BASICS OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES BSLM 1

SLU 07211

Module1: THEORIES OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: Lecture 1

What is a theory? Is a statement or a group of statement established by reason, argument, based on non

facts intended to explain a particular fact or event. OR is a .kind of working assumption to facilitate

understanding of a particular social phenomenon.eg local beliefs of certain tribe like kurya of their cruel

shortest of pare.

What is Development?

Development is multidisciplinary and multidimensional concepts. It is multidisciplinary in nature because it

borrows knowledge from other disciplines eg education, psychology, geography, political science, etc , and

it is multi-dimensional concept, because it includes all dimensions political, social and economic.

There are three perspectives which try to define the term development

1. Economic dimension (economists)

 Look at indicators of development such as economic growth of a particular nation like

increasing of gross national product (GDP)

 Increasing of foreign investments such mining, industries, infrastructure, banking etc

 High level of technology

 Increasing income among the households

2. Political dimension (politicians)

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  Availability of democracy, free and fair election, freedom of movement, speech,

assemble, worship, choosing leaders, opinions etc

 Availability of human rights eg right to work, marry, to education, rightect to an adequate

standard of living like food, shelter, water medical care

 Low level of corruption

3. Social dimension

 Availability of social services eg electricity, houses, food, education health, infrastructure

etc

 Increasing of life expectancy eg in developed countries people die with80 years, but

developing countries die with below 45 years

 Lack of diseases and low mortality rate e.g. infants

But do you think that development can be defined in a single dimension? The answer is no. Development

can be explained by all dimensions

VARIOUS PHILOSOPHERS VIEWS ON DEVELOPMENT

1. RODNEY, W

Viewed development as many sided process, and that it implies at level of individual differs from

what it implies at the level of social groups.

Individual level: Development implies as increased of skills and capacity, greater freedom,

creativity, self-discipline, responsibility and material well-beings

Social group level: It implies as an increasing capacity to regulate both internal and external

relations. He goes further by saying that the term development is often used in exclusive economic

sense. In this sense, he says that a society develops economically when its members increase

jointly their capacity for dealing with environment.

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 2. Goran Hyden: Development is a process of bringing about fundamental and substantial

changes of the society. Development involves not only accumulation of capital or economic

growth but also the country should have adequate enough food and jobs availability to reduce

social inequalities of the society.

3. Nyerere, JK: Development is anything that gives a person a greater freedom although that thing

cannot increase to him /her health or famine, he goes further that development has to be “

people centered development” , and when this happens to the society then it will lead

sustainable development because people will round development and not development will

round people.

BUT, during the past general election in Tanzania 2020, one of the presidential opposition political

party was claiming that president Magufuli is concentrating more on “infrastructure centered

development and he is ignoring people centered development.

Critical question here is that, how can you justify that a particular society has people centered

development if you ignore infrastructure centered development ? Infrastructure centered development is

there to justify people centered development. IF the construction of big national projects like Nyerere

Electricity dam, flyovers road ways, water ways air ways Universities (DODOMA) are revealing the

people centered development. The two phenomena cannot be separated, they go parallel. What is

needed here is the issue of priority.

How Eurocentric views try to explain underdevelopment of Third world Countries:

1. Underdevelopment of third world countries is ordained by God

2. European countries are more developed than the rest of the world because their

people are more superior than Africans

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 3. The economic backwardness of Africa lies in the generic backwardness of the race

of black Africans.

This comes from the wrong interpretation of the Bible from Genesis 9:18-27 which states as “the sons of

Noah who came from the ark were Shem, Ham and Japheth. When Noah drank some of its wine, he

became drunk and lay uncovered inside of his tent. Ham the father of Canaan saw his father’s nakedness

and told his two brothers outside. But Shem and Japhet took a garment and covered him while their faces

were turned on the other way without looking at the nakedness of their father. When Noah woke from his

wine and found out what his youngest son had done to him he said, cursed be Canaan, the lowest slave

and will be the slave of your brother and blessed the Lord the God of Shem and Japheth will live in the

tents of Shem.”

HUMAN SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT:

To understand human social development a number of scholars have attempted to discuss theories/

processes of social human development. There are two main theories which critically discuss the

processes of human social development. These are

1. Bourgeoisie/ modernization theories

2. Materialistic/ political theories.

1. BOURGEOISIE/ MODERNIZATION THEORIES

-The modernization theories emerged after the second world war trying to answer the question why Europe

is more developed or advanced than third World? Why today there is a wide gap among these continents?

What contributes to these differences?. We shall concentrate two main theories namely Professor Rostow

with five stages of Human development and Professor Nukse with vicious circle of poverty.

1. Rostow’s with Five stages of human Development

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-Professor Rostov looks at development as something which ca not be achieved easily by the society.

Development for him is like a distant dream which comes slowly and not abruptly and should depend on

five stages.

-he views development as a linear path theory which starts from low to highby following five stages of

development

-Each stage of human development should be fulfilled clearly in order to allow the society to undergo to the

next stage of human development.

-Therefore he develops the following five stages of human development;

1. Traditional stage: The society here is characterized by the following:

-Agriculture sector is dominant in the society

-Low productivity because of poor methods of farming

-Low level of technology, depending on outside technology

-high mortality rate e.g. infants from age 0-5 years

-high fertility rate

-extended family e.gThomas Malthus when he relates population growth with resources he argues that high

population growth distorts human development. He asserts that “population is growing in arithmetic ratio

while the population is growing in geometric ratio, therefore the bigger the population the lower the

development.

-Little social mobility- no moving

-poor political organization characterized by conflict and no consensus, eg Somalia, Congo DRC,

-Availability of diseases, local beliefs eg killings albino, witch craft –popo-bawa in a local term who believed

to sodomize men and women at Mbagala during the night

2. Transitional Stage

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-expansion of trade both international and national level

-Increase of external influence

-introduction of modern methods of production both agriculture and industries

National investments should be raised to 5% of the national income to sustain economic growth

-willingness of people to change their values rent money for investments

-high level of entrepreneurs and being innovative and creative

-level of science and technology should be raised in order to bring innovation

3. Take off stage

-National investments level should rise to 10%

-increasing productivity in Agriculture, industries, mining and fishing

-strong political organization- high level of democracy, there is a consensus and shaking hand wherever the

one wins the election and not fighting.

-Agriculture sector is mechanized

-science and technology is higher

4. Drive to Maturity Stage

-Emergence of industrialized society

-Transportation and communication are more complex

-science and technology is at higher stage

-the old industries are now replaced by new ones eg USA, French, UK

High political organization, high level of democracy, free and fair elections, good governance and human

rights

5. High Mass consumption

-The society here is too matured all aspects of human life politically, socially, economically and culturally.

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-strong and political organization, high level of democracy, free and fair elections, good governance and

human rights

-transportation and communication are more complex

-science and technology is at higher stage

-Good allocation of resources to her people; e.g. the specialist ones are taking authority in organizing

society the. Appointment of a particular person depends on his or her qualifications not who knows you.

CRITICISMS

1. If human development depends on stages, why did European countries managed to jumpfrom

stage one to another stage of human developmentif not intensive exploitationdone In Africa? So

Rostov failed to explain how did they manage to jump so that we Africans we may follow that linear

path.

2. Rostow’s argument on development of the society is a linear pathand should be gradually not

abruptly has been criticized by political economists that he is wrong, because development of the

society is not homogeneous rather it is heterogeneity and in a zigzag way of life. Every society

develops for one way or another to a lesser or a greater extent depending on environment of the

society.

PROFESSOR NUKSE WITH VICIOUS CIRCLE OF POVERTY:

-His main argument is that ‘if a society is poor that society will continue to be poor and poor forever ‘We are

poor because we are poor and therefore we shall continue to be poor all the time.

Why will poverty still persist in Africa?

-The answer is because third world countries are still staying/ living in the circle of poverty. He says that in

the circle of poverty where Africa survives there are a lot of problems generated themselves every day.

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-He draws the circle of poverty showing the persistence of poverty in Africa is:

LOW CAPITAL……….LOW INCOME……LOW SAVING……LOW LEVEL OF INVESTMENT………..LACK

OF TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION………………LOW PRODUCTIVITY

-Nukse summarizes that if third world countries need development then there are supposed to receive

external push (big push) from outside. These are financial institutions and other social assistances.

Is true that external push is a solution to African development? Or is it true that globalism is a solution to

African poverty?

The answer is yes and no. globalization through IMF and World Bank sponsoring SAPs has a lot

conditionality which are bided to these assistances eg devaluation of local currency, removal subsidize in

agriculture sector, cost sharing, minimize government expenditure, privatization, free markets and multi-

party system etc. Their assistances always in order to complement our development and not to give us real

development because have a lot of strings. Eg dependant one to somebody.

CRITICISMS OF THE THEORY

1.Nurse’s theory is wrong because he fails to tell us the root causes of underdevelopment of third World

Countries rather he is telling us the outcomes of underdevelopment of Africa which normally was resulted

by rise of capitalism in Europe.

2. He fails to show how did European countries managed to break the circle of poverty if formerly all

countries were lived in the same circle of poverty.

POLITICAL ECONOMY THEORY: KARL MARX:

Historical background:

-Marx lived during the time of Industrial revolution in Europe where majority of people were too poor to

sustain their daily life. The time where there was mass poverty within the society

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-The time where there two antagonistic classes among the society, the class of have not (proletariats) and

the class of rich (bourgeoisie).

- This process occurred in England and Germany where people had to move from rural to urban areas in

order to loom for better lives.

-So Marx wanted to study what contributed to such disparities among the societies and look for solutions

for those changes.

- By doing so he had the following main arguments;

 Class struggle: for him argues that within the societies y the class struggle is very necessary in

making positive change. For him believed that in order the society to develop it must emerge the

class of struggle.

 Class conflict: development in the society normally depend on class conflict, so he views class

conflict in positive manner rather than negative one

Therefore to understand the process of class struggle and class conflict in the societies, he identified five

stages of human development as follows;

1. Primitive Communalism

-This was initial stage of human development

-productive forces were very poor eg sticks and stones

- Ownership of the means of production was communal

-Relations of production was collectively

-There was no antagonistic class (exploitation of man by man)

2. Feudalism

-there was some improvement of productive forces

-There was antagonistic classes, the class of serfs and landlords

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-Serfs were largely exploited by land lords in terms of rent in kind/ money

-This led to class conflict which made the mode to fall and come another mode

3. Capitalism

-There was antagonistic classes, the class of bourgeoisie and proletariat

-The major means of production were primarily controlled by bourgeoisie

-The bourgeoisie paid more the proletariats through a little wage which did not sustain

to live.

