Various types of computers :-Computers have come a long way since the first computers were introduced in

the 1940s. From the massive mainframe computers to the smaller microcomputers of today, there have been
many technological changes, and it’s difficult to imagine a life without these gadgets today. // Various names are
used to refer to different types of computers, from mainframes to microcomputers. However, these terms refer to
the computer’s size, handling capabilities, use, or abilities. The four main types of computers include:
1)Supercomputers 2)Mainframe 3)Minicomputers 4)Microcomputers
Supercomputers :- A supercomputer is the fastest, largest, and most expensive type of computer that exists today.
It comprises either 10, 100, 1,000, or more computers working simultaneously. They are only designed for special
purposes that often require complex calculations, such as scientific research, weather forecasting, nuclear energy
research, and geological data analysis. // In 2023, the U.S. Department of Energy is set to roll out one of the largest
supercomputers, Aurora, which is worth about $500 million. The Aurora will process about a quintillion (2 60 or
1018) calculations in seconds. // The largest known supercomputers include (but are not limited to) Fugaku, which
is used in Japan for scientific research, and Sierra, which is by the National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA),
a U.S. federal agency, for nuclear weapons safety.
Mainframe Computers :- Mainframe computers are enormous (2,000 to 10,000 sq. ft.) and powerful computers
mainly used in the data centers of large enterprises and organizations. They are typically found in a dedicated
server room and can be accessed remotely by different users simultaneously. //Mainframes were invented in the
1950s and are capable of processing huge amounts of data (up to 30 billion transactions per day) quickly and
accurately. Mainframes have upgraded security, scalability, and dependability levels, making them ideal for vital
processes such as banking, government, or insurance. //Mainframe computers also control other systems, such as
air traffic control, satellite tracking, and military defense systems. Mainframes typically feature several CPUs,
interconnected to many other computers and gadgets to pool an even larger computing system.
Minicomputers :- Minicomputers are mid-sized computers, larger than microcomputers but smaller than
mainframes. These multi-processing systems are ideal for 5 to 300 people and are primarily used in small
businesses, colleges, research labs, and hospitals. //Minicomputers are cost-effective and deliver the
functionalities of a mainframe computer at a more affordable price. Minicomputers can process data from various
sources while handling large chunks of information. They are run by microprocessors and use operating
systems such as Unix, Linux, or Windows. //Minicomputers applications include networking, communication, data
processing and analysis, image processing, software development, and multimedia. Minicomputers can also store
huge volumes of data and are ideal for banking, inventory tracking, accounting, and office automation. Examples of
minicomputers include IBM AS/400 computers and the MV 1500.
Microcomputers :- Microcomputers are the smallest and most popular computer types. They are primarily used for
personal use or startup business computing. Microcomputers are typically equipped with various components,
such as a processor, memory, storage, and an operating system. The processor is responsible for executing
instructions, while the memory is used to store data and programs. //Microcomputers come in various sizes and
configurations, depending on their purpose. Examples include desktop computers, personal computers (PCs),
laptops, netbooks, and tablets. Desktops usually feature larger components than laptops, which are designed to be
more portable. Netbooks are lightweight, low-power versions of laptops that are ideal for casual computing tasks.
Tablets offer similar capabilities as netbooks in a much more compact form factor. //These computers’
affordability, portability, and wide range of applications make them the most popular choice for general computing
needs. They are suitable for various tasks, such as word processing, web browsing, streaming media, and gaming.
 What Is an IP Address :- An Internet protocol address (IP address) is a unique combination of numbers and
periods such as 172.1.1.1. This combination of numbers acts as an identity for the network device when it connects
to the internet. //This identity is then used to access data and information available on the web when the client
device sends a request to the server and is passed through routers, hubs, and other network nodes. //The need for
an IP address also increases with the number of network devices that connect to the internet. The IANA issues the
IP addresses (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority), a department under the ICANN, where ICANN is a corporation
that aims to maintain internet security.
Types of IP Addresses :- Each type of IP address can further be classified into different types of IP address category,
they are: Consumer IP Addresses :- The network connection, whether individual or professional with an active
internet connection, follows two categories of IP addresses, i.e., Private IP addresses and Public IP addresses. Each
of them is functional within their respective network locations, private IP addresses are accessible within the
network, and public IP addresses function outside the network.//1. Private IP Addresses:- The devices you connect
to the internet network are all associated with the IP address, including laptops, computers, smartphones, etc.
