Ex.No.

1 Date:

IDENTIFICATION OF IMPORTANT ROCKS AND MINERALS

A. Igneous Rocks

Most common Average

Rocks Grain size Essential minerals accessory specific Remarks
minerals gravity

Granite Plutonic Predominant Quartz Hornblende, 2.64 White or reddish

Holocrystalline 20-35% Orthoclase Mica or blackish
Magnetite

Syenite Plutonic Predominant Quartz Hornblende, 2.80 White or reddish

Holocrystalline 10% plus Biotite or blackish
orthoclase, Magnetite
Nepheline and
Albite

Granodiorite Plutonic Intermediate Quartz Hornblende, 2.70 Medium

Holocrystalline Plagioclase exceeds Biotite coloured reddish
Orthoclase Magnetite

Diorite Plutonic Intermediate Quartz Hornblende, 2.85 Darker

Holocrystalline Absent Plagioclase Biotite
Magnetite

Gabbro Plutonic Labradorite, Augite Hornblende, 3.00 Blackish

Holocrystalline plus Olivine Ilmenite

Dolerite Hypabyssal Labradorite ,Augite Hornblende, 3.00 Blackish

Ophitic texture plus Olivine Ilmenite

Basalt Volcanic,Micro Labradorite, Augite Hornblende, 3.00 Blackish

crystalline with plus Olivine Ilmenite
glassy mass

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B. Sedimentary Rocks

Name of the
Mineral composition Colour and structure
type
Sandstone Mainly quartz with some cements, such as Light to red. Usually granular and porus
calcium carbonate, iron oxides and clays structure
Shale Clay minerals, quartz, and some organic Light to dark. Thinly laminated structure
matter
Limestone Mainly calcite or calcite and dolomite with Usually light to gray to yellow.
some iron oxides, clay, phosphate and Usually fine grained and compact
organic matter
Gneiss Formed from granite, mineral composition Alternating light and dark colours, Banded
like that of granite and foliated texture
Schist Formed from basalt or shale. Mineral Much as original rock, foliated structure
composition much as that of original rock
Quartzite Formed from sandstone and of same Light to brown. Compact and uniform
composition texture. Non-foliaged structure
Slate Formed from shale and of same Grey to black; compact and uniform texture,
composition foliated structure
Marble Formed from limestone, consists mainly of Light to red to green to black. Compact, fine
calcite and dolomite with minor amounts of to coarse texture, non-foliated structure
pigments such as iron oxide

MINERAL IDENTIFICATION
Minerals are the chemical compounds that make up the rocks of the Earth’s crust. To
identify minerals a series of properties are used. These properties can be used to give clues to the
identity of the minerals being investigated. A mineral may share a common property, such as
color, but will have a unique property that will allow you to identify it. The properties used are:

 color
 luster
 hardness
 streak
 cleavage
 density / specific gravity

2
  crystal habit / shape
 special properties : magnetism
radioactivity
fluorescence
effervescence (bubbles in acid)
tarnish
In this lab activity, the main purpose is to learn what the properties are and how to
identify some of the common minerals. It is important that you learn the proper terms used to
describe the properties, as these terms are in common usage worldwide.

PROPERTIES OF MINERALS:
COLOR
Color is the first thing we notice about a mineral, and can be one of the most valuable
properties for mineral identification. If a mineral has a fixed composition and is free of
impurities, it will have a characteristic color. If a mineral has a composition which can vary, or
tends to have impurities, then its color may not be useful for identification.

LUSTER

The luster or “shine” of a mineral depends on the nature of its surface and the way it
reflects light. The following terms are used to describe luster. Luster is independent of color, that
is, the mineral will have a certain luster regardless of its color.

Main Types of Luster : metallic

non- metallic

There are other lusters, but these are the most common nonmetallic lusters.

 vitreous: shines like glass  Dull

 resinous: like wax  Greasy

 earthy: like dry mud or clay  Oily

 adamantine: brilliant like diamond  Fibrous

 Examine your sets and make note of the minerals with metallic lusters as well as any samples
with distinctive non-metallic lusters.

3
 STREAK

The streak of a mineral is its color when it is crushed into a fine powder. It is usually
observed with the aid of a streak plate, which is a piece of hard white unglazed tile. The mineral
is rubbed on the streak plate and the color of the trace or streak made on the tile is observed. Its
streak may be the same color as that of the mineral itself or it may be quite different. Usually the
streak is more dependable (shows less variation) than the actual color of the mineral. As a
general rule, metallic minerals have a dark streak while nonmetallic have a lighter streak.

Hematite ALWAYS has a rust red streak. If the mineral you are testing is harder than the
streak plate you will not be able to give a streak for it as it will simply scratch the tile.

 Examine your sets and find the streaks of samples

HARDNESS
The hardness of a mineral is a measure of how resistant it is to scratching. This hardness
is related to the chemical bonds between the atoms of the mineral. The hardness of a sample is
found by comparing its resistance to scratching to chat of a set of common minerals arranged in a
scale from softest (most easily scratched) to hardest. The scale is called Moh’s Scale of Mineral
Hardness, after a German mineralogist, Friedrich Moh, Who devised it in 1822.

Note that the hardness numbers are relative; they tell the order, not how many times
harder one mineral is than another. For example diamond is 1000X harder than talc and 4X
harder than corundum, not 10X or 1X as the scale implies.

Examples:

A mineral that scratches gypsum (hardness 2) but is scratched by calcite (hardness 3)

would have a hardness of 2 ½. The hardness is not an exact measure but is useful to identify

Unfortunately, a complete sampling of Moh’s Hardness Scale minerals is not usually

available for testing purposes so a simplified list of “scratch” samples is used. This is called the
Prospector’s Scale. You must know both of these scales. To find the hardness of an unknown
sample you will use the Prospector’s Scale and scratch it with your fingernail, copper penny,
glass slide and steel nail. Its hardness will be between the two scale numbers.

4
COMBINATION OF MOH’S HARDNESS SCALE AND PROSPECTOR’S SCALE**

Hardness Example Mineral

Very soft 1 talc Everything will scratch it

2 gypsum Fingernail will scratch it

2.5** Fingernail

3 calcite Scratches gypsum, can be scratched by a

penny

3.5** penny

Semi-hard 4 fluorite Will scratch a penny

5 apatite Steel knife will scratch it

5.5** Glass or knife

hard 6 feldspar May scratch steel knife

6.5** Steel nail or file

7 quartz Scratches steel and glass easily

8 topaz Scratches quartz

Very hard 9 Corundum You can’t scratch it

(sapphire/ruby)

hardest 10 diamond Not in your set for obvious reasons

 Examine your sets and try to find the hardness of minerals

CLEAVAGE

Cleavage is the tendency to split easily in certain directions. The planes in which a mineral
will cleave or split is determined by the crystal structure and the strength of the bonds between

5
atoms in the crystals. Cleavage can occur in 1, 2, 3 or more directions and can usually be
recognized by looking for the shiny faces on the sample. These are easily found when the
sample is tilted back and forth in the light as the flat surfaces will sparkle.

Some minerals have a characteristic angle between their cleavages, which allows us to
distinguish them from minerals with otherwise similar properties. Amphiboles and pyroxenes,
for example, are similar minerals, but amphiboles have two cleavages at 120 0 to one another, and
pyroxenes have two cleavages at 900

Those minerals that don’t cleave are said to fracture. Quartz is a good example of
conchoidal (glass like) fracture.

CRYSTAL HABIT

The arrangement of atoms in the mineral determines the shape of the crystal. Each crystal
of a mineral is always the same shape and often unique from the shape of crystals for other
minerals. Some of the most common crystal habits are listed below. You will only be asked to
identify the most obvious of the types- quartz (hexagonal), calcite (rhombohedral), halite, galena
and pyrite (cubic) and fluorite (octahedral).

The usual appearance of the mineral and its crystal habit or shape can often be diagnostic
of that mineral. Descriptive terms for general appearance of a specimen include.

 crystalline – made up of groups of crystals (see below)

 granular- made up of small rounded or shapeless crystals or grains
 massive – appears to contain indistinctive crystals
 powdery – forms or is covered with a fine dust
 flaky – small thin layers
 fibrous – thread- like

DENSITY / SPECIFIC GRAVITY

The density of a body is its mass per unit volume (g/ml or g/cm 3). It is numerically
equivalent to the specific gravity (SG), which indicates how many times the body weighs more
than an equal volume of water. For example, water always equals 1, so a mineral with a specific
gravity of 5 weighs 5 times more than an equal volume of water.

6
 Generally, we can compare the specific gravity of minerals by noting their relative
weights (very heavy to very light).

To estimate the density of a mineral. “Heft” the sample, that is, toss it in your hand and
compare its weight to the piece of massive quartz. You will say that the mineral has high density
if it seems to be heavier than the quartz, medium if about the same and low if it seems to be
lighter.

More exact calculations of specific gravity can be made using a spring scale and the
displacement of a volume of water but we will not be using that technique in this exercise.

 How do those with a metallic luster compare in density to those with other lusters?

SPECIAL PROPERTIES:

Some of the minerals have special unique properties that are useful in identifying them.
Try to match the ones listed below to the samples in your mineral set. Record these unique
properties on your master lists.

MAGETISM

A few of the minerals are magnetic. Get a bar magnet and test your set.

 What is the significant chemical component of any mineral sample attracted to a magnet?

RADIOACTIVITY

This is the spontaneous breakdown of atoms by giving off subatomic particles and
energy. Elements which are radioactive are usually those with high atomic masses and they
breakdown into lighter elements. The simplest method of detecting radioactivity is to use a
Geiger counter. This device measures electricity produced as the subatomic particles pass
through it.

 Use the Geiger counter to test the sample sets.

FLUORESCENCE

7
 Some minerals will fluoresce (glow different colors) when placed under an ultraviolet
light (UV or Black Light). Calcite, willemite, scheelite and fluorite are common fluorescents.
Different wavelengths of UV light often give different results. Minerals that glow after the UV
light has been removed are said to be phosphorescent.