-Look now under globalization and examine how employees have been paid by their employers at their

places of work, are they paid healthily or not

-Due to class conflict in the society led to change the mode to another one

4. Socialism

-According to Marx, this was the higher stage of development had no antagonistic classes.

-The working class (proletariats) was controlling the major means of production

5. Communalism

-This is the highest sage of social development

-There was no exploitations of man by man

-The level of investments and production were primarily determined by national plans

CRICISMS OF THE THEORY

1. -Bourgeoisie criticizes Marx that his arguments of class struggle and class conflict are too

ideological which have no implementation in the society The society can never develop out of the

exploitation. Eg East Germany, Russia, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia their level of development failed

because they did not allow exploitation.

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 2. Marx believed on working class as an instrument of leading real revolution in the society, but this is

not true because real revolution should come after the collaboration of workers and peasants.

Workers alone can never bring real revolution in the society

3. Marx believed on class conflict as important aspect for development but he is contradicting himself

because in socialism and communalism had no class conflict so the question comes, how

socialism did and communalism emerged as the highest stage of human development while they

had no any exploitation of man by many so he is cheating us.

DEPENDENCE THEORIES (Neo-Marxist Theory)

-These were people who wrote after Marx. They borrowed some arguments of Marx and mix with their

arguments.

-The dependence school of thought was advocated by The Latin America’s school of thought called

Dependence School.

-It was developed during the 1950’s to early 1960’s

- It was a response of the failure of the Bourgeoisie’s theory who failed to answer some questions

-The school assumes that development in the society can be understood in the connection of the world

political economic system.

Therefore, they used concepts of :

 Center and periphery relationship

 Developed and developing

 Metro pole and Satellite

 Rich and poor countries

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-People like Ander Gunder Frank, Samin Amir, Walter Rodney, Emanuel Wallerstain, J K Nyerere to

mention the few.

-They argued that underdevelopment of third World Countries is a result of intensive exploitation which

existed between the two continents (Europe and Africa)

-This underdevelopment began many years ago particularly during the time of Mercantilism where the two

continents Europe and Africa were almost the same level I technology eg as noted by Rodney that “

around 15th c the level of Europe and Africa was almost the same, but after the contact between these two

continents underdevelopment Africa began to set in Africa”

-It continued to colonialism era, where markets, cheap labor force, areas of investments and raw materials

were exploited largely from Africa

-After independence; Africa continue to sing the song of underdevelopment because colonialist planted the

seed of underdevelopment

E.G talk a little bite about the roles of InfoWorld Bank, through their structural adjustment programs SAPS

-SAPs Conditions are

 Removal subsidies in agriculture sector

 Devaluation of local currency\

 Free market economy

 Privatization

 Minimizing government expenditures

 Cost sharing in social services. These all are creating underdevelopment of Africa

World Systems Theory Immanuel Wallerstein: World-system theory is a macro sociological perspective

that seeks to explain the dynamics of the “capitalist world economy” as a “total social system”. Its first major

articulation, and classic example of this approach, is associated with Immanuel Wallenstein, who in 1974
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published what is regarded as a seminal paper, The Rise and Future Demise of the World Capitalist

System: Concepts for Comparative Analysis. In 1976 Wallenstein published The Modern World System I:

Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century. This is

Wallenstein’s landmark contribution to sociological and historical thought and it triggered numerous

reactions, and inspired many others to build on his ideas. Because of the main concepts and intellectual

building blocks of world-system theory –which will be outlined later–, it has had a major impact and perhaps

its more warm reception in the developing world.

Historical background of Immanuel Wallerstein: Immanuel Wallerstein was born in 1930 in New York,

where he grew up and did all his studies. He entered Columbia University, where he obtained his BS, MA

and PhD degrees. He remained a faculty member in Columbia’s Department of Sociology from 1958 to

1971. His passage through Columbia occurred at a time when “[Columbia’s] cosmopolitanism and

rebelliousness stood in sharp contrast to the genteel established liberalism of Harvard and Yale. His

primary mentor was C. Wright Mills, from whom, according to Goldfrank, Wallerstein learned his historical

sensitivity, his ambition to understand macro-structures, and his rejection of both liberalism and, to a lesser

degree, Marxism. While being a faculty Member at Columbia, Wallerstein got interested in Africa and along

the way, he spent time in Paris. In Paris he was exposed to two major intellectual influences, the Annales

group of historians, and also to what by the time were radical political ideas.

Immanuel Waller stain theory believes that the world is divided into three parts, the core, semi-periphery

and periphery

Wallenstein’s work developed at a time when the dominant approach to understanding development,

modernization theory, was under attack from many fronts, and he followed suit. He himself acknowledges

that his aim was to create an alternative explanation (Wallerstein, 2000). He aimed at achieving “a clear

conceptual break with theories of ‘modernization’ and thus provide a new theoretical paradigm to guide our

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investigations of the emergence and development of capitalism, industrialism, and national states”

(Skocpol, 1977, p. 1075). Criticisms to modenization include (1) the reification of the nation-state as the

sole unit of analysis, (2) assumption that all countries can follow only a single path of evolutionary

development, (3) disregard of the world-historical development of transnational structures that constrain

local and national development, (4) explaining in terms of ahistorical ideal types of “tradition” versus

“modernity”, which are elaborated and applied to national cases. In reacting to modernization theory,

Wallerstein outlined a research agenda with five major subjects: the functioning of the capitalist world-

economy as a system, the how and why of its origins, its relations with noncapitalist structures in previous

centuries, comparative study of alternative modes of production, and the ongoing transition to socialism

(Goldfrank, 2000; Wallerstein, 1979).

Building Blocks

There are three major intellectual building blocks of world-system theory, as conceived by Wallerstein: the

Annales School, Marx, and dependence theory. These building blocks are associated with Waller stein’s

life experience and exposure to various issues, theories, and situations. World-system theory owes to the

Annales School, whose major representative is Fernand Braudel, its historical approach. Waller stein got

from Braudel’s his insistence on the long term (la longue dureé). He also learned to focus on geo-ecological

regions as units of analysis (think of Braudel’s The Mediterranean), attention to rural history, and reliance

on empirical materials from Braudel. The impact of the Annales is at the general methodological level. From

Marx, Wallenstein learned that (1) the fundamental reality if social conflict among materially based human

groups, (2) the concern with a relevant totality, (3) the transitory nature of social forms and theories about

them, (4) the centrality of the accumulation process and competitive class struggles that result from it, (5) a

dialectical sense of motion through conflict and contradiction. Waller stein’s ambition has been to revise

Marxism itself. World-system theory is in many ways an adaptation of dependency theory (Chirot and Hall,

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1982). Wallenstein draws heavily from dependency theory, a neo-Marxist explanation of development

processes, popular in the developing world, and among whose figures are Fernando Henrique Cardoso, a

Barzilian. Dependency theory focuses on understanding the “periphery” by looking at core-periphery

relations, and it has flourished in peripheral regions like Latin America. It is from a dependency theory

perspective that many contemporary critiques to global capitalism come from. Other important influences in

Waller stein’s work, still present in contemporary world system research, are Karl Polanyi and Joseph

Schumpeter. From the latter comes world system interest in business cycles, nd from the former, the notion

of three basic modes of economic organization: reciprocal, redistributive, and market modes. These are

analogous to Waller stein’s concepts of mini-systems, world-empires, and world-economies.

What is a world-system?

For Wallerstein, "a world-system is a social system, one that has boundaries, structures, member groups,

rules of legitimation, and coherence. Its life is made up of the conflicting forces which hold it together by

tension and tear it apart as each group seeks eternally to remold it to its advantage. It has the

characteristics of an organism, in that is has a lifespan over which its characteristics change in some

respects and remain stable in others… Life within it is largely self-contained, and the dynamics of its

development are largely internal" (Wallerstein, p. 347). A world-system is what Waller stein terms a "world

economy", integrated through the market rather than a political center, in which two or more regions are

interdependent with respect to necessities like food, fuel, and protection, and two or more polities compete

for domination without the emergence of one single center forever (Goldfrank, 2000).

In his own first definition, Wallerstein (1974) said that a world-system is a "multicultural terirtorial division of

labor in which the production and exchange o basic goods and raw materials is necessary for the everyday

life of its inhabitants." This division of labor refers to the forces and relations of production of the world

economy as a whole and it leads to the existence of two interdependent regions: core and periphery. These

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are geographically and culturally different, one focusing on labor-intensive, and the other on capital-

intensive production. (Goldfrank, 2000). The core-periphery relationship is structural. Semi-peripheral

states acts as a buffer zone between core and periphery, and has a mix of the kinds of activities and

institutions that exist on them (Skocpol, 1977).

Among the most important structures of the current world-system is a power hierarchy between core and

periphery, in which powerful and wealthy "core" societies dominate and exploit weak and poor peripheral

societies. Technology is a central factor in the positioning of a region in the core or the periphery. Advanced

or developed countries are the core, and the less developed are in the periphery. Peripheral countries are

structurally constrained to experience a kind of development that reproduces their subordinate status

(Chase-Dunn and Grimes, (1995). The differential strength of the multiple states within the system is crucial

to maintain the system as a whole, because strong states reinforce and increase the differential flow of

surplus to the core zone (Skocpol, 1977). This is what Wallerstein called unequal exchange, the systematic

transfer of surplus from semiproletarian sectors in the periphery to the high-technology, industrialized core

(Goldfrank, 2000). This leads to a process of capital accumulation at a global scale, and necessarily

involves the appropriation and transformation of peripheral surplus.

On the political side of the world-system a few concepts deem highlighting. For Wallerstein, nation-states

are variables, elements within the system. States are used by class forces to pursue their interest, in the

case of core countries. Imperialism refers to the domination of weak peripheral regions by strong core

states. Hegemony refers to the existence of one core state temporarily outstripping the rest. Hegemonic

powers maintain a stable balance of power and enforce free trade as long as it is to their advantage.

However, hegemony is temporary due to class struggles and the diffusion of technical advantages. Finally,

there is a global class struggle. The current world-economy is characterized by regular cyclical rhythms,

which provide the basis of Wallerstein's periodization of modern history (Goldfrank, 2000). After our current

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stage, Wallerstein envisions the emergence of a socialist world-government, which is the only-alternative

world-system that could maintain a high level of productivity and change the distribution, by integrating the

levels of political and economic decision-making.