Also, with the advancement in the technology related to IoT(internet of things), the requirement for private IP
addresses increased drastically. The network device (router) needs to identify the system individually. Then only
the router would be able to generate private IP addresses for each of them to differentiate over the network.
2. Public IP Addresses:- The public IP address acts as a whole primary address that contains all the other network
devices associated with the network. Each device in the network is assigned its private IP address. The Internet
Service Provider (ISP) supervises the assignment of the public IP address to the network device(router). ISPs
accumulate a large number of IP addresses that they assign to their clients.
Public IP addresses can be further divided into two subcategories:
 Dynamic IP Addresses :- These types of IP addresses are the ones that are non-consistent and frequently changing.
They are assigned by the ISPs from their large accumulation of IP addresses in accordance with the client's
requirements. This way, frequently changing IP addresses prove to be cost-effective for the ISPs and also provide
security from hackers and cybercriminals to a certain extent.
 Static IP Addresses :- As the name suggests, Static IP addresses are the type of constant addresses, unlike dynamic
IP addresses. The IP address assigned to the system by the network device remains consistent. Due to the constant
nature of the static IP address, companies and individuals avoid using static IP addresses. But they are required in
case if a firm wants to assign a host to its network server.

What is Spell Checker in MS Word? Microsoft Word has a special feature called spell check that allows you
to check spelling and grammatical mistakes that you made in the document. Basically spell check is a software
tool that identifies the misspelled words present in the document. It also allows you to search a particular word
in the document that you know you’ve misspelled in the whole document. //In Microsoft Word documents,
Word’s spell check function is set to automatically check your spelling while you type. Errors in your document
will have color-coded underlines reflecting your choices, like red for spelling errors, green for grammar errors,
and blue for contextual spelling errors.
Steps to enable Spell Checker in MS Word
Step 1: On the navigation menu bar click on the File option. /Step 2: Next click on the option button: /Step
3: A word option dialog box. /Step 4: Now select the Proofing option from the left menu: /Step 5: Check all
boxes : /Step 6: Next click on the OK button. /Finally, Spell Check is enabled in MS Word.
How to Manually Check Spellings Step 1: On the navigation menu bar click on the Review option. /Step 2: Next
click on the spellings & grammar option: *Note – If there is any spelling or grammatical mistake in your Word
document, then the following dialog box appears with misspelled words present in the red underlined text. /Step
3: If there is a spelling mistake in the document then it will appear in the red underline text: /Step 4: Select
the correct spelling from the suggestion menu. /Step 5: Next click on the YES option. *Note: If all spellings are
correct in your Word document, then the following pop-up window. /Step 6: Click on the OK option. /Finally, all
the spellings and grammars are manually checked.
Shortcut Method to Check Spellings
Step 1: Right-click on the red-underlined word.
A menu with correctly spelled options will appear in which you can select the correct word or you can ignore it.
Step 2: Now choose the correct spelling from the menu as shown in the figure:

Electronic Spreadsheet:- A spreadsheet is considered as a configuration of rows and columns. It can also be
called a worksheet. Spreadsheets are used for calculating and comparing numerical and financial data. /The values
in the spreadsheet can be either basic or derived. Basic values are independent values and the derived values are
the outcome of any function or an arithmetic expression. /Spreadsheet applications are computer programs that
allow the users to add and process data. One of the most widely used spreadsheet software that is used is
Microsoft Excel. /A file in an excel sheet is referred to as a workbook and each workbook consists of worksheets
where the data is entered for further processing. /The concept of spreadsheet can be understood with the
following terminologies, which are as follows. /Label: Text or special characters are treated as labels for rows,
columns or descriptive information. There is no way of treating the labels mathematically, i.e labels cannot be
multiplied or subtracted, etc. /Formulas: Formula refers to a mathematical calculation that is performed on a set of
cells. Formulas are represented with an equal sign at the start in the spreadsheet. //The arithmetic operations
along with the complex nested conditional scenarios (like what if scenario) are also performed by the spreadsheets
by following the order of mathematical expression rules. /Functions: Functions are special keywords that are
entered into a cell with the objective of processing the data that is contained within the brackets. /Functions can
be added directly into the formula bar. There are four parts of a function which are: (a) name of the function (b)
purpose of the function (c) arguments needed by the function to carry on the assignment and (d) the result of the
function. /Functions are a set of in-built formulas that start with an equal to sign. The most common functions in
the spreadsheet are SUM (), AVERAGE (), etc.