Most minerals do not fluoresce when pure. It takes certain impurities in certain quantities
to make the mineral fluoresce. Such impurities are called “activators”. Different activators can
make the same mineral fluoresce in different colors. Different minerals require different
activators, and in different quantities.

ACID TEST and EFFERVESCENCE

Calcite has a number of special properties. The most distinctive is its reaction with dilute
acid. This reaction is called effervescence. Perform this test at the ACID TEST STATION. Use
only a few drops of hydrochloric acid (HCL) and DO NOT remove it from this area. Only the
samples provided on the test tray may be tested.

 Record this distinctive property for calcite on your master list.

 Calcite crystals may display another special property which is its ability to bend or refract
light to form two images. What is this property called?

TARNISH

 Some minerals will develop a film or coating when exposed to weathering. Identify at least
two mineral that display this property.

8
 IDENTIFICATION, CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPORTANT MINERALS

Chemical Hard
S. No Mineral Origin Colour Streak Lusture Tenacity Sp.gr
composition Ness

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
I. ELEMENTS
1. Sulphur Secondary S Yellow Yellow Resinous Translucent 1- 2 2.07
or white
II. OXIDES
1. Haematite Primary or Fe2O3 Steel Red Metallic --- 5 - 6.5 4.9-
secondary 5.2
2. Illmenite Primary or FeTiO3 Grey Black Metallic --- 5–6 4.72
secondary black
3. Magnetite Primary or Fe3O4 Black Black Opaque Opaque 5.5- 4.9-
secondary Metallic Metallic 6.5 5.2
4. Pyrolusite Primary or MnO2 Dark grey Black Metallic Opaque 6 - 6.5 5.06
secondary
5. Quartz Primary or SiO2 Various White Various Opaque to 7 2.6-
secondary Translucent 2.7
III. HYDROXIDES
1. Brucite Secondary Mg (OH)2 Greenish White Pearly to --- 2.5 2.39
White vitreous
2. Gibbsite Secondary Al (OH)3 Greenish White Pearly to Transparent 2.5
White vitreous - 2.4
3.5
3. Limonite Secondary 2(Fe2O3) 3H2O Yellowish Brownish Earthy Opaque 5 - 3.6-
brown Yellow 5.5 4
IV. SULPHIDES
1. Iron phrite Primary or FeS2 Brownish Greenish Metallic Opaque 6- 5.01
secondary Yellow black 6.5
V. SULPHATES
1. Gypsum Secondary CaSo4 White Greenish Vitreous Transparent 3.5 2.96
2H2O white to pearly to
translucent

VI. PHOSPHATES
1. Apatite Primary or Ca5(PO4)3 Pink to White Vitreous Transparent 5 3.1-

9
 secondary Fe2Cl yellow 3.2

VII. CARBONATES

1. Calcite Primary CaCO3 Colourless White Vitreous Transparent 3 2.71

secondary
2. Dolomite Secondary CaCO3 White White Vitreous Transparent 3.5 2.85
MgCO3 to pearly –4

VIII. SILICATES
a) Orthoclase feldspar
1. Microclane Primary, K AlSi3O8 Grey to White Vitreous Transparent 6 2.56
Essential pinkish Vitreous to pearly
white
2. Orthoclase Primary, K AlSi3O8 Colourless White Vitreous Transparent 6
Essential to pinkish Vitreous to pearly 2.56
white
b) Plagiclase feldspar

1. Albite Primary, NaAlSi3O3 Grayish White Sub- Transparent 6 2.6 -

Essential white vitreous 2.7
2. Anorthite Primary, CaAl2Si2O8 Grayish White Sub- Transparent 6 2.6 -
Essential white vitreous 2.78
IX. MICAS

1. Muscovite ---do--- Kal2(AlSi3O10) Colourless White Pearly to Transparent 2.5 2.8-

to white vitreous 3.1
2. Biotite Primary, K(Mg,Fe)3 Brown to Grey Vitreous Transparent 2.5 2.8 -
Essential (AlSi3OH) dark grey to pearly –3 3.4
(OH)3

X. CHLORITE

1. Chlorite Secondary Mg10 (Al2Si6 Brownish Greyish Earthy Transparent 1.5 2.6 -
Al2)O20 grey white to pearly - 3.3
(OH)16 2.5

Ex.No.2 Date:

SOIL SAMPLE COLLECTION

10
Principle

Soil is analyzed to know the nature of soil, to classify and advocate to farmers the
peculiarities of the soils and how much of the fertilizer should be applied for better crop
production. Soil testing is an essential component of soil resource management. A complete soil,
of course, cannot be moved into a laboratory and only parts of it can be moved. The value of the
laboratory work depends upon care in sampling. Each sample collected must be a true
representative of the area being sampled. If the sample is to be a representative of an area, it is
necessary to take large number of samples spread over the area and then pool and sub-sample it
so as to get a sample of desired size. In general, sampling is done at the rate of one sample for
every two hectare area. However, at least one sample should be collected for a maximum area of
five hectares. For soil survey work, samples are collected from a soil profile representative to the
soil of the surrounding area.

Materials required
1. Spade or auger (screw or tube or post hole type)
2. Khurpi
3. Core sampler
4. Sampling bags
5. Plastic tray or bucket

Points to be considered

 Collect the soil sample during fallow period

 In the standing crop, collect samples between rows.
 Sampling at several locations in a zig- zag pattern ensures homogeneity.
 Fields, which is similar in appearance, production and past management practices, can be
grouped into a single sampling unit.
 Collect separate samples from fields that differ in colour, slope, drainage, past
management practices like liming, gypsum application, fertilization, cropping system etc.
 Avoid sampling in dead furrows, wet spots, areas near main bund, trees, manure heaps
and irrigation channels.

11
  For shallow rooted crops, collect samples up to 15 cm depth. For deep rooted crops,
collect samples up to 30 cm depth. For tree crops, collect profile samples.
 Always collect the soil sample in presence of the farm owner who knows the farm better

Procedure
 Divide the field into different homogenous units based on the visual observation and
farmer’s experience and select the sampling spots.
 Remove the surface litter at the sampling spot.
 Drive the auger to a plough depth of 15 cm and draw the soil sample.
 Collect at least 10 to 15 samples from each sampling unit and place in a bucket or tray.
 If auger is not available, make a ‘V’ shaped cut to a depth of 15 cm in the sampling spot
using spade.
 Remove thick slices of soil from top to bottom of exposed face of the ‘V’ shaped cut and
place in a clean container.

1 inch / 2.5 cm 6 inches (15 cm)

 Mix the samples thoroughly and remove foreign materials like roots, stones, pebbles and
gravels.
 Reduce the bulk to one kilogram by quartering or compartmentalization.
 Quartering is done by dividing the thoroughly mixed sample into four equal parts. The
two opposite quarters are discarded and the remaining two quarters are remixed and the
process repeated until the desired sample size is obtained.
 Compartmentalization is done by uniformly spreading the soil over a clean hard surface
and dividing into smaller compartments by drawing lines along and across the length and
breadth. From each compartment a pinch of soil is collected. This process is repeated till
the desired quantity of sample is obtained.
 Collect the sample in a clean cloth or polythene bag.
 Avoid sending soil samples in fertilizer bags.

12
  Label the bag with information like name of the farmer, location of the farm, survey No.,
previous crop grown, present crop, crop to be grown in the next season, date of
collection, name of the sampler etc.

Processing and storage

 Assign the sample number and enter it in the laboratory soil sample register.
 Dry the sample collected from the field in shade by spreading on a clean sheet of paper
after breaking the large lumps, if present.
 Spread the soil on a paper or polythene sheet on a hard surface and powder the sample by
breaking the clods to its ultimate soil particles using a wooden mallet.
 Sieve the soil material through 2 mm sieve.
 Repeat powdering and sieving until only materials of >2mm (no soil or clod) are left on
the sieve.
 Collect the material passing through the sieve and store in a clean glass or plastic
container or polythene bag with proper labeling for laboratory analysis.
 For the determination of organic matter it is desirable to grind a representative sub
sample and sieve it through 0.2 mm sieve.
 If the samples are meant for the analysis of micronutrient utmost care is needed in
handling the sample to avoid contamination of iron, zinc and copper. Brass sieves should
be avoided and it is better to use stainless steel or polythene materials for collection,
processing and storage of such samples.
 Air-drying of soils must be avoided if the samples are to be analyzed for NO 3-N and
NH4-N as well as for bacterial count.
 Field moisture content must be estimated in un-dried sample or to be preserved in a
sealed polythene bag immediately after collection.
 Estimate the moisture content of sample before every analysis to express the results on
dry weight basis.

Guidelines for sampling depth

13
 Soil sampling depth
Crop
S. No. Inches cm

1 Grasses and grasslands 2 5

2 Rice, finger millet, ground nut, pearl 6 15
millet, small millets etc. (shallow
rooted crops)
3 Cotton, sugarcane, banana, tapioca, 9 22 or 25
vegetables etc. (deep rooted crops)
4 Perennial crops, plantations and Three soil Three soil
orchard crops samples at samples at
12,24 and 30, 60 and
36 inches 90 cm

14
 Ex.No.3 Date:

STUDY OF SOIL PROFILES

A vertical section through a soil is called profile. It represents succession of horizons

differentiated from one another by their physical, chemical and biological properties.

A soil horizon may be defined as a layer of soil, approximately parallel to the soil
surface. The horizon characteristics are produced by soil – forming processes and are commonly
differentiated from an adjacent one on the basis of characteristics that can be seen in the field.

Study of soil profile is important as it is historic record of all the soil forming processes
and it forms the unit of study in pedological investigations. Soil profile is the key in soil
classification and also forms the basis for practical use in the utilitarian studies of soils.

A hypothetical mineral soil profile will include O, A, B, C and D master horizons and all
the possible sub horizons as given below.