Sources of Reference:

1. Chase-Dunn, Christopher and Peter Grimes. 1995. "World-Systems Analysis." Annual Review of

Sociology. Vol. 21 p. 387-417. Chirot, Daniel and Thomas D. Hall. 1982. "World-System Theory."

2. Annual Review of Sociology. Vol. 8 pp. 81-106. Journal of World Systems Research.

http://csf.colorado.edu/jwsr/ Fernand Braudel Center for the Study of Economies, Historical

Systems and Civilizations. http://fbc.binghamton.edu/

3. Goldfrank, Walter L. 2000. "Paradigm Regained? The Rules of Wallerstein's WorldSystem

Method. Journal of World-Systems Research. Vol. 6. N. 2 pp. 150-195 Skocpol, Theda. 1977.

"Wallerstein's World Capitalist System: A Theoretical and Historical Critique." American Journal of

Sociology, Vol. 82. N. 5. 1075-1090.

4. Wallerstein, Immanuel. 1974. The modern World System I: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of

the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century. New York: Academic Press

Their solutions to these problems

a) Socialism: The dependence school provides the solution of the underdevelopment of Africa is that

socialism should be adopted by all African states. Is it true that socialism provides a chance of

development or African states? In Tanzania since Independence we adopted socialism, did we

developed?

b) Zonal economic integration: eg ECOWAS, SADCC, PTA, COMESA, East African States. But is it

true to develop?

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 c) To cut off the existing relationship with the core

-Is it possible to cut off relationship to somebody who is financing you? Eg boy friend with girl friend, Loan

board with students,

d)The bourgeoisie criticizes the dependency school that they have spent a lot of time to blame external

factors as the causes of underdevelopment and forget to explain internal factors as the causes of

underdevelopment such as

- Corruption

- Misallocation of human resources, somebody has not qualified and is appointed to higher

position

- Poor policies formulated among the African states while aren’t implemented

- Tribalism, regionalism, religionism, low technology

CLASSICAL THINKERS OF LIBERALISM

Theory of Classical Liberalism

The beginning of classical liberalism is ingrained in political changes from the 16 th to 18th century. But the ideology turned
into a political principle mostly after the 1789’s French Revolution. Later, in the 19th century, the ideology came out as
retaliation to the Industrial Revolution and progressing urbanization in European Nations and the United States.

 The classical theory emphasizes minimal power and limited function of the state. It further stressed egotism, self-
sufficiency and self-responsibility of own livelihood and condition.
 Classical liberalism as an economic ideology promotes a self-regulating market. It further denotes that
government intervention is inessential and damaging in such market policy.

 It disables the interference of the State in human rights to protect them from potential political violation.

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Classical liberalism is a political ideology and a branch of liberalism that advocates free market, civil
liberties under the rule of law with an emphasis on limited government, economic freedom, political
freedom, and cultural liberalism. It was developed in the early 19th century, building on ideas from the
previous century as a response to urbanization and to the Industrial Revolution in Europe and North
America

It advocates civil liberties, the rule of law, and economic freedom, originated with such thinkers as John
Locke (1632–1704), Adam Smith (1723–1790), Jean-Baptiste Say (1767–1832), and David Ricardo (1772–
1823). It is generally understood to encompass free trade, the protection of private property, and limited
government intervention in the economy, along with freedom of religion, freedom of expression, and
freedom of the press.

What is liberalism

Liberalism is a political and philosophical ideology to establish individual freedom, consent and equality.
Different liberals adopt a vast range of views based on their understanding of this ideology. Individual
rights, including civil and human rights, come first among these views.

To define liberalism more precisely, one must understand the role, nature as well as the function of State
power, which encompasses the following aspects:

 Individual Liberty: Liberalism is essentially an ideology of liberty. Its love for individual liberty is
unquestionable. It has become libertarianism. For liberals, liberty is the very essence of human
personality. It is a means to one’s development.
 Individual-centered: Liberalism begins and ends with the individual. For liberals, the individual is
the centre of all activities, the focal point; the individual is the end while all other associations,
including the state, are the means, which exist for the individual. Individual is the centre around
which all things move.
 Capitalistic Economy: Liberalism advocates a free-market economy, i.e., the capitalistic mode of
economy. It believes in a private property system, regarding property rights as sacrosanct;
maximum profit as the only motive; capitalistic mode of production and distribution as the only
essence; the market forces as the controlling means of economy.
 Limited State: Liberalism advocates the concept of a limited state. The liberals view the state as a
means for attaining the good of the individual. They oppose every type of totalitarian state. They
are of the opinion that a more powerful state means a less free individual. Locke used to say,
“because the functions of the state are limited, so are limited its powers.”
 Opposed to Traditions/Superstitions: As liberalism rose as a reaction against
traditions/superstitions, it is, by its nature, opposed to all reactionary measures. Liberalism,
emerging from Renaissance and Reformation, stood, and actually stands, for reason and

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 rationalism. As against the feudal model of man as a passive being, liberalism favours a model of a
man who is more active and more acquisitive.
 Democracy: Liberalism is an exponent of democratic government. It seeks to establish a
government of the people, by the people and for the people; a government that functions according
to the Constitution and constitutionalism; a government that upholds the rule of law; a government
that secures the rights and liberties of the people. Liberalism, McGovern says, is a combination of
democracy and individualism.
 Welfareism: Liberalism is closely associated with welfarism. Welfarism, as a state activity, is the
idea that the state works for the welfare of the people. The liberal concept of state activity is one
where the state serves the people. In other words, the welfare state is a ‘social service’ state.
 Is a political and social philosophy that believes that private sector
 Can produce a better efficiency than government ownership, it promotes individual rights, civil
liberties, democracy, and free enterprise.
1. Neo-liberalism: Is a political approach that favors free-market capitalism, deregulation, and
reduction in government spending.
2. IDEAS OF NEOLIBERALISM
 Free trade,
 deregulation of the economy,
 Lower taxes, privatization,
 Labour market flexibility
This in turn led globalization

GLOBALIZATION AND AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT

1. SCEPTIC SCHOOL OF THOUGHT

Defines globalization as a big myth which conceals/ hides the reality of International economy. There is
nothing more under Globalization rather than searching the maximum profit through international
economy.

Hyper Globalized

Globalization as new stage history of human history in which the states become powerlessness to control
their political and economic issues

2. IS A GLOBALIZATION A NEW PHENOMENON?

-No globalization isn’t a new phenomenon, it s was there many years ago and it was changed its name time
to time according to the economic environment
Eg the Time of mercantilism- transatlantic slave trade (triangular slave trade) where the entire world was
connected by European nations searching slaves and other value goods like gold, silver etc
- This led to the formulation of primitive accumulation of capital which assisted as the engine of
industrial revolution
20
 - Then it came under the umbrella of Neo-colonialism after Independence and then
Globalization in the year of 1980’s

3. DRIVERS OF GLOBALIZATION
-IMF, WB (Britton wood institutions) started in 1945 by USA as the means of exploiting the independent
ones through in the form of neo-colonialism
- WTO, GATT, USa, European Unions, Third World countries, & Multilateral Institutions like FAO, WHO,
UNESCO, UNICEF, Coca-Cola
-Development of Technology

IMF AND WB: These are financial institutions always using Structural Adjustment Program ( SAPs) to
exploit the third world countries.

SAPS are economic policies which countries must follow in order to qualify to get loans and aid from IMF
and WB, and help them to make debts repayments
These economic policies are:
 Removal subsidy in agriculture sector
 Trade liberalization( free market economy)
 Privatization policy
 Cost sharing in user fees( social services to minimize the government expenditure
 Multiparty politics (in Tanzania multiparty began in 190’s and in 1992 MzeeRuksa
appointed Hon judge Nyarari to collect the Tanzanians opinions of whether they like
multiparty. The results showed that 80% didn’t like multiparty while 20% liked it
PROS/OPPORTUNITIS OF GLOBALIZATION
 Increasing of international relation due to trade
 Easiest and fastest communication
 Availability of mass media egtv, radios, news paperetc
 Freedom of speech due to human rigts and good governance
 Availability of social services and goods
 Efficiency of work
 Employment opportunities
 Politically, through development of technology, it has improved national security and other
detecting weapons

CONS/ CHALLENNGES
 Availability of diseases due to movement of people and goods
 Deterioration of standard of living
 Reduced access to public services eg now people are able to get health services and
education and they are sold as commodity
 Economic dependence of African due to strong condition of SAPS
21
  Increasing of famine due to of removal of government subsidy
 Devastated environments eg mining extraction
 Loss of national sovereignty- loss of freedom/ power
 Unemployment
 High level of social inequalities- rich and poor ( haves and have not)
 Rise of African Moral decay- homosexuality ( Massachasut –USA, Malawi, South
parliament
 High rate of divorce-which accelerated by modern technology
 Dying of African local industries

ALTENATIVES WAYS AGAINST GLOBALIZATION

 Zonal economic integration SADC, PTA, ECOWAS,EAST AFRICAN
COMMUNITY< NEPAD, NEPAD, COMESA
No they can’t fight against globalization
 Most African; leaders are power mongers and corrupt, civil war

MODULE 2: GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT: LECTURE 2

It is better to understand the following gender concepts;

 Gender gap: This is a gap between men and woman

 Gender balance: equal treatment between man and woman

 Gender relations: Relations which exists between man and woman, teachers, parents etc

 Gender roles: These are different roles/ function performed among men, women

 Gender inequality: Unequal treatment between men and women

What is gender and sex? There is difference between gender and sex. Gender is referred to different roles

between men and women and these roles are socially constructed. It is socially constructed because it is

the society itself which assigns those roles or functions that men and women are supposed to perform

these roles, and normally begins during the childhood where a child boy is given a toy car while a child girl

is given a toy baby.

But sex: Is a biological difference between man and woman.

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FEMINIST THEORIES OF GENDER INQUALITIES

1. Liberal Feminism

all people are created equal

They believe that there is gender inequality in the society through oppression of women through capitalist
economic system( women are more oppressed by men )

Solutions:

education is means to change

State should bring women's liberation through legislative measures - equality through law

2. Socialist Feminism

 They support that there is gender inequality in the society

 women's oppression is caused by their economic dependence

 patriarchy

 capitalistic system and family structure within this system

 sexuality is to feminism as what Marxism says

 women are considered as working class

Solutions:

 Establishment of socialism, women's liberation will only occur under socialism

 Provision of education

3. Radical feminism

 women's oppression is the fundamental oppression at the root of other "isms"

 sexism is at the core of patriarchy especially in the family where male domination is dominating all
spheres of influence politically, socially and politically

 violence against women (rape, sexual harassment, incest, pornography and domestic violence) are
focus issues
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Solutions

 Creation of institutions for women only eg TGNP TAWLA WOMEN WORLD DAY

 Total restructuring of society through education means

 extreme view would call for severing relationships with men, i.e. end heterosexual relationships

4. Postmodern Feminism
 Women inequality Cannot be generalized

 All women are different

Solutions
 Education system

5. Multicultural/Global Feminism
 Focuses on inclusion of oppressions based on gender, class, ethnicity, sexuality, able-bloodedness
and age
 Intersection of gender with race, class and issues of colonization and exploitation of women in
developing world
Solutions:
 Education system

 Formation of women associations

 Good governance

CAUSES OF GENDER INEQUALITY

In order to understand the causes of gender inequality, we need to understand the social institutions

because gender inequalities are existing within the social institutions.