Applications of Spreadsheets: There are numerous applications possible using electronic spreadsheets. A few of
the common applications are given below. 1.Payment of bills 2.Income tax calculations 3.Invoices or bills 4.Account
Statements 5.Inventory Control 6.Cost-Benefits Analysis 7.Financial Accounting 8.Tender Evaluation 9.Result
analysis of students

What is ERP:- Enterprise resource planning (ERP) is a type of software system that helps organizations automate
and manage core business processes for optimal performance. ERP software coordinates the flow of data between
a company’s business processes, providing a single source of truth and streamlining operations across the
enterprise. It’s capable of linking a company’s financials, supply chain, operations, commerce, reporting,
manufacturing, and human resources activities on one platform. /Most companies have a finance and operational
system in place, but siloed systems can’t go beyond everyday business processes or help with future business
growth. As companies expand and their needs change, their systems should keep up with them. In this article,
you’ll learn what ERP is and why having software in place that keeps up with your needs can help run a more agile
and efficient business. //ERP software can integrate all of the processes needed to run a company. /ERP solutions
have evolved over the years, and many are now typically web-based applications that users can access remotely.
/Some benefits of ERP include the free flow of communication between business areas, a single source of
information, and accurate, real-time data reporting. /There are hundreds of ERP applications a company can
choose from, and most can be customized. /An ERP system can be ineffective if a company doesn't implement it
carefully.
Why is ERP important for business:- While there’s no all-up solution for every business process, ERP technology is
getting better and better at bringing processes together. After your processes, systems, and data are connected,
you’ll get the business intelligence, acceleration, and adaptability you need to start optimizing your operations.
//Here are three ways an ERP system can improve your business: 1)Drive optimal performance. With solutions that
use AI, you’ll access insights that enhance your decision making and reveal ways to improve operational
performance going forward. 2)Accelerate operational impact. By connecting processes and data, you’ll bring more
visibility and flexibility to employees, helping them take action quickly and deliver more value across the business.
3)Ensure business agility. Many ERP solutions are built to adapt to your needs and grow with you, helping you
proactively prepare for—and readily respond to—any operational disruption or market change.

What is Data Warehousing:- A Data Warehousing (DW) is process for collecting and managing data from
varied sources to provide meaningful business insights. A Data warehouse is typically used to connect and analyze
business data from heterogeneous sources. The data warehouse is the core of the BI system which is built for data
analysis and reporting. /It is a blend of technologies and components which aids the strategic use of data. It is
electronic storage of a large amount of information by a business which is designed for query and analysis instead
of transaction processing. It is a process of transforming data into information and making it available to users in a
timely manner to make a difference.
Three main types of Data Warehouses (DWH) are:
1. Enterprise Data Warehouse (EDW): Enterprise Data Warehouse (EDW) is a centralized warehouse. It provides
decision support service across the enterprise. It offers a unified approach for organizing and representing data. It
also provide the ability to classify data according to the subject and give access according to those divisions.
2. Operational Data Store: Operational Data Store, which is also called ODS, are nothing but data store required
when neither Data warehouse nor OLTP systems support organizations reporting needs. In ODS, Data warehouse is
refreshed in real time. Hence, it is widely preferred for routine activities like storing records of the Employees.
3. Data Mart: A data mart is a subset of the data warehouse. It specially designed for a particular line of business,
such as sales, finance, sales or finance. In an independent data mart, data can collect directly from sources.