O1 - Organic – Horizon

A1 - Mineral – Mixed with humus – dark

A2 - Horizon of maximum eluviations of silicate clays, Fe, Al oxides etc.,

A3 - Transition to B, more like A than B

B1 - Transition to A, more like A than B,

B2 - Maximum illuviation of silicate clays, Fe, Al oxides and some organic matter,

B3 - Transition to C, more like B than C.

C - Zone of least weathering, accumulation of Ca, Mg carbonates, Cementation,

sometimes – high bulk density – Fragipans.

D - Bedrock

15
Details of Horizons

O1- Organic horizon wherein the original forms of the plant and animal residues can be
recognized by the naked eye.

O2- Organic horizon in which the original plant and animal forms cannot be recognized by
the naked eye.

A1- Topmost mineral horizon, containing a strong admixture of humified organic matter,
which tends to impart a darker colour than that of lower horizons.

A2- Horizon of maximum eluviations of clay, iron and aluminum oxides and organic
matter.

A3- A transition layer between A and B with properties more nearer to A 1 or A2 horizons
above than the horizon B below, sometimes absent.

B1- A transition layer between A and B with properties more nearly like B than A.

B2- Zone of maximum accumulation of clays and iron and aluminum oxides. These may
have moved down from upper horizons or may have formed in place.

B3- Transition horizon between B and C with properties more like those of B 2 above than
those of C below.

C- Horizon below the solum ( A and B), relatively little affected by the soil forming
processes. It is outside the zone of major biological activity.

D- Underlying consolidated bedrock, it may or may not be like the parent rock from
which the solum is formed.

In the above profile, O1 and O2 form the organic horizons and A1 to B3 (i.e. A and B)

form the mineral horizons of mineral soils. Both the A and B horizons are collectively called

solum , the unconsolidated material above the bedrock i.e. A, B and C Horizons together is

called regolith.

16
Collection of soil samples from a profile
 After the profile has been exposed, clean one face of the pit carefully with a spade and
note the succession and depth of each horizon.
 Prick the surface with a knife or edge of the spade to show up structure, colour and
compactness.
 Describe the profile as per the standard terminologies.
 Use the Munsell colour chart and determine the soil colour.
 Fine out the texture by feel method.
 Collect samples starting from the bottom most horizon first by holding a large basin at
the bottom limit of the horizon while the soil above is loosened by a khurpi.
 Mix the sample and transfer to a polythene or cloth bag and label it.

Proforma for soil profile description

A) Site characteristics:
Soil mapping unit: …………………. … Sample: …………………
Profile No & Date of Collected
Location ………………… collection …………… by …………………………
State …………………. Dist ……………….. Taluk ……………………..
Village ………………. Field No ……….. …. Map Ref …………………..
Scale ………………… Relief …………….. Surface ……………………
Elevation …………. Depth of …………… Drainage ………………….
Water table
Slope …………………. Erosion ……………. Stoniness ………………...
Parent Geology ……………………………………………
Material ……………....
Vegetation …………… Present
Land use ……………………………………………
Salt & alkaline …………………………………………………………………..
B). Profile Description:
Horizon ………………………………………………………………………….
Depth (cm) ………………………………………………………………………
Thickness (cm) ………………………………………………………………….
Boundary ………………………………………………………………………..
Colour
Dry ……………………………………………………………………….

17
 Moist ……………………………………………………………………..
Moisture …………………………………………………………………………
Mottling
Colour …………………………………………………………………
Abundance ……………………………………………………………
Size ……………………………………………………………………
Contrast ……………………………………………………………….
Structure
Grade …………………………………………………………………..
Size ……………………………………………………………………
Type …………………………………………………………………..
Texture ……………………………………………………………….
Consistency
Dry ……………………………………………………………………
Moist …………………………………………………………………
Wet …………………………………………………………………..
Concretions
Shape …………………………………………………………………
Size …………………………………………………………………..
Conca Shape ……………………………………………………………………
Size …………………………………………………………………..
Concen. ………………………………………………………………
Clay films ……………………………………………………………
Reaction (pH) ……………………………………………………….
Carbonate ……………………………………………………………
Roots …………………………………………………………………
Permeability ………………………………………………………….
Remarks
Special Features (Pores, Silicken sides) ……………………………………………….
Sample Bag No. ………………………………………………………
Slope and direction …………………………………………………...
Sketch and Gradient ………………………………………………….
Important features ……………………………………………………
18
DETAILED SOIL PROFILE DESCRIPTION

The profile characteristics of the dominant soil series of Theni district is presented as
follows.

PALAVIDUTHI SOIL SERIES (Pvd)

Location : Pothampatti on – Usilampatty to Peraiyur road- 1 km left from

Nalluthevan patty.
Physiography : Gently sloping (near foot hills)

Topography : Undulating

Drainage : Moderately well to well drained.

Parent material : Colluvium.

HORIZON DESCRIPTION

0-20 cm; red (10 YR 6/6 M); sandy loam ; Weak medium sub angular
Ap
blocky; slightly hard (dry), slightly firm (moist), slightly sticky (wet);
moderately fine and fine pores; more fine and coarse roots; moderately
rapid permeability; clear smooth boundary; pH 7.36.

20-65 c; dark red (10 YR 4/6 M); sandy clay to clay; coarse angular blocky
Bt1
to sub angular blocky; hard (dry); firm (moist), sticky and plastic (wet);
common very few medium and fine pores; few medium roots; markedly
different coloured spots; thin clay films; moderate permeability; abrupt
smooth boundary; pH 7.2

65 cm-200cm; dark reddish brown (10 YR 3/5 M); sandy clay loam;
Bt2
massive breaks to strong coarse sub angular blocky, frim (moist), sticky and
slightly plastic (wet); few fine and very fine, very few medium and coarse
pores; few fine and very fine roots; thin clay films; moderate permeability;
abrupt smooth boundary; slightly calcareous pH 7.8

19
Ex.No.4 Date:

DETERMINATION OF BULK DENSITY, PARTICLE DENSITY

AND PORE SPACE

Bulk density of a soil indicates the degree of compactness of the soil and is defined as the
mass per unit volume which includes space occupied by solids and pore space. The normal range
of bulk density in most soils is from 1.02 to 1.80 Mg m -3. Porosity is that fraction of soil volume
not occupied by solid particles

Mass(W )
Bulk density Db ¿ gm /ml
Volume(V )

Bulk density varies with particle size distribution, organic matter content, mechanical
composition and depth of soil. The bulk density of coarse textured soils will be on the higher side
while organic soils will have lower bulk density.

Particle density refers to the density of the soil solids and is defined as the mass per unit
volume of soil solids excluding pore space.

Mass(W )
Particle density = Dp= Mgm-3
Volume of solids (Vs)

The particle density is higher than that of bulk density.

The particle density of most soils range between the narrow limits of 2.60 to 2.70 gm/ml
with an average value of 2.65 gm/ml as most of the mineral particles are constituted of mainly
quartz, feldspars and other silicates whose densities also vary within the same limits. If the soil
contains high amounts of organic matter or heavy minerals such as magnetite, garnet, epidote
etc., the bulk density may be less than the lower limit or more than the higher limit respectively.
The particle density of soil does not vary due to the mechanical manipulations. For
determining particle density, the mass and volume of the soil solids have to be estimated.

The per cent pore space is an important soil physical property and indicates the soil
volume occupied by soil air or soil water. The total pore space is made up of micropores

20
(capillary pores) and macropores (non- capillary pores). The micropores hold water while
macropores are filled with water. In an ideal soil, the total pore space should be equally
distributed between the two types of pores.

The total pore space of a medium textured soil is around 50%. Sandy soils have lower
porosity while clay and organic soils have higher porosities. Subsoils have lower pore space than
the surface soils due to compaction. In a coarse textured soil, the proportion of micropores is
greater.

A) Cylinder method
Principle
The bulk density and percent pore space are determined from the apparent and true
volumes of the soil measured by adding a known quantity of water to a measuring cylinder
containing a weighed quantity of soil.

Materials required
i) Measuring cylinder (100 mL) with glass stopper
ii) Chemical balance or Electronic balance

Procedure

 Weigh exactly 20 g of soil sample and transfer in small quantities at a time to a 100 mL
measuring cylinder with glass stopper by gently tapping the cylinder. After completely
transferring the soil, note the volume.

 Add a known volume of water (50 mL) along the sides of the cylinder using pipette till
the entire soil mass is completely soaked.

 There should be atleast 5 mL of water above the soil surface after the addition of water.

 Care should be taken to see that the final volume of soil and water is below 100 mL
mark.

 Keep the cylinder with soil and water in an undisturbed condition for at least 30 minutes
so that the entire pore space is completely filled with water.

21
  Note the final volume of soil plus water after the expiry of time and calculate the
percentage of bulk density, particle density and pore space.

Calculation

Weight of the soil taken = W (20) g

Volume of the soil taken = V1 mL
Volume of water added = V2 mL
Volume of soil + water = V1 + V2 mL
Volume of soil water at the end} = V3 mL
of experiment
Pore space volume = V1 + V2 -V3 mL

V1 + V2 -V3
Per cent pore space = x 100
V1
Weight of soil
Bulk density W/V1 = Mg m-3
Volume of soil

W Mg m-3
Particle density =
V1 – Pore space volume

Result
Inference
Assignment
1. Arrange the following soils in the order of increasing bulk density
Sandy soil, clay loam, clay and sandy loam.

B) Wax coating method

Principle

A soil clod of known weight is coated with wax and immersed in a known volume of
water and from the volume thus arrived at, the bulk density is determined.

22
Materials required
i) Balance ii) 250 mL measuring cylinder iii) Twine iv) Wax

Procedure
 Take a small clod from the field, the bulk density of which is to be determined and note
its weight (Wg).
 Then tie the clod with a twine. Immerse the clod in melted wax so that there is a complete
coating of the clod with wax.
 Take a known volume of water (150ml) in a 250 mL measuring cylinder. Immerse the
wax-coated clod in the water and note the rise in volume of water in the cylinder.
 Calculate the bulk density of the clod from the weight and volume of the cold.

