182 SOCIAL SCIENCES IN CHINA
ebrated Catholic missionary who came to
China to preach the gospel at the period of
the transition between the Ming and the Qing
dynasties. He was an eminent figure in the
history of cultural exchange between the East
and West, the history of Chinese science and
technology, and even the official historical
books of the Ming and Qing dynasties. Re-
nowned as one of the two great Jesuits in
company with Matteo Ricci (1552-1610), he
helped the Ming and Qing regimes to revise
the almanac and cast cannon. For Catholic
clergy, celibacy ranks second among the
monastic vows. According to fathers of the
early Catholic Church, physiological desire
(and the sexual urge in particular) should be
regarded as taboo because it was the origin
of all evils. Staying unmarried as an ascetic
in a bid to overcome sexual lust was condu-
cive to the whole-hearted worship of God.
The strict rules of asceticism were difficult
to exercise in a congregation of laymen, and
even among the clergymen themselves, it was
not completely carried out. In the history of
the Catholic Church such breaches of celi-
bacy are not rare. In Chinese literature,
however, no conclusive records are avail-
able so far concerning whether any mission-
aries had male or female lovers. In some
materials in Western languages, however,
such information is on record. There are
several papers in the Jesuit archives that con-
tain something about von Bell’s private life,
revealing his bisexual orientation, i.e., both
homosexual and heterosexual. The matter
may have been downplayed in the verdict
given by the Pope himself on whether von
Bell was permitted to take a post in the
Manchu officialdom, as this would have
taken into account the preservation of the
Winter 2005
image of the Church and its evangelistic tasks
in China as a whole in addition to von Bell’s
unique position in the Qing court. The ques-
tion of whether von Bell honored his vow of
a bs tin e nc e e vide n tly ne e ds f urthe r
investigation.
（Translated by Zhao Baohua
Revised by Sally Borthwick)
The Administrative Impact of
Smallpox in the Early Years of the
Qing Dynasty and Measures
Adopted by the Qing Court
Du Jiaji, Professor, School of History,
Nankai University
Qiushi xuekan, 2004, no. 6
History is a theatrical stage fraught with
human activities. The formation of a histori-
cal phenomenon not only comes from the
people’s social activities, but also results from
the interaction of various factors, including
natural factors such as plagues. In the early
Qing, a smallpox epidemic had become a
severe annoyance to the Qing government.
During winter and spring when epidemics
ran out of control, the Manchu emperors
such as Huangtaiji (reigned 1627-1644) and
Shunzhi (reigned 1644-1662) had to seek
shelter from the disease because they had
not had smallpox and therefore were not
immune to the epidemic. Some officials could
not go to their offices due to its virulence. In
the worst cases, both diplomatic rituals and
imperial ceremonies had to be suspended or
held in a simplified manner. Military activi-
ties had to consider the possibility of infec-
tion and whether troops would be hit by the
disease. In order to avoid or mitigate the
 ABSTRACTS
harmful influence caused by the disease on
the effective administration of the Manchu
regime, the Qing rulers made various efforts,
including developing and enacting a series
of measures, such as:
Firstly, in order to curb the epidemic, a
special sanctuary was established for the
imperial family and their relatives and a new
kind of functionary specifically appointed to
identify the disease’s victims was installed
in officialdom. The forced segregation and
the prevention of disease became one of im-
portant steps under consideration before a
milita ry ope ra tion wa s la unched a nd
policymakers would usually try to avoid mili-
tary expeditions at the end of winter or in
spring.
Secondly, vaccination against smallpox
was actively promoted. In the imperial
hospital, a clinical section in charge of the
affair was instituted and special physicians
held responsible for vaccination and treat-
ment of the disease were appointed. All of
these efforts resulted in a drastic decrease in
the number of victims among the imperial
kinsmen. In addition, the Qing government,
initiated programs to vaccinate both the no-
bility and common herdsmen on the vast
Mongolian steppe in order to consolidate its
rule.
In the past, our historians always kept
their eyes on the social impact when study-
ing natural calamities in the history. In fact,
a pestilence not only hits the rank and file,
but also causes casualties in the ruling
community. Although the latter has fewer
members in a feudal regime, losses could
inflict serious damages on the ability to
govern. The consequences can be both un-
usual and devastating. This aspect is worthy
183
of further historical study.
(Translated by Zhao Baohua
Revised by Sally Borthwick)
The Conflict between and Inter-
mingling of Christianity and Chi-
nese Culture
An Ximeng, the Faculty of Philosophy,
Shanxi University
Shehui kexue pinglun, 2004, no. 3
From their ignorance and contempt for
basic human rights and freedom of belief the
diehard conservative officialdom of the Ming
and Qing dynasties adopted a caustic atti-
tude toward Catholic and Protestant churches
from the West. Undertaking long journeys,
the missionaries went to China to preach the
gospel. This in itself constitutes a proclama-
tion to Chinese men of letters that freedom
of belief itself is a cardinal hallmark in the
concept of human rights. The generousness
and benevolence shown by the missionaries
were in a sharp contrast with the manda-
rins’ unkindness and acrimony. The latter
knew nothing but blind defense of their na-
tional dignity, since they boasted that China
was “the celestial kingdom” or the “divine
land beneath heaven.” From this historical
fact we may know that this insularity gave
rise to an irreconcilably obstinate attitude
towards the alien faiths in a closed country,
breaching its own people’s human rights and
freedom of belief. The victim was none but
their own people. The mandarins’ intolerance
enabled the imperial court to win a variety of
“victories” when coping with issues in for-
eign relations, but an insurmountable danger
lingered: China became more and more dis-