Four components of Data Warehouses are:
Load manager: Load manager is also called the front component. It performs with all the operations associated
with the extraction and load of data into the warehouse. These operations include transformations to prepare the
data for entering into the Data warehouse. /Warehouse Manager: Warehouse manager performs operations
associated with the management of the data in the warehouse. It performs operations like analysis of data to
ensure consistency, creation of indexes and views, generation of denormalization and aggregations,
transformation and merging of source data and archiving and baking-up data. /Query Manager: Query manager is
also known as backend component. It performs all the operation operations related to the management of user
queries. The operations of this Data warehouse components are direct queries to the appropriate tables for
scheduling the execution of queries. /End-user access tools:This is categorized into five different groups like 1. Data
Reporting 2. Query Tools 3. Application development tools 4. EIS tools, 5. OLAP tools and data mining tools.
System software vs application software :- 1) System Software maintains the system resources and gives
the path for application software to run./ Application software is built for specific tasks. 2) Low-level languages
are used to write the system software./ While high-level languages are used to write the application software. 3)
It is general-purpose software. /While it’s a specific purpose software. 4) Without system software, the system
stops and can’t run. /While Without application software system always runs. 5) System software runs when the
system is turned on and stops when the system is turned off. /While application software runs as per the user’s
request. 6) Example: System software is an operating system, etc. /Example: Application software is Photoshop,
VLC player, etc. 7) System Software programming is more complex than application software. /Application
software programming is simpler in comparison to system software. 8) The Software that is designed to control,
integrate and manage the individual hardware components and application software is known as system
software./ A set of computer programs installed in the user’s system and designed to perform a specific task is
known as application software. 9) A system software operates the system in the background until the shutdown
of the computer. /Application software runs in the front end according to the user’s request. 10) The system
software has no interaction with users. It serves as an interface between hardware and the end user.
/Application software connects an intermediary between the user and the computer. 11) System software runs
independently. /Application software is dependent on system software because they need a set platform for its
functioning.
DBMS vs RDBMS :- 1)DBMS stores data as file. /
RDBMS stores data in tabular form. 2) Data elements need to access individually./ Multiple data elements can be
accessed at the same time. 3) No relationship between data./ Data is stored in the form of tables which are
related to each other. 4) Normalization is not present./ Normalization is present. 5) DBMS does not support
distributed database./ RDBMS supports distributed database. 6) It stores data in either a navigational or
hierarchical form./ It uses a tabular structure where the headers are the column names, and the rows contain
corresponding values. 7) It deals with small quantity of data./ It deals with large amount of data. 8) Data
redundancy is common in this model./ Keys and indexes do not allow Data redundancy. 9) It is used for small
organization and deal with small data./ It is used to handle large amount of data. 10) Not all Codd rules are
satisfied./ All 12 Codd rules are satisfied. 11) Security is less/More security measures provided. 12) It supports
single user./ It supports multiple users. 13) Data fetching is slower for the large amount of data./ Data fetching is
fast because of relational approach. 14) The data in a DBMS is subject to low security levels with regards to data
manipulation./ There exists multiple levels of data security in a RDBMS. 15) Low software and hardware
necessities./ Higher software and hardware necessities. 16) Examples: XML, Window Registry, Forxpro,
dbaseIIIplus etc./ Examples: MySQL, PostgreSQL, SQL Server, Oracle, Microsoft Access etc.
Data Vs. Information :- 1)Qualitative Or QuantitativeVariables which helps to develop ideas or conclusions./ It
is a group of data which carries news and meaning. 2) Data comes from a Latin word, datum, which means “To give
something.” Over a time “data” has become the plural of datum./ Information word has old French and middle
English origins. It has referred to the “act of informing.”. It is mostly used for education or other known
communication. 3) Data is in the form of numbers, letters, or a set of characters./ Ideas and inferences 4) It can be
structured, tabular data, graph, data tree, etc./ Language, ideas, andthoughts based on the given data. 5) Data
does not have any specific purpose./ It carries meaning that has been assigned by interpreting data. 6) Information
that is collected/Information that is processed. 7) Data is a single unit and is raw. It alone doesn’t have any
meaning./ Information is the product and group of data which jointly carry a logical meaning. 8) It never depends
on Information/It depended on Data. 9) Measured in bits and bytes./ Measured in meaningful units like time,
quantity, etc. 9) It can’t be used for decision making/It is widely used for decision making. 10) Unprocessed raw
 factors/Processed in a meaningful way 11) It is low-level knowledge./ It is the second level of knowledge. 12) Data
is the property of an organization and is not available for sale to the public./ Information is available for sale to the
public. 13) Data depends upon the sources for collecting data./ Information depends upon data. 14) Ticket sales on
a band on tour./ Sales report by region and venue. It gives information which venue is profitable for that business.