Calculation

Weight of the clod = W g

Initial water level in the cylinder = V1 mL
Final water level in the cylinder after
Immersing the clod = V2 mL
Volume of the clod = (V2 – V1) =VmL

W
Bulk density of the soil = M g m-3
V
Result

Assignment
1. State the reasons for coating the clod with wax

C) Core sampler method

Principle

Volume of undisturbed soil core from the field is determined and the mass per unit
volume is calculated.

Materials required

23
 1. Core sampler 2. Spade 3.Crow bar 4. Balance
5. Aluminum box 6. Hot air oven 7. Knife

Procedure
 Drive a core sampler into the soil gently with the help of a hammer so that the entire ring
goes into the soil.
 Remove the soil surrounding the ring with the help of a spade. Remove the core sampler
with the soil intact by using a crow bar.
 Remove the excess soil on both sides of the ring gently using a sharp knife.
 Transfer the soil in the ring to an aluminum box and dry it in an oven at 105C for at least
24 hours.
 Then cool the sample in a desiccator and record the weight.
 Calculate the volume of the ring from the height and diameter and calculate the bulk
density of the soil.

Calculation

Volume of the ring (V) =  r2 h cc

Where ‘r’ is the radius and ‘h’ is height of the ring
Weight of oven dry soil = Wg
W
Bulk density of the soil = g/cc
V

Result

Inference

Assignment

1. Compare the bulk density obtained by different methods and discuss

24
Ex.No.5 Date:

SOIL TEXTURAL ANALYSIS BY FEEL METHOD

Principle

Texture is defined as the fineness or coarseness of the soil and varies with the relative
proportions of soil particles of varying sizes. Based on the size of the individual particles, they
are classified as gravel, sand, silt and clay. As clay particles are very small in size, they are not
visible to the naked eye while sand particles can be visually observed. The following are some of
the characteristics used for classifying soils into different textural class.

Name of the Diameter (mm) Visibility Feel by finger Minerals

particle
Coarse sand 2.00- 0.20 Naked eye Very gritty Primary minerals
Fine sand 0.20- 0.02 Naked eye Gritty Primary minerals
Silt 0.02- 0.002 Ordinary Flour like Primary and
microscope Secondary
Clay <0.002 Electron Very sticky Mostly
microscope Secondary

The texture of soil is determined qualitatively by the field or feel method and
quantitatively by the hydrometer or International pipette method.

Field method (Feel method)

This method provides an approximate estimation of the texture but in the hands of an
experienced worker, the results by this method will be as good as any other laboratory method.

Procedure

Moisten a small quantity of dry soil with water and mix it thoroughly on a glass or
porcelain dish so that a soft ball is formed. Then work it further until stiff, and squeeze it
between the thumb and forefingers. Press the thumb forward gradually forming the soil into a
ribbon. By observing the feel of the fingers, ease of forming a ball, stickiness or grittiness and

25
whether the soil formed a ribbon or merely crumbles on squeezing, the soil can be classified. The
important characters of certain classes are listed below:

Determination of Soil texture (feel method)

Textural
Feel of fingers Ball formation Stickiness Ribbon formation
class

Does not form ball Does not stain

Sand Very gritty No
fingers

Forms very easily stains fingers

Loamy sand Very gritty broken ball slightly No
[[

Forms fairly firm

ball but is easily Definitely stains
Sandy loam Moderately gritty No
broken fingers

Neither very gritty

Definitely stains
Loam nor very smooth Forms firm ball No
fingers
[[

Slight tendency to
Smooth or slick Definitely stains
Silt loam Forms firm ball ribbon with flaky
‘buttery’ feel fingers
surface
[[

Ribbons come out

Slightly gritty and Forms Moderately Definitely stains
Clay loam on squeezing but
sticky feel hard ball when dry fingers
ribbon breaks easily
Shows some
Silty clay Forms Moderately Stains fingers flaking on ribbon
Very smooth
loam hard ball when dry surface similar to
silt loam
Forms hard ball Squeezes out at
which when dry right moisture into
Clay Very smooth cannot be crushed Stains heavily long (2 to 5cm)
by fingers ribbons

26
Ex.No.6&7 Date:

SOIL TEXTURAL ANALYSIS BY INTERNATIONAL PIPETTE

METHOD (OR) ROBINSON’S PIPETTE METHOD

Principle

The mechanical composition of the soils is assessed in the laboratory by either of the
following Methods: a. Hydrometer method b. International pipette method. The hydrometer
method is quick and fairly accurate for many purposes. The International method gives very
accurate values of each of the soil separates and is useful for most of the fundamental studies but
at the same time cumbersome and time consuming.

This method is based on Stokes’ law. According to this law the rate of fall of a particle in
liquid is directly proportional to the square of its radius. V  r2

V = 2 / 9 g r2 (dp-d) / n

Where

V = sedimentation velocity in cm/sec

g = acceleration due to gravity cm/sec2

r = radius of the particle or sphere (cm)

dp = density of the particle (g/cc)

d = density of the liquid (g/cc)

n = viscosity of the liquid

The soil is first dispersed by destroying the binding agents with hydrogen peroxide and
hydrochloric acid followed by treatment with a dispersing agent. Clay and silt are separated by
sedimentation and coarse and fine sand by sieving.

27
Materials required
i. 1000 mL spoutless measuring ii. Filter stand iii. 500 mL beaker
cylinder
iv. Filter paper Whatman No.50 v. Funnel (7.5 cm) vi. Mechanical stirrer

vii. Rubber stopper for the cylinder viii. Stop clock ix. Water bath
x. 150 mL measuring cylinder xi. Chemical balance xii.
xiii. Tall form beaker

xiv. Robinson pipette xv. Hot air oven xvi. Porcelain

xvii. dish/basin
xviii. 6 % Hydrogen peroxide xix. N/5 HCl xx. Normal NaOH

Procedure

Transfer exactly 20 g of air dried soil sample to a 500 ml beaker. Add 60 ml of 6 per cent
hydrogen peroxide. Stir it well and keep it on a water bath for 30 minutes till frothing ceases.
Treatment with hydrogen peroxide is to destroy the organic matter which is binding soil
particles. Hydrogen peroxide treatment is not necessary when the organic matter content of the
soil is negligible. Then add 200 ml of N/5 HCl, stir it well and keep it over night. Hydrochloric
acid is added to destroy CaCO3 which is also binding agent.
Filter the contents through what man No.50 filter paper and wash it with water till the
filtrate runs free of chloride (collect about 10 mL of the filtrate in a test tube and add 2-3 drops of
silver nitrate solution. Formation of curdy white precipitate indicates the presence of chloride).
When the filtrate runs free of chloride, transfer the soil material from the filter paper to another
500 ml beaker and add about 400 ml water. Then add 8 ml of normal sodium hydroxide and stir
it well for 10 minutes with a mechanical stirrer. Transfer the contents to a 1000 ml spout less
measuring cylinder and make up to 1000 ml mark with water. Cover the cylinder tightly with a
rubber stopper and shake the contents thoroughly by repeated inversions holding the rubber
stopper tightly so as to avoid spilling of the soil water suspension.
Clay and silt
Remove the rubber stopper and place the cylinder under Robinson pipette and start a stop
clock simultaneously. Note down the temperature and the settling time for clay plus silt from the
table. Till the settling time is over do not disturb the suspension. First lower the pipette in such a
way that the tip of the pipette just touches the surface of the suspension. At the end of the

28
stipulated settling time for clay and silt, lower the pipette to 10 cm depth and draw 20 mL
suspension and deliver it to a weighed clean porcelain dish. This suspension contains clay plus
silt. Evaporate this first by keeping in on a water bath and dry it in an air oven at 105C. Cool it
in a desiccator and determine the weight of clay plus silt and calculate the percent.
Clay alone
Shake the contents of the cylinder well and allow undisturbed till the stipulated settling
time for clay alone corresponding to the suspension temperature. Withdraw 20 mL of the
suspension at the end of the period as done in the case of clay plus silt and determine the weight
as clay alone after evaporating and drying.
Coarse sand and fine sand
Pour out major portion of the suspension from the cylinder after withdrawing sample for
clay alone. While pouring out care should be taken to see that no sand fraction is lost. Then wash
the sediment with water and transfer the contents to a tall form beaker. Add water to a height of
more than 10 cm. Stir well and allow it to stand for 4 minutes. Then pour off the supernatant
liquid. Repeat this process till the water poured off is no longer turbid. Transfer the residue to a
porcelain basin, dry it in an oven and weigh as coarse sand plus fine sand. Sieve the coarse sand
and fine sand in a seventy mesh sieve. The material passing through the sieve will be fine sand
while the coarse sand fraction will be retained on the sieve. Weigh it as coarse sand.
Calculation
Clay + Silt
Weight of soil taken = 20 g
Volume of suspension = 1000 mL
Volume of suspension pipetted out = 20 mL
Weight of empty porcelain dish = ag
Weight of silt + clay + dish + NaOH = bg
Weight of clay + silt + NaOH = (b-a) g
Weight of NaOH alone
(Present in 20 mL of suspension) = 0.0064 g
Weight of clay + silt alone = b - (a + 0.0064) g
1000 100
Per cent clay + silt = b-(a + 0.0064) x x
20 20

29
 Per cent clay + silt =
Clay alone

Weight of empty porcelain dish = pg

Weight of dish + clay + NaOH = qg
Weight of clay + NaOH = (q-p) g
Weight of clay alone = q - (p + 0.0064) g
Weight of NaOH alone (in 20 mL of suspension) = 0.0064 g

1000 100
Per cent clay = q – (p + 0.0064) x x
20 20

Per cent silt = (Per cent clay + silt) – (Per cent Clay)

Per cent clay =

Per cent silt =

Coarse sand + fine sand

Weight of porcelain basin = xg

Weight of dish + coarse sand + fine sand = yg
Weight of coarse sand + fine sand alone = y-xg
100
Per cent coarse sand + fine sand = (y – x) x
20

Coarse sand alone

Weight of porcelain basin = cg

Weight of basin + coarse sand = dg
Weight of coarse sand alone = (d-c) g
100
Per cent coarse sand = (d – c) x
20

Per cent fine sand = (Per cent coarse sand + fine sand) –
(Percent coarse sand)
Per cent coarse sand =

30
 Per cent fine sand =

Result
Per cent soil fraction Texture
Sand Silt Clay

Inference
Assignment
1. What is the role of sodium hydroxide in the above estimation?
2. List out the soil textural classes as per the USDA system.