 Family institution: within the family institution there is gender inequality perpetuated by traditional

beliefs from our tribes. Eg Kurya tribe a woman cannot talk in front of man and a woman must take

care of cattle in the grazing; Jita tribe a man must be respected., if a woman brings water she kneel

down; Zaramo woman must stay at home waiting her husband etc. The traditional values from our

tribes are producing by so called Patriarchy ideology among people which this undermines or
24
 contributing to gender inequalities. For instance the Theory of politics in production of knowledge

which this comes from patriarchy ideology asks the following two questions that;

A) Who is the power and producer of knowledge between man and woman?

B) Who powerlessness between man and woman? The theory argues that the one who is power and

producer of knowledge is man because the man is the one who produces sperms while the woman is the

one who receives sperms, therefore the one who produce sperms is the power and the producer of

knowledge.

 Religions (Christians and Islam) are contributing to gender inequality if believers are interpreting

their doctrines wrongly of what it is intended to say eg the bible says that the man is the head of

the house if the man is the head then the woman is the tail of the house.;Eg the Bible in Genesis

2:21-23 says that “so the Lord caused the man to fall into a deep sleep; and while he was

sleeping, he took on of the man’s ribs and closed up the place with flesh. Islam during the burial

ceremonies women aren’t allowed to attend to the graves, worshiping women are sitting a side of

men, property distribution in cas man dies is not equal

 Schools: curriculums, science subjects are for men and not for women

 Laws and Regulations ie marriage ACT 1971

 Parliament: women representatives are not equal with men

What can be done (solutions) taking Tanzania as a case study

 There is a special ministry dealing with gender is known as Ministry o community Development and

gender

 The amendment of some sections in Marriage Act 1971 which formerly undermined women,

women now have rights to inherent the properties f her husband in case the husbands dies. BUT

still this Marriage Act has some weaknesses for example it gives a room a girl having 15 years
25
 hold to be married, and expenses of taking care for a child who is staying behind of the father is

not more than ten thousand per month.

 The introduction of sexual offence Act 1998 which prohibits all humanity action against women

rapping, abusing where more than thirty years for jail.

 Formation of various NGOs eg TAMA, TGNP which are fighting against Female Genital Mutilation

(FDG)

 Increasing of special seats in the parliament

 Increasing of female enrolment in primary, secondary and University level

THE CONCEPT OF WID AND GAD:

WID: is an approach which states that women are enough to bring socio-economic development in the

societies. GAD believes that in order a society to achieve areal development then both men and women n

should be incorporated together.

MODULE 3: CENTRALIZATION AND DECENTRALIZATION PROCESS IN TANZANIA: LECTURE 3

The term centralization means concentration of authority at the top of the administrative system. On the
one hand, and, decentralization means dispersal of authority among the lower levels of the administrative
system.
According to Henry Fayol’s Centralization and Decentralization Principles

 Centralization means that top management retains most of the decision-making authority.
 Decentralization means that decision-making is distributed among all levels of the organization.
This means that information is shared from the top of management downwards.

 Centralization is said to be a process where the concentration of decision making is in a few hands .
All subjects and actions at the lower level are subject to the approval of top management.

26
 According to Allen, “Centralization” is the systematic and consistent reservation of authority at
central points in the organization. The implication of centralization can be :-

1. Reservation of decision making power at top level.

2. Reservation of operating authority with the middle level managers.

3. Reservation of operation at lower level at the directions of the top level.

Under centralization, the important and key decisions are taken by the top management and the other
levels are into implementations as per the directions of top level. The degree of centralization and
decentralization will depend upon the amount of authority delegated to the lowest level. According to Allen,
“Decentralization refers to the systematic effort to delegate to the lowest level of authority except that which
can be controlled and exercised at central points.

Decentralization is not the same as delegation. In fact, decentralization is all extension of delegation.
Decentralization pattern is wider is scope and the authorities are diffused to the lowest most level of
management. Delegation of authority is a complete process and takes place from one person to another.
While decentralization is complete only when fullest possible delegation has taken place. For example, the
general manager of a company is responsible for receiving the leave application for the whole of the
concern. The general manager delegates this work to the personnel manager who is now responsible for
receiving the leave applicants. In this situation delegation of authority has taken place. On the other hand,
on the request of the personnel manager, if the general manager delegates this power to all the
departmental heads at all level, in this situation decentralization has taken place. There is a saying that
“Everything that increasing the role of subordinates is decentralization and that decreases the role is
centralization”. Decentralization is wider in scope and the subordinate’s responsibility increase in this case.
On the other hand, in delegation the managers remain answerable even for the acts of subordinates to their

Types of Government
Mogella . (2002) said “Consequently, central government control over the local government authorities is
manifested more clearly in the use of finance resource”. Few examples arising from Acts Nos. 7, 8, 9, 10
indicate that the relationship between the Central government and Local Government Authority has been a
command driven, i.e. while the Central government has a wide tax –base the Local Government is a
27
narrow, the Central Government has a right to audit and monitor LGA finances and issue binding financial
procedures and regulations to LGA

Advantages of the centralization of the authority:

1- Minimizing cost and expenses.

2- Responsibilities and duties are well defined.

3- Depends largely on the general consensus.

4, Iimproving the efficiency of resource allocation;

5, By promoting accountability and transparent
6, Reducing corruption within government
7, The subordinates get a chance to decide and act independently which develops skills and capabilities.
8, In decentralization, diversification and horizontal can be easily implanted
9,, there is greater motivation and morale of the employees since they get more independence to act and
decide.

Disadvantages of the centralization of the authority.

1-Decisions may be misled while passing on and lower position departments don't have the decision-
making power, therefore it requires efficient and well-organized top department.

2- Attentions and support on each department or cities may not be balanced.

3- Delay of work information may result in inefficiency of the government.

4-Discrepancies in economy and information resources between centre and other places ( No agreement )

MODULE 4: DEMOCRACY, GOVERNANCE AND DEVELOPMENT

28
World Bank (1992) defines governance as the manner in which power is exercised in the management of a

country’s and resources for development OR Governance refers to mechanisms, institutions and processes

through which authority is exercised in the conduct of public affairs. Governance represents how things get

done. Ngware (1999) good governance is the manner in which the problem-solving, decision-making and

efficient management of public resources are done democratically and participatory ways from the grass

root to the top. OTHER SCHOLARS SAY “Good governance is the process of measuring how public

institutions conduct public affairs and manage public resources and guarantee the realization of human

rights in a manner essentially free of abuse and corruption and with due regard for the rule of law “

The concept of good governance emerged in the late 1980s to address failures in development policies due

to governance concerns, including failure to respect human rights. The concepts of good governance and

human rights are mutually reinforcing, both being based on core principles of participation, accountability,

transparency and State responsibility.

Human rights require a conducive and enabling environment, in particular appropriate regulations,
institutions and procedures framing the actions of the State. Human rights provide a set of performance
standards against which Governments and other actors can be held accountable. At the same time, good
governance policies should empower individuals to live with dignity and freedom. Although human rights
empower people, they cannot be respected and protected in a sustainable manner without good
governance. In addition to relevant laws, political, managerial and administrative processes and institutions
are needed to respond to the rights and needs of populations. There is no single model for good
governance. Institutions and processes evolve over time.

Human rights strengthen good governance frameworks. They require: going beyond the ratification of
human rights treaties, integrating human rights effectively in legislation and State policy and practice;
establishing the promotion of justice as the aim of the rule of law; understanding that the credibility of
democracy depends on the effectiveness of its response to people’s political, social and economic

demands; promoting checks and balances between formal and informal institutions of governance;
effecting necessary social changes, particularly regarding gender equality and cultural diversity; generating
political will and public participation and awareness; and responding to key challenges for human rights and
good governance, such as corruption and violent conflict.

He adds that good governance should include the following;

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 - The rule of law

- Democratic values( participation)

- Administrative and political accountability and transparent

- Absence of corruption

- Respect for constitution

- Free and fair election

- Maintain human rights

- Political torelence

- Gender equality and equity

- Consensus Oriented

- Effectiveness and Efficiency,

- Equity and inclusiveness. ...

- Ethical conduct
-

Again, World Bank (1989) points out that good governance must ensure the presence of human rights, it

mist check corruption, and it must promote democratization, accountability and transparent of leaders. But

the UDP( 1994) also argues that good governance must ensure sustainable development and people’s

centrality. Therefore the UDP comprises the following features;

- Freedom of association and expression

- Accountability of public offices

- Availability of valid and reliable information effective and efficient of public sector management.

30
 - Cooperation between government and civil society organizations ( political parties, religions

NGOS

- The rule of laws

So good governance is more than administrative, mechanistic, multi-partism, and democracy because it

must deal with development, qualitative issues such as equity and empowerment of people. Good

governance must be able to design and coordinate the policies, strategies and programs that are effective

in improving the standard of the people and to be able to follow up the implementation. When these are

done effectively then the UDP says that development is woven round the people and not people around

development

HUMAN RIGHTS

Human rights and good governance are closely connected and always go hand in hand. Professor

Mwesiga Baregu (1999) in preventive Diplomacy and Peace-Building in Southern Africa defines human

rights as the rights that belong to each person on the basis of his or her inherent dignity s human beings.

These are rights that belong to all people by virtue of their being human beings, irrespective of nationality,

race, color, age, political beliefs wealth etc.

Basic human rights are divided into three aspects:

a. Political Rights:

 The right to vote in an election

 The rights to join a political party; run for office; and participate freely in political rallies,

events, or protests.

 Freedom from discrimination and the right to privacy

- the right to peaceful assembly and association

 Free expression, the right to vote, and freedom of religion.