15) Data alone has no signifiance./ Information is significant by itself. 16) Data is based on records and
observations and, which are stored in computers or remembered by a person./ Information is considered more
reliable than data. It helps the researcher to conduct a proper analysis. 17) The data collected by the researcher,
may or may not be useful./ Information is useful and valuable as it is readily available to the researcher for use. 18)
Data is never designed to the specific need of the user./ Information is always specific to the requirements and
expectations because all the irrelevant facts and figures are removed, during the transformation process.

Information Technology Issues and Challenges:- the top five challenges for IT management, no matter
where in the world they're located. Here are the challenges and some tips for handling them:
 Cyber security: Data and security breaches are disastrous for any organization. IBM puts the average cost of a data
breach in the U.S. at $8.64 million. And you can't put a price on the damage to a company's reputation. Real-time
monitoring of all critical networks and devices can help detect problems before they get out of control.
 Mobile and Social Media: Mobile and social media are both a boon and a bane to businesses. By allowing
employees to work from anywhere, on any device, a company opens itself up to potential security issues. The
development and implementation of policies regarding social media and mobile devices will help ensure that
sensitive business information remains secure.
 New Technology: While it's tempting to want to upgrade to the latest technology, it might not be the best fit for
your business. IT professionals must have a deep understanding of an organization's strategic goals to do the
research necessary to evaluate new products, services or processes.
 Big Data: More data than ever is being generated by businesses. If the data isn't structured, it's essentially useless.
IT professionals must look at ways data can be organized so that management can understand its markets and the
ways customers are being served.
 Asset and Data Management: Managing IT means managing all kinds of moving parts. Information governance
programs, cloud solutions and management policies for mobile devices are essential components of an effective IT
strategy.

Meaning of MIS and it's use :- A management information system is a database that facilitates day-to-day
business activities. Primarily, information systems increase efficiency by reducing employee effort. /An MIS is
present in every organization to collect, record, and track information./The biggest hurdle with an information
system is employee training. In addition, the system needs maintenance. /Despite the benefits, not all firms can
afford an advanced information system. Sometimes, due to MIS, work becomes too easy for the employees, and
their growth stagnates.
Components of MIS:- The major components of a typical MIS long-form (Management Information System) are:
1)People – people who use the information system 2)Data – the data that the information system records
3) Business Procedures – procedures put in place on how to record, store and analyze data 4)Hardware – these
include servers, workstations, networking equipment, printers, etc. 5)Software – these are programs used to
handle the data. These include programs such as spreadsheet programs, database software, etc. //Today, the term
MIS is used broadly in a variety of contexts. These include but are not limited to the following: 1)Decision support
system (DSS) software. 2)Resource and people management applications. 3) Project management. 4)Database
retrieval applications. 5)Decision makers need information to make effective decisions. Management Information
Systems (MIS) make this possible. 6)MIS systems facilitate communication within and outside the organization –
employees within the organization are able to easily access the required information for the day to day operations.
Facilitates such as Short Message Service (SMS) & Email make it possible to communicate with customers and
suppliers from within the MIS system that an organization is using. 7)Record keeping – management information
systems record all business transactions of an organization and provide a reference point for the transactions.

Information Systems are classified by organisational levels, mode of data, processing, system objectives and
type of support provided.
Following are the TYPE of information system: 1. Transaction Processing System (TPS):-Transaction Processing
System are information system that processes data resulting from the occurrences of business transactions
/Their objectives are to provide transaction in order to update records and generate reports i.e to perform store
keeping function /The transaction is performed in two ways: Batching processing and Online transaction
processing. /Example: Bill system, payroll system, Stock control system.
2. Management Information System (MIS):- Management Information System is designed to take relatively raw
data available through a Transaction Processing System and convert them into a summarized and aggregated
form for the manager, usually in a report format. It reports tending to be used by middle management and
operational supervisors./Many different types of report are produced in MIS. Some of the reports are a summary
report, on-demand report, ad-hoc reports and an exception report./Example: Sales management systems,
Human resource management system.