Sedimentation time for clay and silt fractions

(Depth of sedimentation - 10 cm)

Sedimentation Time for Clay

Sedimentation Time for Clay + silt
Temperature( C) alone
Hrs Min Min Sec

8 11 --- 6 40

9 10 40 6 30

10 10 25 6 20

11 10 10 6 10

12 9 60 6 01

13 9 35 5 50

14 9 20 5 40

15 9 05 5 30

16 8 50 5 20

17 8 35 5 10

18 8 25 5 05

31
 19 8 10 5 0

20 8 0 4 48

21 7 50 4 40

22 7 40 4 30

23 7 25 4 30

24 7 15 4 20

25 7 05 4 15

26 6 55 4 10

27 6 45 4 05

28 6 40 4 0

29 6 30 3 55

30 6 20 3 50

31 6 15 3 45

32 6 05 3 40

33 5 55 3 35

Triangular textural diagram

After computing the relative percentage of different size groups namely clay, silt and
sand the textural class of the soil can be determined by using the triangular textural diagram
given by the United States Department of Agriculture. The left angle in the triangle represents
100% sand while the right and top angles represent 100% silt and 100% clay respectively.

While using this diagram the points corresponding to the percentage of clay, silt and sand
present in the soil under consideration are located on the clay, silt and sand lines, respectively.
Lines are then projected inward. Parallel in the first case to the sand side of the triangle and in

32
the second case parallel to the clay side and in the third case parallel to the silt side. The name of
the compartment in which the three lines intersect is the textural name of the soil.

Example: Name the textural class of the soil, which contains 30% clay, 50% silt and 20% sand

a. Take the point on the percent clay at 30 and draw a line parallel to the base of the triangle
(sand side).

b. Take a point on percent silt at 50 and draw a line parallel to the left side of the triangle
(per cent clay side).

c. Take a point on percent sand at 20 and draw a line parallel to the right side of the triangle
(per cent silt side).

The name of the compartment at which these 3 lines meet is the textural name of the soil. In
the present case it is silty clay loam.

Fig. Textural triangle showing the contents of sand, silt and clay (%) in the major soil
textural classes

33
Ex.No.8 Date:
DETERMINATION OF SOIL COLOUR

Colour is produced by the spectral reflectance of light by the soil. It is an indirect

measure of many important soil properties.
Munsell colour chart is used for measuring soil colour. The Munsell colour chart
consists of 196 different coloured chips systematically arranged according to the Munsell
notation, on cards. The three variables of colour are Hue, Value and Chroma.
Hue is the dominant spectral colour. In the colour chart hue is arranged radially from one
card to next. The symbol is the letter of abbreviation of colour of rainbow. R stands for red, YR
for yellow red, and Y for yellow preceded by numbers from 0-10.
Value is the intensity of light. The notation for value consists of numbers from 0 for
absolute black to 10 for absolute white. Value is vertically arranged in the colour chart. The
colour becomes successively lighter from the bottom of the card to the top and the value
increases. Numbers ranging above 5 while numbers below 5 indicates dark colours indicates
lighter colours.
Chroma is the relative purity of light. The notation for chroma consists of numbers
beginning at zero for gray and increases with decreasing grayness. In writing the Munsell
notation, the order is hue, value and chroma with a space between the hue letter and the value
number and a virgule between the two numbers for value and chroma. For e.g. in 10YR 5/6
(10YR is hue, 5 is the value and 6 is the chroma).
The colour of the soil is determined by holding the soil sample below the colour chip
being compared. The colour is determined, under dry and moist conditions. If the soil is moist
indicate the same by letter ‘M’ after the colour notation. Eg . 10YR 5/6 M. If the soil sample has
more than one distinct colour, then both the colours are recorded.
The nomenclature for soil colour consists of two complementary system viz., Munsell colour
name and Munsell notation of the colour, the former for describing the soil and the latter for the
purposes of international soil correlation.
S. No Soil Condition Munsell colour notation Munsell colour name

34
 1. Dry
2. Moist

Result
Ex.No.9 Date:

DETERMINATION OF SOIL MOISTURE BY GRAVIMETRIC AND GYPSUM

BLOCK METHODS

The principal methods of expressing soil moisture

1. Amount of water in a given amount / volume of soil

2. The stress of tension under which the water is held by the soil

Expressing the amount of soil moisture

The amount of moisture held by a given mass or volume of soil can be expressed as
weight or volume basis in percentage. Soil moisture on weight basis is based on the dry weight
of the sample.

Weight of moisture sample−Weight of oven dry sample

Soil moisture % by weight = x 100
Weight of oven dry sample

Soil moisture % by volume =

Wt . of moisture sample−Wt . of oven dry sample
x 100 x Bulk Density
Weight of oven dry sample

A) BY GRAVIMETRIC METHOD
Principle

Soil moisture content is determined by drying a known quantity of soil sample in an

electric oven at 105C to 110C and finding out the loss in weight.
Materials required

i) Moisture bottle / aluminum box ii) Chemical balance/top pan balance

iii) Desiccator
Procedure

35
 Place a clean and empty moisture bottle or aluminum box with lid separately in an
electric oven and keep it at 105C for 15 minutes. Replace the stopper or lid, remove the
moisture bottle or aluminum box, cool in a desiccator, weigh accurately and record the weight.
Fill the moisture bottle or aluminum box to about two third of its capacity with soil sample.
Close with stopper / lid and weigh quickly. Remove the stopper / lid and keep it in the oven at
105C for about 8 hours. After the expiry of time, remove the moisture bottle / aluminum box,
cool it in a desiccator and weigh quickly. Calculate the loss in weight and express the moisture
content on oven dry basis.

Calculation

Weight of empty moisture bottle = a g

Weight of the moisture bottle +

moist soil sample = b g

Weight of the moisture bottle + soil = c g

sample after drying in the oven

Weight of moisture in the soil = (b - c) g

Percentage of moisture in the soil (b - c)

= x 100
sample on oven dry basis (c - a)

Result

Percentage of moisture in the given soil =

Assignment

1. List out the desiccants used in the desiccator

2. Why the soil samples should be dried for 8 hours at 105º C for moisture estimation?

B) ESTIMATION OF SOIL MOISTURE BY GYPSUM BLOCK

Principle

36
  Resistance block works on the principle of conductivity of electricity.
 When two electrodes A and B are placed parallel to each other in a medium and when
electric current is passed, the resistance to the flow of electricity is proportional to the
moisture content in the medium. Thus, when the block is wet, conductivity is high and
the resistance is low.

 Through this method, the percentage of moisture from the field capacity to the wilting
percentage can be easily measured.

 The readings at fields capacity varies from 400-600 ohms and 50000 to 75000 ohms at
wilting point. The readings are taken with a portable wheat stone bridge operated by dry
cells.

Installation of gypsum blocks

Materials required

1. Gypsum or nylon blocks 2. A post hole auger

Procedure

 Calibrate the resistance blocks

 Sink a bore with a post hole auger to the desired depth.
 Place the blocks inside and fill back the bore in small depths by tampering the soil with a
metal rod.
 Ensure an intimate contact of the block with the soil.
 There should not be any root pieces, pebbles etc. near the blocks.
 Normally 4-5 blocks can be placed in one bore at a vertical interval of 30 cm.
 Heap the soil to a height of about 3 cm near the surface at the bore spot to prevent any
water stagnation.
 Irrigate the field and record the readings.
 Check the resistance reading at field capacity.
 Install the block in a row in between two plants.
 The resistance blocks read low resistance at field capacity and high resistance at wilting
point.

37
 Ex.No.10 Date :

DETERMINATION OF SOIL MOISTURE - TENSIOMETER, NEUTRON PROBE

MOISTURE METER & TIME DOMAIN REFLECTOMETRY

Soil Moisture Estimation by Tensiometers (Irrometers)

 A tensiometer measures soil moisture. It is an instrument designed to measure the tension

or suction that plants’ roots must exert to extract water from the soil. This tension is a
direct measure of the availability of water to a plant.
 Tensiometers are most useful when a crop’s water requirements are high and when any
stress due to water shortage is likely to damage crop potential.
 Tensiometers measure how tightly water is held to the soil particles and not how much
water is left in the soil. A sandy soil will reach a high tension sooner than a clay loam
because sandy soils cannot supply as much water to the plant and it is used up more
quickly.
 Tensiometers do not operate in dry soil because the pores in the ceramic tip drain and air
is sucked in through them breaking the vacuum seal between the soil and the gauge on
top of the tensiometer.

Principle

When the tensiometer is installed in soil, water moves into and out of the ceramic cup in
relation to the soil water tension. When water moves out of the cup into the soil, it creates a
vacuum in the tube which is measured in the gauge. When desired tension is reached the field is
irrigated.

Parts of a tensiometer

38
  Tensiometers are used to measure the soil moisture tension.
 It consists of a 7.5 cm long porcelain clay cup, a protective metallic tube, a vacuum
gauge and a hollow metallic tube holding all parts together.
 At the time of installation the system should be filled with water from the opening at the
top and closed with rubber cork.

Installation of a tensiometer

Materials required: A hollow pipe with a sharp edge, hammer, tensiometer and
coloured stakes.