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 Economic Rights

 The rights that citizens have to control their own property, labor and working conditions

 The right to freedom of movement

Social Rights

- The right to life, liberty, and security of a person

- The right not to be subjected to slavery, torture, cruel,

- the right not to be subjected to arbitrary arrests, dentations or exile

- The right to be recognized as a person before the law

- The right to own property, work, to free choice of employment

- The right to freedom of opinions and expression, thought and religion

- The right to adequate standards of living eg food, shelter, water, medical care

- The right to education

- The right to marry and to found family

Culture Rights

 People to enjoy their own culture;

 profess and practice their own religion;

 use their own language (in private and in public);

 and. participate effectively in cultural life.

CORRUPTION: LECTURE

Good governance and human rights cannot survive in the sphere of rampant corruption. Wherever there is

corruption there is no good governance and human rights. Corruption has a long history in our life because

32
it started many years ago and it has an origin from the bible. If you read the Bible Exodus 23:8 the Bible

says that “don’t accept the bribe, for a bribe blinds those who see and twists the words of the righteous”

What is corruption?

Is a behavior which deviates the formal duties of the society for private benefit . Corruption is for private

benefit rather than public benefit.

There are two theories of corruption

 Political economy theory. This is related to poverty .The more the corruption the higher the

poverty becomes in the society. So corruption has been seen as a negative aspect in the society

 Structural functionalist theory. Corruption here is viewed as positive role in the society. The more

the corruption the higher the development in the society because people will become

entrepreneurs.

There are two forms / types of corruption

 Petty corruption; is a type of corruption which is received by low civil servants in order to sustain

their daily needs. These are people like teachers, nurses, policemen,etc

 Grand corruption; This I normally received by high civil servants. They receive a large amount of

money through signing various contracts and get ten percent. Professor chachage coined it as

white collar corruption related by someone who is educated sitting in the office wearing a white

shirt and tie.

ACTORS OF CORRUPTION;

Bureaucrats, politicians, civil servants etc

CAUSES OF CORRUPTION;

33
Why do people receive corruption? Brownsherger (1989) did a research in Nigeria looking at what factors

contribute to corruption in the society. He came out with the following main causes:

i). Altitude/behavior of the society towards corruption

- It is the altitudes or behavior of the society which reinforces people to receive corruption. It is the customs

of people to thank somebody who is rich because of corruption and ignore the one who is poor because of

his / her obedient

-people are always roughing to those people who retire while they have nothing in their pockets

-even if your wife and children will rough their father

ii) Poverty; the more the poverty the higher corruption. If a person comes from poor family she is likely to

receive more corruption in order to gain material things

iii Political elections/ campaign;

-During the election campaign it is claimed that candidates are spending a lot of money by bribing the

voters.

iv) Tribalism is highly associated by corruption This means that there are certain tribes which are too

corrupt in the society eg in Nigeria the IBO,

Again Waryoba Sinde Joseph in 1999 was appointed by President Mkapa to find out the root causes of

corruption and the way forward. He came out with the following reasons;

V) Liberalization of internal trade policy puts business to be friend leaders in order to deviate the legal

systems

vi) Lack of transparency of the economy

vii) Appointment of corrupt leaders

Hosea (1999) Essays Combating Corruption analyses the following causes of corruption as follows;

ix) Concentration of power to be under individual person

34
x) Non-democratic government

xi) Cumbersome bureaucracy

xii) Underpaid civil servants

xiii) Weak judiciary set up eg courts; examples, sugar scandal, radar, fish scandal, Richmond, Epa,

( Tanzania), in Kenya ( Golden burgh scandal, Anglolism scandal

What can we do?

 Committed leaders eg Nyerere, Sokoinne, Kawawaetc

 Civic education. People should be taught the disadvantages of corruption through mass media

 Corruption should be taught at all levels of education,

 Independent legal institutions dealing with corruption. The existing today independent

institutions such as the director general PCCB, Chair person of National Electoral Committee

and Judge of high court are presidential appointees therefore they can not fight corruption to

the top leadership of the government

Module 4: STATE AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT: LECTURE 4

POLITICAL IDEAS IN AFRICA: LECTURE 6

Did we have political ideas in Africa before colonialism? In order to answer this question we need to

visit the following two views looking at their relevance.

 Euro centric view

 Afro centric view

Euro centric view: This is Europeans’ view which opposes the existing of African political ideas before

coming the Europeans. The view has the following arguments;

35
 1. African was dark and civilized continent before coming the Europeans; therefore they ask a question

that how is it possible to have political ideas in Africa while their people were underdeveloped?

2. Underdevelopment of Africa is ordained by God and economic backwardness of Africa are generic

backwardness of the race of black Africans due to the story of Noah from the Bible of Genesis 9:18-27

which states as “the sons of Noah who came from the ark were Shem, Ham and Japheth. When Noah

drank some of its wine, he became drunk and lay uncovered inside of his tent. Ham the father of

Canaan saw his father’s nakedness and told his two brothers outside. But Shem and Japhet took a

garment and covered him while their faces were turned on the other way without looking at the

nakedness of their father. When Noah woke from his wine and found out what his youngest son had

done to him he said, cursed be Canaan, the lowest slave and will be the slave of your brother and

blessed the Lord the God of Shem and Japheth will live in the tents of Shem.”

Afro centric View: The view rejects the Eurocentric view that Africa had no political ideas during pre-

colonial era. During this period Africans had their own political ideas which enabled them to develop

socially and economically. Professor Mazrui from Kenya argues that during this period some parts of

Africa had already having social formation and social formation emerged as feudal states. These feudal

states had strong political organization eg West Africa the rise of Ghana Empire, Mali and Songhai

Empire,Monomotapa Empire in Zimbabwe and the Baganda kingdom in interlacustrine regions are

good examples of how Africans were very rich in political ideas.

What about colonialism era

During the period of colonialism in Africa, the people of Africa had a little political idea because the

colonialists distorted totally the African political ideas by planting the seeds of inferiority complex. In this

period Europeans were seen as more superior than Africans. It was through inferiority which made Africans

36
to demands their rights against them people like Nyerere, Kwame Nkurumah, Obotte, Kenyatta, Fanon,

Amicably Cabral etc

1. Nkrumah-

-was born in 1909 I the colony of gold Coast (Ghana), it was British colony

-He graduated as a teacher at Achnotar teachers’ college

-He graduated M.A (Education) at Licon University, M.A (philosophy) Filvania University

-ideas: he believed on traditional African society based on equality and dignity

-African socialism

-African unity (continental unity

-Democracy but one political party

2. Nyerere,JK

-Was born in 1922 at Butiama- Musoma in Tanzania

-His father was a chief of Zanaki

-in 1949 he went in Edinburgh University London and studied M.A (History, Economic and Philosophy)

-In 1954 he became the founder of TANU

Ideas:

-He believed as Nkrumah on traditional African society based an equality and dignity

-African socialism

-African unity but he advocated on regional organizations first to be strong and later forming continental

unity.

-Democracy should belong to all people and not minority in number.

3. Senkotore:

-He lived in Guinea

37
-He believed that African unity should be the fifth stage (last stage) of all success and he arranged as

follows (a) pre-colonial society

(b) Colonial conquest

(c) Colonial period

(d) Anti-colonial struggle to achieve independence

(e)African unity

-He believed on Democracy but it should come from stronger political party which will have the will of the

party egccm believes

- He believed on socialism which will come after revolution, this socialism will nd up the conflict of the

individuals.

4. Leoapard Senghor (Negritude) ideas against segregation

-He lived in Senegal

-He came with a theory of negritude that Africa is for black and black people must rule themselves

-The priorities for Africans should be given themselves and therefore the development of his theory based

on two levels;

(a) Negritude in continental level-African should be ruled themselves

(b) Negritude outside of Africa- Africa should accommodate others who are out of African continent.

-He said that the war of Africa is the war of Africa wherever they are, so black America should assist their

fellow Africans.

5. Fanon (violence)

- He was a philosopher and not a leader

-He believed on violence because the colonialists took our continent by violence, so violence is the means

of getting our independence.

38
6. Obotte (common man charter)

-He was a freedom fighter in Uganda

-he had two enemies to fight (a) to fight against British colonialist

(b) to liberate people from feudalism this was under kulaks.

-He formulated common man charter; he believed on socialism that nothing is possible without eliminating

feudalism

7. Amical Cabral (Portuguese colony Guinea Bissau)

-He came up with a theory of Cultural Revolution. That is meant that independence can be succeeded once

we shall change the culture of the people

-By doing so people may join to the guerrilla war (eg Mozambique).

8. Kaunda (Humanity)

-He lived in Zambia

-He was non-violence

-He demanded freedom without blood-shed

-He was a follower of Matma Gandh

-He believed that you have a love and tolerance to your enemy

9. Kenyatta

-He lived in Kenya

-He believed on democratic principles of one political party

-He believed a lot of political parties are a symbol of conflicts in the society.

10. Prof Abrahaman Babu

-He came from Zanzibar

-He believed on African socialism

39
--He came from Zanzibar

-He believed on African socialism

AFRICAN NATIONALISM

Brace (1953) refers to nationalism as justifying ideology of national state, is a system of symbols of

justification for acts of a state; others define nationalism as a group of consciousness, a sense of unity or

community that identifies the individual with an existing political state, it is a state of mind, a feeling, as

common sympathies, as a corporate sentiment prevalent among groups of human beings; others say

nationalism was a desire of Africans to get their own independence from the colonialists.

African nationalism began early especially during the 1 st World war and after the Second World War African

nationalism gained more momentum. There were two main factors which gave birth the rise of nationalism,

these were, external and internal factors.

EXTERNAL FACTORS

1. Emergence of UNO 1945

UNO stimulated independence for Africans for a number of ways.

-in 1940’s UNO provided a charter of decolonization for Africans and the charter stated that “ to respect the

right of all people and to make them to choose the form of government under which people like themselves”

2. The role played by American president and British prime Minister

-The American president sir Roosevelt and British prime minister sir William Churchill signed a charter for

decolonization of Africa.

3. The rise of Pan-Africanism

40
-It contributed due to its conferences which conducted outside and inside of Africa. Eg Manchester

conference which was attended by African elites such as Kenyatta of Kenya, Nkruma, Matma Gandh where

they discussed on man one vote

The Bandung conference in Indonesia in 1955 which was Afro-Asians conferences, Cairo 1957, Accra

1958,

4. The rise of two antagonistic camps (USSR and USA)

-After the Second World War they emerged two antagonistic camps such as USA and USSR both having

different political ideologies, eg USSR had socialism ideology therefore she advocated African nationalism

because she was feeling by so called proletariat internationalism; thus was why her foreign minister sir

V.M. Motolov when he was addressing the UNO conference at San Francisco I in 1945 he said “ first of all

we must see to it that all dependant territories are enabled to get the path of independence as soon as

possible”.