3. Decision Support System (DSS):- Decision Support System is an interactive information system that provides
information, models and data manipulation tools to help in making the decision in a semi-structured and
unstructured situation./Decision Support System comprises tools and techniques to help in gathering relevant
information and analyze the options and alternatives, the end user is more involved in creating DSS than an
MIS./Example: Financial planning systems, Bank loan management systems.
4. Experts System:- Experts systems include expertise in order to aid managers in diagnosing problems or in
problem-solving. These systems are based on the principles of artificial intelligence research./Experts Systems is
a knowledge-based information system. It uses its knowledge about a specify are to act as an expert consultant
to users./Knowledgebase and software modules are the components of an expert system. These modules
perform inference on the knowledge and offer answers to a user’s question.
Digital Computers :- A Digital computer can be considered as a digital system that performs various
computational tasks./The first electronic digital computer was developed in the late 1940s and was used primarily
for numerical computations./By convention, the digital computers use the binary number system, which has two
digits: 0 and 1. A binary digit is called a bit./A computer system is subdivided into two functional entities: Hardware
and Software./The hardware consists of all the electronic components and electromechanical devices that
comprise the physical entity of the device./The software of the computer consists of the instructions and data that
the computer manipulates to perform various data-processing tasks.
Analog computer :- The Central Processing Unit (CPU) contains an arithmetic and logic unit for manipulating
data, a number of registers for storing data, and a control circuit for fetching and executing instructions./The
memory unit of a digital computer contains storage for instructions and data./The Random Access Memory (RAM)
for real-time processing of the data./The Input-Output devices for generating inputs from the user and displaying
the final results to the user./The Input-Output devices connected to the computer include the keyboard, mouse,
terminals, magnetic disk drives, and other communication devices./Analog computer that performs arithmetical
operation by measurable quantities, such as mechanical movement, the rotation of gears rather than by number.
In Analog computers, data is transmitted for its operation in the form of continuous signals, while in digital
computers in the form discrete signals (or discontinuous signal)./Examples of analog computer are temperature,
pressure, telephone lines, Speedometer, resistance of capacitor, frequency of signal and voltage etc./The word
analog is derived from the Greek ana-logon, meaning “according to a ratio.” Analog computer use Analog
signal that can be represented as a sine wave or continuous wave and that contains time-varying quantities. An
analog signal may vary in signal amplitude or frequency. The analog wave’s amplitude value is the measure of a
wave’s intensity, related to the highest point (called a crest) and lower points of the wave’s, while the frequency
(time) value is physical length from left to right. Examples of Analog signal are sound or human speech, over an
electrified copper wire.
Hybrid computer :- When referring to a portable or home user computer, hybrid computer is a slang describing
a 2-in-1 PC. A 2-in-1 PC comprises a screen and a detachable keyboard, combining the functionality of a laptop
computer and a tablet. Pictured is an HP Envy hybrid computer, an example of a 2-in-1 PC that utilizes Windows
8./Hybrid computers have the power of a computer and, when the keyboard is detached, the portability of a
tablet. For example, you could work on your hybrid computer throughout the day for work and then detatch the
screen and use it in bed to browse Facebook and watch YouTube videos./A popular type of hybrid computer is
the Microsoft Surface, with multiple versions available to fit the needs of its users./A hybrid computer is a
computing system that combines both digital and analog components. Traditionally, the analog components of the
computer handle complex mathematical computations. The digital components take care of logical and numerical
operations, in addition to serving as the controller for the system./A hybrid computer describes a thin client
computer that uses a hard drive, but also relies on programs ran from a server./When referring to a
supercomputer, a hybrid computer is a combination of machines capable of processing digital and analog signals. A
hybrid computer system offers a cost-effective method to perform complex simulations.
The block diagram of a computer system with its functions are mentioned below: Input: It is the process of
inserting data and programs into a computer system. One should understand that a computer is an electronic
machine, just like any other machine which takes raw data as input and does some processing to send the
processed data. Consequently, the input device collects data from us into a computer for organized processing.
Output: This is the process of generating results from data to obtain useful information. Further, the results
generated by the computer after processing should be stored in a specific place within the computer and then
presented in an easy to read format. Lastly, the output will be stored on the computer for further processing.
Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage. Afore, the actual processing
begins, data must be stored into the system. This is because the processing speed of the central processing unit
(CPU) is extremely high and data must be transferred to the CPU at the same speed. Processing: The task of
performing operations such as arithmetic and logical operations is called processing. The central processing unit
(CPU) receives data and instructions from the storage unit and performs all possible calculations according to the
specified instructions and data types and it is sent back to the storage device. Control: All operations such as input,
processing and output are performed by the control unit. It takes care of all operations that occur on the
computer.
Advantages of Mail Merge:- Mail merge has several advantages. Some of the advantages are listed below:-
The Mail Merge feature makes it easy to send the same letter to a large number of people. Many people can be
selected at once, so we can send them the letter easily. /By using Mail Merge, we don’t have to type each
recipient’s name separately in each letter./We need to proofread only the main document./It is economical and
saves a lot of time. It doesn't cost very much as at a time many letters can be sent. /It is easy to edit the letter as a
single change made in the main letter will be reflected in the letters meant for all other recipients.
Structured data – Structured data is data whose elements are addressable for effective analysis. It has been
organized into a formatted repository that is typically a database. It concerns all data which can be stored in
database SQL in a table with rows and columns. They have relational keys and can easily be mapped into pre-
designed fields. Today, those data are most processed in the development and simplest way to manage
information. Example: Relational data.// Semi-Structured data – Semi-structured data is information that
does not reside in a relational database but that has some organizational properties that make it easier to
analyze. With some processes, you can store them in the relation database (it could be very hard for some kind
of semi-structured data), but Semi-structured exist to ease space. Example: XML data. // Unstructured data –
Unstructured data is a data which is not organized in a predefined manner or does not have a predefined data
model, thus it is not a good fit for a mainstream relational database. So for Unstructured data, there are
alternative platforms for storing and managing, it is increasingly prevalent in IT systems and is used by
organizations in a variety of business intelligence and analytics applications. Example: Word, PDF, Text, Media
logs.
An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware. An operating
system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory management, process
management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers./An
operating system is software that enables applications to interact with a computer's hardware. The software that
contains the core components of the operating system is called the kernel./The primary purposes of an Operating
System are to enable applications (spftwares) to interact with a computer's hardware and to manage a system's
hardware and software resources./Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows
Operating System, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc. Today, Operating systems is found almost in every device like
mobile phones, personal computers, mainframe computers, automobiles, TV, Toys etc.
Differences between RAM and ROM :- 1) It is a temporary memory of the computer./ It is the permanent
memory of the computer. 2) It is a read-write memory. The data can be written and read./ It is a read only
memory. The data can only be read. 3) It is a volatile memory as it temporarily stores the files as long as the
computer is on and working./ It is a non-volatile memory as it permanently stores the files even when the power is
turned off, such as game cartridge and BIOS program stored in the memory of a computer, etc. 4) The storage
capacity ranges from 1 to 256 GB./ Its storage capacity ranges from 4 to 8 MB. 5) It is large in size than ROM. It
comes in two different sizes for use in desktop computers and laptops. A desktop ram is around 5.5 inches in
length and 1 inch in width. Whereas, the Laptop RAM is around half the length of desktop RAM./ Its size ranges
from less than an inch in length to multiple inches in length and width based on their use. It has less capacity than
RAM. 6) Data stored in RAM can be retrieved and altered./ We can only read the data stored in ROM. It cannot be
altered. 7) It is faster than ROM as it is a high-speed memory./ It is slower than the RAM. 8) The data stored in RAM
is used by the CPU in real-time to run the computer./ The data stored in ROM is used by CPU only when it is
transferred to RAM. 9) It temporarily stores the files and data that the CPU needs to process the current
instructions or work./ It stores the BIOS program on the motherboard of a computer, which is needed to bootstrap
the computer. 10) Examples: It is used as CPU Cache, Primary Memory in a computer./ Examples: It is used as
Firmware by micro-controllers. 11) The stored data is easy to access./ The stored data is not as easy to access as it
is in ROM. 12) It is costlier than ROM./ It is cheaper than RAM. 13) Types: DRAM (Dynamic Random Access
Memory), SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)./ Types: PROM (programmable read-only memory), EPROM
(erasable programmable read-only memory), EEPROM( electrically erasable programmable ROM), Mask ROM.