Procedure

1. Select the spot for installation.

2. Bore a hole by driving a hollow pipe with sharp cutting edge in the soil by hammering it
to the desired depth.
3. Insert the tensiometer into the hole.
4. Compact the soil around the sten of the tensiometer.
5. Make a small heap so that water will not stagnate near the tensiometer
6. Take readings in the morning at 8.00 A.M.
7. Record the readings frequently so that the difference between two consecutive readings is
not more than 10 centibars.
8. Plot the readings on a paper against days.

Recording the readings in a tensiometer

 Vacuum gauges are normally calibrated in kilopascals (from 0 to 100 kPa).

 Tensiometers operate successfully up to approximately 75 kPa. A reading of 0 kPa
indicates saturated soil in which plants will suffer from lack of oxygen.
 Optimum plant growth occurs when the soil is kept wetter than 30 to 40 kPa for coarse
textured soils (sands) and 50 to 60 kPa for medium-textured and heavy-textured soils.
 Readings in excess of 70 kPa indicate that the soil is dry enough to reduce growth .
 Usually a tensiometer installed in moist soil can be measured 24 hours later.
 Tensiometers need regular attention. Some air does enter through the ceramic tip and
sometimes through joins, particularly at high tension.

39
  The amount of air entering depends on the quality of the ceramic tip.
 At each reading the water level in the tensiometer must be checked; when air occupies
the top 20 - 40 mm of the tensiometer, water must be added.
 Ideally tensiometers are refilled after each measurement.

Soil Moisture Estimation by Neutron Moisture Meter

 The neutron moisture meter is a device to measure the soil moisture status (volumetric water
content) in situ without disturbing the soil system.

Principle

 Hydrogen nuclei have a property for scattering and slowing neutrons. The phenomenon
of the loss of maximum kinetic energy when neutron collide with hydrogen nuclei of
water forms the basis.
 Soil moisture can be estimated quickly and continuously another with neutron moisture
meter without disturbing the soil.
 Another advantage is that soil moisture can be estimated from large volume of soil. This
meter scans the soil to about 15 cm. diameter around the neutron probe in wet soil and 50
cm in dry soil. it consists of a probe and a scalar or rate meter.
 The probe contains fast neutron source, which may be a mixture of radium and beryllium
or Americium and beryllium.

40
  The scalar or the rate meter counts the number of slow neutrons, which are directly
proportional to water molecules. Moisture content of soil can be known from the
calibration curve with counts of slow neutrons.

Equipments and materials

1. Neutron source ( radium beryllium (5 MC) or americium beryllium (30 MC)

2. Shield for storage of the neutron source.
3. Detector of slow neutrons
4. Counting device (scaler)
5. Access tube (GI pipe of 50 mm diameter)

Procedure

 The access tube is first inserted into the soil after drilling a hole with the help of an auger.
 The access tube is kept few inches above the soil.
 Insert the neutron probe in the access tube at the desired depth.
 While making a measurement, turn on the scaler a few minutes earlier to warm up.
 Make several standardization counts with the probe in the shield without altering its
position. Then take readings at successive depth intervals.
 Divide readings by the standard reading to obtain a count ratio and refer to the instrument
calibration curve to obtain water content by volume at various depths.
 Cover the access tube with a lid after taking readings to avoid entry of water into the
tube.
 Limitations: The two drawbacks of the instruments are that it is expensive and moisture
content from shallow top layers cannot be estimated.
 The fast neutrons are also slowed down by other source of hydrogen (present in the
organic matter).
 Other atoms such as chlorine, boron and iron also slow down the fast neutrons, thus
overestimating the soil moisture content.

41
 Fig .Diagram of a neutron moisture gauge

Soil Moisture Estimation by Time Domain Reflectometry

New devices and methods are becoming available to growers every year. Two new
techniques for soil moisture determination are instruments using Time- Domain Reflectometry
(TDR probes) and Capacitance (C-Probes, Frequency-Domain Reflectometers).

42
  TDR instruments work on the principle that the presence of water in the soil affects the
speed of an electromagnetic wave (slows it down).
 The TDR sends an electromagnetic wave through a guide (usually a pair of parallel
metal spikes) placed into the ground at the desired depth.
 It then measures the time it takes the wave to travel down the guide and bounce back
(reflect back) up the guide.
 The time is recorded and converted to soil moisture. The wetter the soil, the longer it
takes for the electromagnetic wave to travel down the guide and reflect back.

Ex.No.11 Date:

DETERMINATION OF INFILTRATION RATE IN SOIL

(Double ring infiltrometer)

Infiltration refers to the downward entry of water into the soil and the rate at which it
occurs is called the infiltration rate or water intake rate. It is rapid in the beginning and decreases
with time and attains almost a steady value called “infiltration capacity” or “basic infiltration
rate”.

The infiltration rate is usually measured under field conditions and involves ponding of
water on the surface or sprinkling of water to stimulate the rain. There is no generally accepted
method suitable for all situations.

Apparatus

Two metal rings : Inner ring or 30 cm diameter and 20 cm in height and a guard ring of
50 cm diameter and 20 cm in length. One edge of the rings should be sharp so as to facilitate
easy penetration into the soil.

Dividing plate: Steel plate 1.25 cm thick and 60 cm in diameter with legs to keep the
plate on the rings. Hammer, water, spade.

Procedure

43
 Drive the inner and guard rings in the soil by hammering on the driving plate placed on
the rings until the top 10 cm of the rings remain above the soil surface. Place a gunny bag piece
on the soil surface inside the inner ring and pour water both inside and outside the ring so that
the water is ponded to a depth of 6 cm. There should not be any puddling of a soil during the
addition of water. Both the rings should be pushed to the same depth in the soil and also the
water inside and outside the inner ring should be approximately at the same level.

Record the initial level and continue recording the receding water level after suitable
intervals. Note the observations after 2, 5, 20, 25, 30, 60, 90, and 120 minutes after infiltration
has commenced. Note the depth of water infiltration (mm) and the rate of infiltration.

Classification of soil on the basis of infiltration rate

Very rapid >25.4 cm/ hour

Rapid 12.7 - 25.4 cm/ hour

Moderately rapid 6.3 - 12.7 cm/ hour

Moderate 2.0 - 6.3 cm/ hour

Moderately slow 0.5 - 2.0 cm/ hour

Slow 0.1 - 0.5 cm/ hour

Very slow <0.1 cm/ hour

\
Calculation

Time (minutes) Water level (cm) T (min) H (cm)

T0 T1 H0 H1

Infiltration rate (IR) = H (average) / Time (average)

44
Infiltration rate per hour = (IR / T) * 60

= X cm/hr

Result

The infiltration rate of given soil = cm/hr

45
Ex.No.12 Date:

DETERMINATION OF HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY IN SOIL

Principle
The rate of flow of a liquid through a porous medium depends on the size, distribution of
the pores and temperature of the liquid, which is indexed as hydraulic conductivity. In saturated
soil it is directly related to permeability of the porous medium. Using a constant head of water,
water is passed through the soil column and the conductivity of water per unit time is calculated
using the Darcy’s equation.

Materials required

(i). Constant head water supply unit, (ii). Hydraulic rings, (iii). Measuring cylinder and
(iv). Stop clock

Procedure
 Collect undisturbed soil core from the field by using core sampler.
 Shave off the excess soil from the cylinder that retains the sol core column.
 Cover the bottom portion of the sectional cylinder with a muslin cloth.
 Keep the samples in a tray containing water for overnight aturation.
 Place a filter paper on the surface of the soil to avoid the removal of soil particles.
 Connect the hydraulic rings over the saturated samples by means of wax coating or
rubber bands.
 Place the sample on a metal screen supported with an outflow unit.
 Fill up the constant head water supply unit and connect the discharge tube of constant
head to the hydraulic rings.
 Allow water to flow over the surface of the soil. Adjust the inflow and outflow rate of
water.
 Start the experiment after 15 to 30 minutes.
 Collect the outflow water that is passing through the soil column in a stipulated time.
(For sandy soil 5 minutes interval is sufficient whereas for clay or heavy textured soil
15-30 minutes interval is necessary).
 Repeat this to get constant values. The hydraulic conductivity is calculated using the
formula.
46
 + QL
 K= x 60 cm/hr.
¿^ ¿

Where Q = Quantity of water that flows out at a time interval or ‘t’ in ml.

L = Length of the soil column (7 cm) in cm.

H = Length of the hydraulic head in cm (7+2.5 = 9.5 cm)
A = Cross sectional area of the soil column in cm2
(= A=π r 2 , Where r = radius of the soil column)
T = Time in hours

The permeability of soil is calculated from the hydraulic conductivity using the
relationship.
K = dgk/n
where
d = Density of the fluid
g = Gravitational acceleration
K = Hydraulic conductivity
n = Viscosity of the fluid

Calculation

The rate of flow of a liquid in a saturated soil column follows Darcy’s law;
QL
K = ----------
AT
Where,
K = Rate of flow of water (cm / hr)
Q = Quantity of water collected (ml)
L = Length of soil column (cm)
H = Hydraulic head (cm)
A = Cross sectional area of the cylinder
T = Time interval (minutes)
Result
The hydraulic conductivity of the given soil sample = cm / hr

47
 Ex.No.13 Date:

DETERMINATION OF SOIL pH and EC

The pH is defined as the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration or simply the
log of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration (Sorenson, 1906).

pH = -log (H+) = log 1/(H+)

Principle
A glass electrode in contact with H ions of the solution acquires an electric potential
which depends on the concentration of H ions. This is measured potentiometrically against some
reference electrode which is usually a calomel electrode. The potential difference between glass
electrode and calomel electrode is expressed in pH units.

Two electrodes are used in the determination of pH. One is reference electrode which
provides a standard voltage. The reference electrode is usually a saturated calomel electrode
which has two layers (1) Saturated solution of KCl and (2) mixture of solid HgCl 2 and Hg. The
outer tube is usually 5-15 cm long, 0.5-1 cm in diameter. The mixture of solid HgCl 2 + Hg paste
is contained in an inner tube that is connected to the saturated KCl solution in the outer tube by
means of small opening. The resistance of this type of electrode is 2000-3000 ohms.