-At the same time USA was a capitalist country she supported because she had no any colony in the world

so she wanted decolonization of Africa in order to exploit the new independent ones through in the form of

neo-colonialism, thus was why after 1945 America formed Breton wood institutions IMF and World Bank as

capitalist tool of exploitation.

5. The Italo-Ethiopian conflict

-The failure of Italy to invade Ethiopia in 1896 and in 1935 ordered by Mussolini was a big lesson to learn

among the Africans that African can resist their nations against invaders. This was used as a moral

encouragement among the African fighters.

6. The role of returned –e-soldiers from the war

41
These soldiers brought political awareness to their fellow Africans by telling them what had happened in the

war after looking at the European askaris running away from the war. These African askaris realized

themselves that Europeans and Africans are the same human beings.

6. The rise of dialectical law

This was a scientific law which gained more momentum after the Second World War and it stated that

“wherever there is resistance in a particular area there is also a oppression and wherever there is

oppression there is also there is also resistance.” This law was quoted by African elites wherever they

wanted to address their grievances against Europeans exploitation.

INTERNAL FACTORS

1. Intensive colonial exploitation

After the Second World War the colonial powers were running back and therefore they failed to raise their

colonial economy. In order to compensate their economy the colonialists used harsh rules in plantation,

settler plantation and in peasant economy. Some of the harsh rules were; forced labor, taxation, land

alienation for Shona and Ndebele for Zimbabwe and Kenya for Kikuyu.

2. Cooperative unions and Trade unions

These incorporated by political parties in order to demand their independence eg in Tanzania, the Tanzania

Federation of Labor incorporated by TANU to oppose colonialism, while Kenya the Luo trading union

incorporated by KANU to oppose colonialism.

3. Welfare associations

The Africans formed various associations which encouraged them in political awareness wherever they met

together eg games, clubs social activities

4. Colonial education

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The content of colonial education was not designed to serve the African interests rather it was designed to

serve Europeans interests. Bout their aim came vice-versa after the few who received such education

acted as ant-colonialists such as Nyerere, Kaunda, Obote, Nkrumah, Kenyatta

-But why some African countries applied the barrel of the gun and not peaceful means?

1.Types of colonialism

Those countries which had settler dominated economy and plantation applied the barrel of the gun because

the colonialists had a lot of investments. But peasant agriculture economy applied peaceful means because

the colonial economy was left on the hands of peasants so it was easy to resist.

2.The position of colonizing power within the capitalist system

The richest colonial powers were easier to surrender the independence than poor colonial powers eg

British and Portuguese respectively.

3. The strong creation of puppet regime

The creation puppet regime within the African states for a large extent delayed the African independence.

Egfalse independence of Zimbabwe in 1965 to Abel Mzolewa as appointed by Ian Smith of South Africa by

so called unilateral declaration of Independence (UDI)

POLITICAL CONFLICT IN AFRICAT:

-The term conflict has many definitions; is misunderstanding of ideas between the two groups of people.

This misunderstanding of ideas can be in socio-economic or political matters.

Why do we have political conflict in Africa? African continent is characterized by a numbers of political

conflict eg Zimbabwe, Somalia, Kenya, Rwanda, Congo DRC Sudan south and north etc.

i) Scarcity of land: Some African countries have large areas of land while others have small areas; those

which have small areas of land are trying to intervene the others eg Uganda and Tanzania in 1978,

43
ii) Tribalism/ ethnics; Uganda with Baganda, Rwanda with Hutu and Tutsi, Somalia etc

iii) Lack of employment among the youths: There is a strong correlation between unemployment and

political strife/ conflict. Unemployed people are likely more to engage in political conflict than employed

people they have nothing to loose. Eg in Libya demonstration 2011, in Kenya at Kibira street, etc

IV) Religious factor: Both Christians and Islam are contributing to political conflict if not handled carefully eg

in Sudan northern part is controlled by Islam while southern part is controlled by Christians, Nigeria etc

Vi) Political ideologies of the states: This normally is happened when a radical reader is against the

westerners in exploiting the African resources then the coup d’état may happen, eg CONGO DRC Kabila

father

vii) Monopolization of power for a long time: Some African leaders are not staying on power for long time

and not willing to surrender their power through constitution methods, egUganda Museven, Togo, Ivory

coast (Laurent Bagbovswatara), Senegal (Wade) etc

viii) Lack of good governance: The absence of good governance and human rights in certain may

contribute to political conflict. People may lose hope to their leaders.

IMPACT OF POLITICAL CONFLICT IN AFRICA

1. The rise of economic instability: When there is a war the economy becomes unstable because people

cannot concentrate fully in economic activities rather they will run away to escape dying.

2. Availability of diseases: HIV, and other communicable diseases

3. Depopulation: Loss of people, eg Rwand genocide at Kimbari in 1994 it was estimated more than 2.im

lost their lives, Congo DRC 1.5 m, Somalia 1.m

4. Destruction of infrastructure: Roads, schools, hospitals bridges may be bombed and destructed

5. Violation of human rights egtorture, rapping, robbery, human skinning business, in Sudan the Khartoum

government used Janjawid to kill black Africans

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6. Availability of environmental degradation: When people are fighting normally environment is destroyed at

large.

7. Creation of refugees: people may run away to escape the war and become as refugees

What can be done?

1. Diplomatic method: This includes negotiation of the two parts and discuss together on the table, eg

Somalia, Kenya ODM and PNU, SUDAN, etc

2. Military intervention: This is international army which may be sent to a particular nation in order to keep

peace. This can be done as a last stage if negotiation is failing away.

3. Imposition of sanctions: The international bodies eg Security Council and big powers may impose

economic embargo to between the fighters, egIran, Syria, Eritrea etc

4. The provision of civic education and military techniques among people, e Tanzania during Mwalimu

Nyerere regime it was compulsory a student to attend national service before getting employment.

MODULE 5: ETHICS AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: LECTURE 5

The term Ethics can be defined as the study of, moral values of human behavior. Etymologically the word
ethics comes from a Latin word Ethos which means customs, practices, laws or usages. Ethics comes
human person history that looked at themselves and is looking at their own and tries to ask the following
questions:
 Who are we
 How best can we live our lives
 Is this right way of living?
 Is there no better way of living like this? These questions were asked many years ago among the
Greece Philosophers such as Plato, Socrates and Aristotle.
 Ethics is one of the branches of Philosophy which shows right conduct and good life. In Ethics we
expect the society to have good life through moral conduct a person will make right and fair to
another person.
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 WHY DO WE STUDY ETHICS
 To help us to understand where we are now, what are doing now and what do we
expect to do in future
 To make people to distinguish the right from wrong (rightness) from wrong
( wrongness)
SPHERES OF ETHICS
The sphere of ethics always changes time to time according to the changes facing the society. The society
is not static rather it is dynamic and ethics also changes according to the needs of society at that time. The
spheres of ethics are in social, political, economic and environment etc. Within these spheres the main
spheres we get as what is known as professionalism ethics such as teaching ethics, medical ethics, legal
ethics, business ethics etc.

SOCIAL INSTITUITIONS CONTRIBUTING ETHICAL CONDUCT

TYPES OF FAMILY AND ETHICAL CONDUCT

1. FAMILY INSTITUTIONS
Family is one of the institutions in the society which is expected to have goodness life by avoiding evils.
The family constitutes of father mother and children who are expected to live a goodness life acting as
human dignity by trying to maintain the moral values of the society. But in the real sense families do not
have goodness life because the moral values of the society have been eroded away. Some examples of
eroded moral values within the society are;
 Rapping; today there high level of rapping in our society. People are rapping both young children
and adults rapping to a child aged three years old. But most amazingly some of the rappers are
religious leaders both Islam and Christians. So what do you expect in the society when the
rappers are religious leaders? Will you expect goodness life to that society? The answer is no
 Drug abuse: There is also high level of drug abuse which is nicked by local term Mateja
 Domestic violence: wife beating, children etc
 Homosexuality behavior: This is a very critical problem and it worldwide problem. Today most of
the African countries there is high level of homosexuality compared to the previous time. We are
always witnessing people having the same sex conducting their marriages publicity.

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 In USA the Massachusset province is legalized the rights of same marriage; In England it was believed
that the Anglican Bishop at that time was homosexuality. The former prime minister of England at that
time sir David Cameroon announce that there will be no any African countries which will be able to
qualify to receive grants and loans from IMF and World bank if they will not practice homosexuality.
That ides was also supported by the former America president Obama.
In Africa particular, South Africa and Malawi are also legalized homosexuality, also in Tanzania the
number of body sellers is also increasing day to day and they called with nick name as dada poa from
manzese, Buguruni, ohio street etc in Dar.
 Corruption: is a result of erosion in the society. Today corruption is rampant for every ectc in
Tanzania. It has affected negatively the professionalism ethics of many of the people like medical
ethics, teaching ethics legal ethics etc
According to Ethical Conduct, leaders are not allowed to receive corruption or to misbehave. Leaders are
expected to obedient acting right and fair to the people endowed with high dignity. During the time of
Mwalimu Nyerere’s regime, he introduced ethical leadership conduct(Miikoya Uongozi) where a person
who became a leader was responsible to follow that conduct. Likewise today , under president Magufuli, he
has formulated the commission of conduct of leaders which is under judge Nsekela. For example of CODE
OF CONDUCT BIDING PUBLIC SERVANTS IN TANZANA is shown below:

I. Ethical Conduct and Behaviors

In order for the Public Service to be efficient and respected Public Servants must behave and conduct themselves in
a manner as stipulated below:-

1. Respect all Human Rights and be courteous;

2. Perform diligently and in a disciplined manner;

3. Promote team work;

4. Pursue excellence in service;

5. Exercise responsibility and good stewardship;

6. Promote transparency and accountability;

7. Discharge duties with integrity, and

8. Maintain political neutrality.

This code will explain each of these expectations in more detail.

II. Respect Human Rights and being courteous: Democratic Rights

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1. A Public Servant has the right of being a member of any Political Party and can vote both for his/her Political Party
and in general elections.

2. A Public Servant can become a member of any religious sect provided that he/she does not contravene the
existing laws. However since the government has no religion, religious beliefs should not be advocated in Public
Service Offices.

3. A Public Service shall not discriminate or harass a Discrimination member of the public or a fellow employee on
grounds of sex, tribe, religion, nationality, ethnicity, marital status or disability.

