, 28–30, 28t, 29p
glaciations of, 123–24
ice sheet growth of, 12f
TFZ. See Tjörnes Fracture Zone
Tholeiite, 8, 62, 67, 106
basalts, 28t, 45, 46f, 90, 108–9
Tindars, 41, 55, 55f, 61, 110, 137
Tinná central volcano, 105–6, 105f
Tinnárdalur Valley, 106
Tjörnes Formation, 10b
Tjörnes Fracture Zone (TFZ)
northeast region and, 31–35, 87, 91, 95, 97
tectonics and, 7, 8f
Tjörnes peninsula, 10, 32–34, 33f, 117
Tombolo, 78–79, 79p
Torfajökull central volcano, 65, 79, 111–12
Trachybasalt, 111
Trandilsson, Gaukur, 81–82
Trölladyngja volcano shield, 90
Tröllaskagi Peninsula, 160f, 162, 167–69
Tuff cone, 77–78, 82
Tuff ring, 50f, 100–101
Tuya, 55, 55f, 61–62, 110–11
UNESCO. See United Nations Educational, Scientific, and
Cultural Organization
United Kingdom, 48b, 68
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO), 82
Upper Pleistocene, 8, 9t, 32
U‐shaped valley, 117, 126, 128p, 161
206 Index

Vascular plants, 11b, 85, 122–23 Gulfoss, 23–26, 25p–26p

Vatnajökull glacier, 45, 58, 87 Hafragilsfoss, 36
EVZ and, 65, 68 Water phase diagram, 125f
features of, 146–50, 149f, 149t, 150p Weichselian glacial stage, 9t, 11, 13, 22, 163, 164f
mass balance of, 132–34, 134f ice sheet, 117, 120f, 159, 163
subglacial volcanoes and, 65–68, 66f LGM and, 12f, 117, 120f
Vatnajökull ice cap, 3, 88 Western region, 39–41, 40p, 41f
Vatnshellir Cave, 113, 113f deglaciation in, 159–60, 168
Vedde Ash, 73–74 Drangajökull ice cap, 162–66, 164f, 166f
VEI. See Volcanic explosivity index Helgrindur volcano, 112–13
Veiðivötn fissue swarm, 145 Holocene, 107–9, 113
Verne, Jules, 110 LGM in, 159–63, 168
Vertebrate fossils, 11b Ljósufjöll volcano, 112
Vestfirðir Peninsula, 40, 159–68, 163p, 164f, 166f, 167b Norðurlandsjöklar, 167–69, 167f, 169p
Vestmannæyjar Islands, 65, 82, 156 Snæfellsjökull volcano, 109–12, 110p, 111f
Viking settlements, 47–49, 48b–49b, 121b, 122 Snæfellsnes Peninsula, 107–9, 108f–9f, 169–71,
of Reykjanes Peninsula, 143, 143p 170f–71f
in south region, 74, 81–82, 145, 155 Vatnshellir Cave, 113, 113f
Viti crater, 34, 91–92, 103 Westman Islands, 82, 156
Vogar lava field, 34, 100 West Volcanic Zone (WVZ), 7, 8f, 27, 31
Volcanic explosivity index (VEI) Reykjanes Peninsula and, 15, 16f, 20, 61–64, 63p
of Askja, 88, 90t World Heritage Site, 82
of Eyjafjallajökull, 76, 146 WVZ. See West Volcanic Zone
of Hekla, 69t, 79–80
of Katla, 73t Xenoliths, 102
Mývatn fires and, 103
overview of, 45, 46t, 58–59 YLL. See Younger Laxá Lava
Volcanoes. See also Stratovolcanoes Younger Dryas Stadial, 9t, 26, 73
background on, 7, 8f glacial features and, 121–22, 122f, 137, 165, 168
maar, 17, 19p, 50f Younger Laxá Lava (YLL), 101–2
morphology and, 49–54, 50f, 51p–55p Younger Stampar cone row, 62
neogene, 105–6 Yti Bugur, 111
repose, 58 Ytriflói Basin, 103
setting and, 45–49, 46f–47f, 46t, 48b–49b
shield, 49–52, 50f, 51p, 62 Zeolite zones, 10, 16, 106
tectonic line and, 109 Þeistareykir central volcano, 31, 32f
Vulcanian‐type eruption, 46t, 58 Þingvellir National Park, 64, 107, 108f
tectonics of, 20–23, 21p–23p, 24b
Water contamination, 81, 103 Þjórsárdalur Valley, 82–83
Waterfalls Þorarinsson, Sigurður, 81–82
Dettifoss, 36–37, 37f, 37p Þráinskjöldur shield volcano, 62
Goðafoss, 99 Þrengslaborgir‐Lúdentsborgir cone craters, 101