The outer electrode is glass electrode that consists of a tube enclosing a lead wire made
of Ag coated with AgCl. This wire is again enclosed in wax insulation. To the tube at the
bottom is attached a glass bulb made of a special kind of glass which is sensitive to H ions. The
thickness of the glass membrane varies from 0.03 to 0.1 mm and has a resistance of 50 to 500
mega ohms.

When these two electrodes are dipped in solution, the saturated solution of KCl comes
out of reference electrode through the small holes and forms an invisible ionic bridge between
electrodes through which current passes. The H ions are absorbed by glass electrode and
depending on the amount of H ions present in the solution, an electric potential develops
between electrodes. This potential difference is measured in terms of pH by suitable
galvanometer.

48
Materials required
1) pH meter 2) 100 mL beakers 3) Glass rod 4) Buffer solution (pH 4.0, 7.0 and
9.2)
Procedure
Standardization of pH meter

 Switch on the instrument and allow it to warm for 10 minutes

 Keep the pH selector switch on zero position
 Set the temperature compensation control to the solution temperature
 Adjust the zero adjustment knob so that the pointer in the meter reads exactly zero,
when the electrodes are immersed in distilled water.
 Lift the electrodes from distilled water and wipe it dry using filter paper and dip
them in standard buffer solution of known pH (4.0, 7.0 and 9.2)
 Change the function switch to particular pH ranges (0-7 or 7-14) and adjusts the
standardization knob till the pointer reads the correct pH value of the buffer solution.
Do not disturb the zero knob adjustment.
pH measurement

 Weigh 20 g of air dry soil passed through 2 mm sieve and transfer to a clean 100 mL
beaker
 Add 50 mL of distilled water
 Using glass rod, stir the content intermittently and allow it to stand for half an hour.
 Wash the electrodes carefully with a jet of distilled water and wipe it dry with a piece
of filter paper.
 Stir the soil suspension again just before taking the reading.
 Immerse the electrodes into the beaker containing soil water suspension and change
the function switch to the particular pH range.
 Record the meter reading.

Result
Assignment
1. Enlist the pH of the following

49
 1). Stomach acid (2). Lemon juice (3). Milk (4). Rain water (5). Pure water

Determination of Electrical Conductivity in Soil

The electrical conductivity (EC) measurement gives the total amount of soluble salts
present in the soil and is expressed as millimhos/cm or dSm-1

Principle

As the amount of the soluble salts in a solution increases the electrical conductivity also
increases. This electrical conductivity is measured in terms of the resistance offered to the flow
of current using a conductivity bridge.

It is known that solutions offer some resistance to the passage of electric current through
them, depending upon the concentration of salts present. Hence EC is measured in terms of
Electrical resistance between parallel electrodes immersed in the soil suspension of water. In
such a system, the solution between the electrodes becomes the electrical conductor to which the
physical laws relating to resistance are applicable. The electrical resistance “R” is directly
proportional to the distance “L” between the electrodes and inversely proportional to the cross
sectional area “A” of the conductor.

Hence R = L/ A or R= r x L/ A

Where r = proportionality constant known as electrical resistivity

If L = 1 cm and A = 1 cm2 then R = r.

Where is called specific resistivity. Hence specific resistance is the resistance of a

conductor 1 cm in length and 1 cm2 in area.

Higher the salt content, higher the passage of current and lesser the resistance to the flow
of the current. Hence the reciprocal of specific resistivity is called as specific conductivity.
Therefore specific conductivity is defined as the conductivity of a solution enclosed in a cell
whose electrodes are exactly 1 cm and possess a surface area of 1 cm 2. The resistance is
expressed as ohms/cm and the conductivity is expressed in reciprocal ohms or mhos per cm. It is
not possible to make a conductivity bridge having electrodes 1 sq.cm. in area and place exactly 1

50
cm apart. Hence, the factor called the cell constant is determined for the given cell. Modern
conductivity meters are calibrated to read directly the electrical conductance with given cell.

Materials required

1). Conductivity bridge 2). 100 mL beaker 3). Glass rod

4). 0.1 N KCl solution 5). Saturated CaSO4 solution

Procedure

Switch on the conductivity bridge and wait for 10 minutes. Check the instrument, with
saturated CaSO4 solution and 0.1 N KCl solutions. The EC of CaSO4 and KCl solutions should
be 2.2 dSm-1and 1.41 dSm-1 respectively.

Use the same soil water suspension used for measuring pH for the determination of EC.
Stir the contents and allow the soil to settle for 15 minutes. Wash the electrodes carefully and
immerse them into soil solution. Adjust the temperature correction. Adjust the meter knob until
the magic eye of the null indicator is at the widest in width. The readings on the scale at this
position indicate the electrical conductivity. Multiply this by the cell constant (noted on the cell
itself) to get specific conductivity.

Result

Assignment

1. What is the EC of sea water?

2. Soil/ water of high pH need not have high EC values. Justify?

51
Ex.No.14 Date:

ESTIMATION OF SOIL ORGANIC CARBON

( Walkley and Black, 1934 )

Chromic acid wet digestion method

Principle

Organic carbon present in organic matter is oxidized by chromic acid (K 2Cr2O7) in the
presence of concentrated H2SO4. Potassium dichromate on reaction with H 2SO4 provides nascent
oxygen, which combines with carbon and forms CO 2. The H2SO4 enables easy digestion of
organic matter by rendering heat of dilution. Only a certain quantity of chromic acid is used for
oxidation. The excess chromic acid left unused by the organic matter is determined by back
titration with 0.5 N ferrous sulphate or ferrous ammonium sulphate using diphenylamine
indicator.

2 K2Cr2O7 + 8 H2SO4 2K2SO4 + 2Cr2(SO4)3+8H2O+6(O)

3C + 6(O) 3CO2
Reagents
1. 1N Potassium dichromate 2. Concentrated H2SO4

3. 0.5 N Ferrous sulphate or Ferrous ammonium sulphate

4.Phosphoric acid (Ortho phosphoric acid 85%) 5. Diphenylamine indicator

Procedure

Weigh exactly 0.5 g of soil (passed through 0.5 mm sieve) and transfer it to a 500 mL
conical flask. Add 10 mL of 1N K2Cr2O7 and mix well by swirling the flask. Then add 20 mL of
concentrated H2SO4 and mix by gentle rotation for one minute to ensure complete contact of the
reagent with the soil. Run a blank also simultaneously. Allow the contents to stand for 20 to 30
minutes. Keep the flask preferably on an asbestos sheet to avoid burning of table due to intense
heat. Add 200 mL of distilled water to dilute the solution. Add 10 mL of ortho phosphoric acid
and 1 mL of diphenylamine indicator. Titrate the solution with 0.5 N ferrous ammonium
sulphate. The colour is dull green at the beginning and then shifts to a turbid blue as the titration

52
proceeds. The end point is very sharp. At the end, the colour sharply shifts to a bright green
colour.

Calculation

Weight of soil taken = 0.5 g

Volume of 1 N K2Cr2O7 used = 10 mL

Volume of 0.5 N Ferrous ammonium

sulphate used for blank titration = X mL

Volume of 0.5 N Ferrous ammonium

sulphate used for sample titration = Y mL

X mL of FeSO4 reduces = 10 mL of 1 N K2Cr2O7

Therefore Y mL of FeSO4 reduces = Y/X x 10 mL

Hence actual quantity of 1N K2Cr2O7

used for oxidation of organic matter = 10-(10 x Y/X) mL

1 mL of 1N K2Cr2O7 = 0.003 g of ‘C’

Therefore 10-(10 x Y/X) mL of 1N K2Cr2O7 = 10-(10 x Y/X) x 0.003 g of ‘C’

This is present in 0.5 g of soil

Therefore in 100g = 10-(10 x Y/X) x 0.003 x 100/0.5

Organic matter (surface soil) = Organic carbon x 1.724

Organic matter (sub surface soil) = Organic carbon x 2.5

Rating
Organic carbon (%) Rating
Less than 0.50 Low
0.50 - 0.75 Medium
More than 0.75 High

Result
Assignment

53
1. For conversion of organic carbon to organic matter why the factor of 1.724 is used?.

2. What is the role of orthophosphoric acid in organic carbon estimation?

54
 Ex.No.15 Date:

COLLOQUIUM I. CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL – TOTAL

ELEMENTAL COMPOSITION – RELEVANCE IN SOIL PROPERTIES &
BEHAVIOUR

The earth’s mantle contributes mineral matter, while organisms introduce an organic
matter component into soils, giving the two broad classes of materials which make up the solid
phases of soils- mineral and organic matter. Varying proportions of mineral matter are present in
the various soils, ranging in amount up to over 99 per cent in sandy soils and 95 to 97 per cent in
many productive soils of intermediate texture. The mineral portion drops to about 92 per cent in
well-drained dark-colored soils, and drops down into the range of 80 to 60 per cent in many
poorly drained soils.

According to Clarke the abundance of elements in the earth’s crust 10 miles thick
decreases in the order: O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, Mg, Ti, P, Mn, S, Cl, and C. Only the eight
elements O, Si, Al Fe, Ca, Mg, Na, and K surpass 1 per cent in the average composition of
earth’s crust. The eleven elements Ti, H, P, Mn, F, S, Sr, Ba, C, Cl, and Cr constitute on the
order of 0.2 to 1 per cent each; each of the other elements makes up less than 0.2 per cent. One
element, oxygen, makes up over 90 per cent by volume of the earth’s crust. Of the elemental
composition of the earth’s crust, SiO2 makes up 59 per cent and Al 2O3, 15 per cent, and similar
percentages of these constituents are present in many sediments and soils.

The bulk of the inorganic material of soils consists of the four elements oxygen, silicon,
aluminum, and iron, much as in the earth’s crust. At least 90 per cent of the mineral matter of
most soils consists of the combined oxides of silicon, aluminum and iron. Calcareous soils
contain as high as 20 to 50 per cent CaCO 3 at certain depths. The proportions of these and other
constituents are greatly changed by chemical weathering and leaching, and this is markedly
reflected in the composition of the fine fractions of the illuvial or B horizons. Oxides or iron,
aluminum, and titanium increase markedly even on a whole soil basis.

55
 The oxides of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium each make up about 1 to 2 per
cent, and the total of these oxides constitute about 5 to 7 per cent of many soils of the humid
region. The oxides of manganese, phosphorus, and sulfur generally make up fractions of a per
cent of the mineral soil components.

Mineral elements found in the ash or organic soil include quantities of Si, Al, Fe, Ti, Na,
and K, which are not too far from those in mineral soils. The Ca and Mg increase considerably,
as do SO3, P2O5, and CO2.

Silicon

The silicon content, expressed as percentage of SiO2, makes up the bulk of mineral soils.
The SiO2 content ranges from 50 to 70 per cent of many soils. In sandy soils the SiO 2 content
rises as in sandstone. The silicon percentage is decreased by dilution with organic matter in
organic soils and in the A1 horizon of others and is sometimes diluted by CaCO3 as in marl.

Silicon is depleted from many soils in humid tropical soils in humid tropical soils which
have been subjected to intensive weathering and leaching.

Aluminum

After oxygen and silicon, aluminum is the most abundant element in the earth’s crust and
in the majority of rocks and soils. The aluminum content of soils, expressed on the basis of
Al2O3, frequently is in the range of 2 to 12 per cent. The content ranges up to 20 to 60 per cent in
highly weathered soils and laterites. Aluminum occurs mainly in the alumino silicate minerals,
feldspars, amphiboles, pyroxenes, and layer silicates.

As silicon is depleted and aluminum is enriched, the molar ratio, SiO 2/ Al2O3 in soil
colloids falls from over 4 in colloids high in layer silicate to less than 1 in colloids high in
allophone.

Iron

The iron content, expressed as percentage of Fe 2O3, makes up 1 to 6 per cent of many
soils. Iron is subject to increase in concentration through soil development processes, as reflected
by contents of 10 to 15 per cent in many soil colloids. In Latosols and Laterites, the Fe 2O3
content is frequently 20 to 80 per cent.

56
 High stability of soil aggregates and high soil porosity are usually associated with high
iron oxide contents. Under poor drainage the iron becomes reduced and in the presence of
organic matter is frequently mobilized.

The principal form of iron in soils is generally as hydrous oxide, but iron freely enters the
2:1 and 2:2 layer silicate structures of soils, including biotite, vermiculite, and montmorillonite.
Smaller percentages of iron occur in soils as pyroxenes and amphiboles.

Titanium

The titanium content, expressed as TiO 2, characteristically makes up 0.2 to 1 per cent in
many soils of temperate regions. The titanium of soils occurs primarily as fine-gained crystals of
free TiO2 (rutile and anatase) and FeTiO3 (ilmenite).

Since titanium oxide minerals are relatively resistant to weathering, the titanium content
of soils tends to increase as other elements are leached away. The TiO 2 content of highly
weathered soils tends to run 2 per cent or more on a dry- soil basis. Not all latosols and laterites
are extremely high in TiO2.

Calcium

The calcium content, expressed as CaO, is generally in the low range of about 1 per cent
in soils except when calcium occurs in carbonate or sulfate form. Limestones average 43 per
cent. CaO. The decrease reflects the fact that carbonates and sulfates of calcium leach readily
from the upper horizons of well- drained soils except under arid climates.

Calcium carbonate occurs in many soils in lower horizons. This form of calcium is found
in soil horizons at lesser depths as one traverse from more humid to more arid regions. Younger
soils in the humid region may contain calcium carbonate, as calcite (CaCO 3) or dolomite
(MgCO3.CaCO3) inherited from the parent rock. Crystalline gypsum – CaSO 4.2H2O also is
accumulated in soils of semiarid to arid regions.

Magnesium

In well- leached soils, magnesium is found chiefly in mafic minerals, such as biotite,
augite, hornblende, and montmorillonite. The magnesium content of soils expressed as MgO
frequently is less than 1 per cent. In noncalcareous soils. Dolomite- CaCO 3. MgCO3, and Mg

57
substituted calcite (Ca, Mg) CO3 occur in substantial quantities in some soils, inherited from
parent rocks and formed pedogenically.

Potassium

The potassium content, expressed as K2O, ranges between 0.05 to 3.5 per cent for mineral
soils. Most of the agricultural soils of the United States contain amounts ranging from 1 to 2 per
cent or 20,000 to 40,000 parts per 2 million (pounds per acre in a 6-inch depth). On a percentage
basis, this is somewhat lower than the average content of potassium in igneous rocks but
somewhat higher than that in some sedimentary rocks. The distribution of potassium in soils is
related more to the conditions of weathering of the potash feldspars and micas than to the
composition of the parent rocks themselves. Sandy soils, such as those derived from coarse-
textured sediments in the Coastal Plain of south- eastern United States, the Cambrian sandstone-
derived soils of central Wisconsin, and the Oxisols and Ultisols of humid tropic areas, are
examples of soils low in potassium. On the other hand, soils containing large quantities of micas
and feldspars, and thus large percentages of potassium, have developed from shale-derived till .

The proportion of the total potassium in soils held in soluble and exchangeable forms is
usually relatively small. The majority of it resides in potassium – bearing feldspars and micas.
The high potassium primary silicate minerals are muscovite, biotite, orthoclase, and microcline;
but other micas, feldspars, and other minerals may contain substantial amounts of potassium. Of
the layer – silicate clays, only mica or illite has substantial potassium content.

Intensive cropping and removal or potassium in the humid region and on sandy soils
generally, results in the development of stunted growth of plants exhibiting potassium deficiency
symptoms. Application of water-soluble forms of fertilizer such as KCl and K 2SO4 is necessary
for intensive agriculture on such areas.

Sodium

The sodium content, expressed as Na2O, ranges from 0.1 to 1 per cent of many soils. This
is much smaller than the average of 3.7 per cent in the earth’s crust. The Na 2O content in
sedimentary rocks ranges from 1.3 per cent in shales to 0.4 per cent in sandstone and 0.05 per

58
cent in limestone. The decreases in Na2O content in soils and sedimentary rocks reflect
weathering away of sodium- bearing minerals, mainly plagioclase feldspars. The high sodium
content of ocean waters reflects the leaching of sodium from soil minerals.

The sodium in well-leached soils occurs in high-albite plagioclases and as small amounts
in micas, pyroxenes, and amphiboles, chiefly in the fine sand and silt fractions. Sodium occurs as
NaCl, Na2SO4, and sometimes as Na2CO3 and other soluble salts in saline and alkaline saline
soils. Sodic soils, containing exchangeable sodium on the order of 15 per cent or more of the
cation-exchange capacity, tend to disperse and develop adverse tillage properties.

Phosphorus

The phosphorus content of most mineral soils falls between 0.02 and 0.5 per cent P, and a
general average of 0.05 per cent (0.12 per cent P 2P5) frequently is representative of soils. About
half the soil phosphorus occurs in combination with organic matter of surface soils, and the
remainder occurs in mineral or inorganic combination.

Inorganic phosphorus occurs mainly as calcium phosphate in alkaline and calcareous

soils and many parent rocks from which soils are formed. The main calcium phosphate in soils is
fluorapatite – Ca10 (PO4)6F2. As weathering proceeds and acidity develops in soils, the phosphate
becomes increasingly bonded to aluminum and iron ions released from silicate minerals by
weathering.

Although the rates of transformations of soil phosphates are slow, the availability of the
different phosphates to plants is greatly affected by the ionic activities in the soil solution.
Calcium phosphate is highly unavailable at high soil pH values, usually accompanied by high
calcium activity. Iron and aluminum phosphates of acid soils become more available when the
soil pH is raised by liming, whereby the activity of iron and aluminum ions is lowered. The
extent to which the inorganic phosphate is exchangeable or occurs in forms with a high specific
surface appears to be closely correlated with plant growth and crop response to phosphate
fertilizer.

Molybdenum

The molybdenum content of soils generally ranges from 1 to 10 ppm but in certain soils it
may rise to 20 or 30 ppm or more. The element Mo occurs in soil mainly as MoO 4 ion and

59
undergoes fixation as basic iron and aluminum molybdates. Plant deficiencies in molybdenum
occur in soils low in this element. Plant contents of Mo may become sufficiently high as to
become toxic to animals when the level of available Mo in soil is high.

Nitrogen

The quantity of nitrogen in surface soils generally ranges from 0.02 to 0.25 per cent and
is closely related to the amount of soil organic matter of which N makes up approximately 5 per
cent. The nitrates, nitrites, and exchangeable ammonium, which are the forms available for plant
nutrition, make up less than 1 per cent of the total soil nitrogen content of mineral soils.

Sulfur

Sulfur is present in soils in both inorganic and organic forms. In well- leached surface
soils, much of the sulfur is combined with organic matter. Field soils of the humid temperate
region frequently have 50 to 500 ppm of water-soluble sulfates and 100 to 1500 ppm of total
sulfate. Sulfur is added to soils in many commercial fertilizers and in irrigation waters used for
croplands and greenhouse culture.

Selenium

Selenium, like other rarer elements, is found in trace amounts in most soils and in most
rocks. But crops grown on soils developed on certain geological formations which are
exceptionally high in selenium have excessive selenium content. Under conditions of limited
rainfall enough Se can be present in the crops grown on these soils to produce vegetation toxic to
livestock. Certain native plants are “accumulators” of Se and analysis of them may be used as a
guide to soil areas of excess selenium supply.

Boron

The total boron content of soils generally ranges from 4 to 98 ppm and may average
about 30 ppm. Acid- soluble boron is associated with the mica fraction of marine sediments and
mica-derived clays of soils. Extensive leaching of fine-textured desert soils may be required to
decrease the boron below toxic levels before crop production under irrigation can be carried out.

60
61