4. A Public Servant shall be courteous to senior and fellow employees as well as to all clients and particularly the
clients being served. If a public servant is requested to clarify or to provide direction on issues arising from laws,
regulations and procedures, the employee will do so with clarity and promptness. Courtesy to all

5. A Public Servant will respect other employees , their rights, as well as their right to privacy especially when
handling private and personal information. Respect for all Sexual Harassment

6. A Public Servant shall refrain from having sexual relationships at the workplace . Likewise he/she will avoid all
types of conduct which may constitute sexual harassment which include:-

i) Pressure for sexual activity or sexual favors with a fellow employee;

ii) Rape, sexual battery and molestation or any sexual assault;

iii) Intentional physical conduct which is sexual in nature such as unwelcome touching, pinching, patting, grabbing

5 and or brushing against another employee's body, hair or clothes;

iv) Sexual innuendoes, gestures, noises, jokes, comments or remarks to another person about one's sexuality or
body;

v) Offering or receiving preferential treatment, promises or rewards and offering or submitting to sexual favors. III.
Discipline and Diligence I For efficient performance a public servant will Diligent perform his/her duties diligently and
with a high degree of discipline. An employee shall therefore use the time, skills and expertise one has so as to attain
the expected goals. Public servants are expected to: Discipline i) Obey the law. Decisions should not be biased
because of religion, ethnicity), sex, personal interests or any relationship; ii) Obey and effect lawful directives; iii)
Carry out assigned duties efficiently, Where a public servant considers that he she is being asked to act improperly
he/she shall report the matter to his her superiors in accordance with the laid down procedures:

6 iv) Be ready to work at any duty

IV Team Work Team Work Public Servants will strive to promote team work Team Work by offering help to co-
employees whenever the need so arises. Team work will be achieved by public servants observing the following:

- i) Giving instructions which are clear and undistorted;

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 ii) Giving due weight and consideration to official views submitted by fellow employees and subordinates; iii)
Ensuring that subordinate’s clearly understand the scope of their work and encourage them 8 to enhance their
competence and skills;

iv) Giving credit to an employee with outstanding performance and not seeking personal credit at the employee’s
expense, v) Avoiding malicious actions or words intended to ridicule either subordinates or superiors; vi) Reporting
on his/her subordinates to be done fairly and without any fear.

V. Pursuing of Excellence in Service: Since the Public service is geared towards provision Excellence in of excellent
services, public servants will do the Service following:- Excellence in Service

i) Strive to achieve the highest standards of performance;

ii) If a member of a professional body (doctors, teachers, pharmacists, engineers, lawyers e.t.c.) then adhere to their
respective professional Code of Conduct;

iii) Strive to acquire new knowledge and skills continuously and use them effectively; and iv) Recognize the need for
training and strive to get such training. 9

VI. Exercise Responsibility and Good Stewardship I. A Public Servant shall act within the boundaries of the authority
and responsibilities delegated. In doing so he/she shall:- Exercising Responsibilities i) make decisions in line with
authorized standards and procedures; and ii) discharge duties effectively and be accountable for one's own actions.
2. A Public Servant shall safeguard public funds Public and other properties of the public, entrusted property to
him/her and shall ensure that no damage, loss, misappropriation occurs to the funds or public property; Public
Property A Public Servant will use such resources for public use only. Public property includes office suppliers,
telephones, computers, copiers, buildings and other properties purchased with Government funds or donated to the
Government. Expenses met by Government or services such as telephone, water and electricity are also part of
public property. 10 VII. Transparency and Accountability I. A Public Servant will adhere to and practice meritocratic
principles in appointments, promotions and while delivering any service. He/she will be accountable both for actions
and inactions through normal tiers of authority.

Transparency and Accountability 2.

i) A Public Servant shall conduct meetings for the purpose of promoting efficiency and shall not use meetings as a
way of avoiding being responsible for the decision he/she is supposed to have made on her/ his own;

ii) A Public Servant shall not engage in unofficial activities or projects during official hours or conduct such activities
or projects within the office premises or by using public property; and

iii) A Public Servant shall be ready to declare his/her property or that of his/her spouse when required to do so.
Loyalty to the Government 3. A Public Servant shall be Loyal to the duly constituted Government of the day and will
therefore, implement policies and decisions given by the Minister or any other Government leader. 11 VIII. Discharge
Duties with Integrity: Adherence to laws

1. A Public Servant shall not fear to abide to Laws, Regulations and Procedures when discharging his/her duties.

49
 2. A Public Servant shall not so Corruption licit, force or accept bribes from a person whom he/she is serving, has
already served or will be serving either by doing so in person or by using another person

. 3. i) A Public Servant or any member of his/her family shall Gifts not receive presents in form of money,
entertainments or any service from a person that may be regarded as geared towards compromising his/her integrity.

ii) A Public Servant may accept or give nominal gifts such as pens, calendars and diaries in small amount . iii) A
Public Servant will return to the donor any other gift or handle them over to the - government, in which case a receipt
will be issued. Conflict of interest

4. A Public Servant shall perform his/her duties honestly and impartially to avoid circumstances that may lead to
conflict of interest. If conflict of interest arises he/she shall inform his/her superiors who will decide upon the best
course of action to resolve it.

12 5. A Public Servant shall not borrow to the extent of not being able to repay the debts as this will discredit the
public service as well as affect his/her ability to make unbiased decisions. Pecuniary Embarrassment IX Political
Neutrality: I. A Public Servant can participate in politics provided that when so doing he/she observes the following
limitations:- Political Participation i) shall not conduct or engage oneself with political activities during official hours or
at work premises; ii) shall not take part in political activity which will compromjse or be seen to compromise his/her
loyalty to the Government; iii) shall not provide services with bias due to his/her political affiliation; iv) shall not pass
information or documents availed through his/her position in the service to his/her political party.

Political Influence 2. Although public servants have a right to communicate with their political representatives they:-

13 i) shall not use such influence to intervene on matters affecting him/her which are in dispute between the
government and him/her;

The Code of Ethics and Conduct has been issued pursuant to the Public Service Act. A breach of the Code will be
dealt with under the Public Service Act, National Security Act, Prevention of Corruption Act or any other relevant law.
On its part the government has the obligations to provide the following things:-

• Establish meritocratic principles and procedures to be used in appointments. promotions and in all other service
delivery activities;

• Establish a system, which specifies the authority. responsibilities and expected actions of each public servant which
can then be assessed after a specific time;

• Effect an appraisal system, which will enable a public employee to participate in assessing his/her performance; •
Ensure that safe working conditions prevail which will enable the public employee to discharge his/her duties without
undue risk or fear

3. Military institution
4. Education Institution
5. Working places
6. Parliament

Virtue and vices in the society

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Virtue is defined as a person’s behavior /attitudes of high moral standards in the society. There are two
types of virtue:
 Theological virtues ( faith, hope and love)
 Cardinal virtues ( prudence, justice, temperance, fortitude)
CARDINAL Virtue
 Prudence is the intellectual virtue which enables the intellect to judge correctly in matters
patterning to ethical order. Here a person is able to judge correctly in each individual case what
the ethical order demands of him/her. Prudence is concerned with the adaption of the proper
means required to realize the ends of human person in all his/her relationships. Prudence inquiries
into the nature of the end sought and the various means capable of realizing it. Prudence then
judges the best means under the concrete situation of the case.
 Justice: This is fair treatment of people, treating people equallywithout favoritisms equitable share
of social benefits of the society, he takes 10 percent of the money and buys an old one, is he just
to the fellow citizens?
 Temperance: the practice of controlling your behavior like not eating food which is restricted by
society or religion eg not eating pock for Islam
 Fortitude. This is another virtue which is makes someone to suffer a lot when he/ she is in a great
obstacle and decide to use her / his patriotism spirit in order to make good decision for
development of the society.
THEOLOGICAL VIRTUE
1. Love; If you have another person you may make him to love you so much . The more the love
you show me the higher I love you too much. Lack of love in the society leads to ethical
problems like killings ( albino), rapping, robbery, etc
 Love has the following qualities

1. Love is silent: There are times when we cannot give reason why we love. Love is for its own sake i.e.
you are my friend come what may.
2. Love is communion: It unites two lovers (I-You) without destroying any one’s identity. The two (I-You)
make an effort to make the other realize him/herself. In love the two complement each other (love is not a
fusion), love makes one grow by acquiring from the other what he/she lacks.

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3. Love is presence: It is a living experience of being present for the other. And deeper implies “I” going to
penetrate the “You” and live there, and the” You” too penetrating the “I” and staying there.
4. Self-giving: Love makes the “I” a gift to the “YOU”. It is directed to the completion of the other and in the
process the “I” fulfils itself. Far from subjectivity the other to the self, love helps the “You” to become the self
in the full exercise of self directing freedom.
5. Love is creative: It is vigorous commitment towards the fulfillment of the other. It influences and helps the
other to grow.
6. Love is reciprocal: It brings the “I” and the “You” in communion and the two become “We” or “Us” of love.
7. Love is supreme value: All values fuse without losing their identity. It animates all other values i.e. a
worker who works for love accomplishes the task better and more than the worker of salary.
Family
It is generally agreed that all people accept that family is an institute basic and fundamental to human
beings. Human being is asocial being and this aspect starts here in the family institution. Our being already
presupposes a family which is well founded reality. Human sexuality inclines to a union of man and woman
in love. This union called marriage is not an accident; the union leads the two to have children who further
strengthen the union of husband and wife. On this ground marriage has been considered as a natural
institution. Today, this natural institution is widely questioned, the phenomenon of divorce alone is a proof
that people’s attitude towards marriage has vigorously changed. Traditional understanding of marriage is
between man and woman; this can be a man and many women (polygamy) or one woman and many men
(polyandry). Traditionally, there were a number of reasons for marriage:
1. To control sexual activities and relations.
2. To provide a stable setting for the generation of children and for the continuation of the society.
3. Marriage was to raise and integrate the children into the society.
4. Marriage was to nourish and develop the adults emotionally (maturity). It is believed that celibate people
are so aggressive because they miss what is in marriage and thus load it on others. It was believed that
celibates can be so uncharitable as a result of their missing marriage life.
5. Marriage was to furnish the settings of the economic activities. The two collaborate in the economic
activities.
6. Marriage was to assign social status to its members i.e. Mr and Mrs. Today these functions are
challenged and subjected to change. The factors that contribute to this challenge are:

52
1. Movement of the society: A married man from Tanzania working in South Africa is temporarily separated
from his wife.
2. Questioning of sex roles: A person is born a man and wants to become a woman or a woman wants to
become a man. A woman conceiving marriage as submission to the man.
3. Urbanization.
4. Industrialization which brings urbanization.
5. Technological advancement: contraceptives, cloning, bottle children (sperm
banks, test tube children).
TYPES OF FAMILY
1. Both parents and children are living together in the same house
2. Single adults living together without children
3. Single man living alone without a woman or children
4. Single woman living alone without a man/ children
5. Single man living with children but without woman ( divorce )
6. Single woman living with children without a man ( divorce ).
Due to the absence of love in the family is now leads to the by so called Empty –shell Marriages. These
empty –shell marriages ate categorized into three types:

1. Diverse empty shell- marriage: This is a kind of empty shell-marriage in which the husband or wife
lacks sexual interest to another couple. This kind of marriage is characterized by :
 No consideration between man and woman (no love for each other).
 marriage exists because of the external force from outside either by religious leaders/
parents or husband is worrying to divorce her because he may lose the job
 The time of sleeping each one is sleeping alone but during the day they may walk
together in the church but they aren’t compatible
2. Conflict habituated empty shell marriage:
 This is a type of marriage in which husband and wife are fighting every sun rise and sun
sets. They may fight in private or public affairs
 They tend to be compatible while not
 This type of marriage has one peculiar characteristic that although they are fighting yet
they can do sex intercourse but once they finish their action they may fight again
3. Passive Congenial empty shell marriage: Here the spouses make sexual intercourse in order to
feel his / her interest but they don’t have true love.
 One spouse contributes little participation to his/ her spouse

They walk together but they aren’t fighting but their problem is to reach sexual climax
53
ETHICAL THEORIES –

INTRODUCTION:

Ethical theories provide part of the decision-making foundation for Decision Making When Ethics Are In
Play because these theories represent the viewpoints from which individuals seek guidance as they make
decisions. Each theory emphasizes different points – a different decision-making style or a decision rule—
such as predicting the outcome and following one’s duties to others in order to reach what the individual
considers an ethically correct decision. In order to understand ethical decision making, it is important for
students to realize that not everyone makes decisions in the same way, using the same information,
employing the same decision rules. In order to further understand ethical theory, there must be some
understanding of a common set of goals that decision makers seek to achieve in order to be successful.
Four of these goals include beneficence, least harm, respect for autonomy, and justice. SLIDE 2 -
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES Beneficence The principle of beneficence guides the decision maker to do what is
right and good. This priority to “do good” makes an ethical perspective and possible solution to an ethical
dilemma acceptable.

This principle is also related to the principle of utility, which states that we should attempt to generate the
largest ratio of good over evil possible in the world. This principle stipulates that ethical theories should
strive to achieve the greatest amount of good because people benefit from the most good. This principle is
mainly associated with the utilitarian ethical theory discussed later in this set of notes. Least Harm Similar
to beneficence, least harm deals with situations in which no choice appears beneficial. In such cases,
decision makers seek to choose to do the least harm possible and to do harm to the fewest people.
Students might argue that people have a greater responsibility to “do no harm” than to take steps to benefit
others. For example, a student has a larger responsibility to simply walk past a teacher in the hallway rather
than to make derogatory remarks about that teacher as he/she walks past even though the student had
failed that teacher’s class. Respect for Autonomy, this principle states that decision making should focus on
allowing people to be autonomous—to be able to make decisions that apply to their lives.

Thus, people should have control over their lives as much as possible because they are the only people
who completely understand their chosen type of lifestyle. Ask students if they agree. Are there limits to
autonomy? Each individual deserves respect because only he/she has had those exact life experiences
and understands his emotions, motivations, and physical capabilities in such an intimate manner. In
essence, this ethical principle is an extension of the ethical principle of beneficence because a person who
is independent usually prefers to have control over his life experiences in order to obtain the lifestyle that
he/she enjoys. Justice The justice ethical principle states that decision makers should focus on actions that
are fair to those involved. This means that ethical decisions should be consistent with the ethical theory
unless extenuating circumstances that can be justified exist in the case. This also means that cases with
extenuating circumstances must contain a significant and vital difference from similar cases that justify the
inconsistent decision. Ask students if they describe what extenuating circumstances might be.

FORMS OF ETHICAL THEORIES

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For individuals, the ethical theory they employ for decision making guidance emphasizes aspects of an
ethical dilemma important to them and leads them to the most ethically correct resolution according to the
guidelines within the ethical theory itself.

Ethical Theories: Overview

Ethical Theories are attempts to provide a clear, unified account of what our ethical obligations are. They
are attempts, in other words, to tell a single “story” about what we are obligated to do, without referring
directly to specific examples. It is common in discussions of business ethics to appeal to one or more
ethical theories in an attempt to clarify what it is right or wrong to do in particular situations. Some of the
philosophical ethical theories commonly appealed to include:

 Utilitarianism, which says that the right thing to do in any situation is whatever will “do the most
good” (that is, produce the best outcomes) taking into consideration the interests of all concerned
parties; Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that determines right from wrong by focusing on outcomes. It
is a form of consequentialism. Utilitarianism holds that the most ethical choice is the one that will
produce the greatest good for the greatest number.

 Kantianism (or Deontology more generally), which says that—as a matter of respect—there are
certain absolute (or nearly absolute) rules that must be followed (for example, the rule that we must
respect people’s privacy, or respect other people’s right to make decisions about their own lives);
 Social Contract Theory (or “contractarianism”), which says that, in order to figure out what ethical
rules to follow, we ought to imagine what rules rational beings would agree to in an “ideal” decision-
making context;
 Virtue Theory, which says that we ought to focus not on what rules to follow, but on what kinds of
people (or organizations!) we want to be, and what kinds of ethical examples we ought to follow;
 Feminist Ethics, which is a complex, set of interrelated perspectives that emphasize interpersonal
concerns such as caring, interdependence, and the ethical requirements of particular relationships.
Such concerns are traditionally identified with women, but Feminist Ethics should not be thought of as a
theory only for women.
 Deontological ethics theory
 Virtue ethics theory
 Contractualism ethics theory
 Egoism ethics theory
 Naturalism ethics theory

In some cases, scholars attempt to use a single ethical theory to shed light on a topic or range of topics. (A
good example would be Norman Bowie’s book, Business Ethics: A Kantian Perspective.) A more typical
approach—one taken by many business ethics textbooks today—is to attempt to use insights from various
ethical theories to shed light on different aspects of a particular problem. Such an approach might involve,
for example, asking which decision in a particular situation would result in the best consequences (a
Utilitarian consideration) but then asking whether acting that way would violate any Kantian rules or
whether a person acting that way would be exhibiting the kinds of virtues that a good person would exhibit.

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The role of ethical theory in business ethics is somewhat controversial, in part because Business Ethics is
seen as a branch of “applied ethics.” Some regard applied ethics (and hence Business Ethics, along with
bioethics, environmental ethics, etc.) as a field that takes “standard” ethical theories and applies them to
practical problems. Such an approach might involve asking, for example, “What would Kant say about
privacy in the workplace?” Others regard applied ethics as an attempt to gain theoretical insight (or to
“build” better ethical theories) by testing them against real-life problems.

Morality as a science
Author Sam Harris has argued that we overestimate the relevance of many arguments against the science
of morality, arguments he believes scientists happily and rightly disregard in other domains of science like
physics. For example, scientists may find themselves attempting to argue against philosophical skeptics,
when Harris says they should be practically asking – as they would in any other domain – "why would we
listen to a solipsist in the first place?" This, Harris contends, is part of what it means to practice a science of
morality.
KEY NOTETO TAKE
Utilitarianism is a theory of morality, which advocates actions that foster happiness and oppose actions
that cause unhappiness.
 Utilitarianism promotes "the greatest amount of good for the greatest number of people."
 When used in a sociopolitical construct, utilitarian ethics aims for the betterment of society as a
whole.
 Utilitarianism is a reason-based approach to determining right and wrong, but it has limitations.
 Utilitarianism does not account for things like feelings and emotions, culture, or justice.

Understanding Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is a tradition of ethical philosophy that is associated with Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart
Mill, two late 18th- and 19th-century British philosophers, economists, and political thinkers. Utilitarianism
holds that an action is right if it tends to promote happiness and wrong if it tends to produce sadness, or
the reverse of happiness—not just the happiness of the actor but that of everyone affected by it.

At work, you display utilitarianism when you take actions to ensure that the office is a positive environment
for your co-workers to be in, and then make it so for yourself.

"The greatest good for the greatest number" is a maxim of utilitarianism.

The 3 Generally Accepted Axioms of Utilitarianism State That

 Pleasure, or happiness, is the only thing that has intrinsic value.
 Actions are right if they promote happiness, and wrong if they promote unhappiness.

 Everyone's happiness counts equally.

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What Are the Principles of Utilitarianism?
Utilitarianism puts forward that it is a virtue to improve one's life better by increasing the good things in the
world and minimizing the bad things. This means striving for pleasure and happiness while avoiding
discomfort o

What Is Rule Utilitarianism?

Rule utilitarian’s focus on the effects of actions that stem from certain rules or moral guidelines (e.g. the
"golden rule", the 10 commandments, or laws against murder). If an action conforms to a moral rule then
the act is moral. A rule is deemed moral if its existence increases the greater good than any other rule, or
the absence of such a rule.

Ethical egoism is the prescriptive doctrine that all persons ought to act from their own self-interest.

A. Personal ethical egoism is the belief that only I should act from the motive of self-interest, nothing
is stated about what motives others should act from.

1. Personal ethical egoism is not a theory because it is not generalized to others.

2. I cannot recommend personal ethical egoism to others because such a recommendation
would be against my own self-interest.
B. Individual ethical egoism is the prescriptive doctrine that all persons should serve my self-interest
(i.e.,egotism)
1. Individual ethical egoism is a belief that can't be consistent unless it applies to just one
person. In other words, this belief is not universalizable.
2. Practically speaking, the doctrine is similar to solipsism—there's no way to justify the belief
since it applies to just one person.
C. Universal ethical egoism is the universal doctrine that all persons should pursue their own interests
exclusively.
1. One problem is without knowledge of the world, how can we truly know what's in our best
interest? (c.f. the Socratic Paradox).
2. Another problem is trying to figure out what "their own interests" means. Does this phrase
mean short-term or long-term benefit, pleasure, happiness, preference, or something else?
What gives you pleasure might not be a benefit or in your interest.

A theory of ethics should

1. set forth systematically the first principles of morality

2. show how to justify these principles, and, as a result,

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 3. Elucidate a conception of a life of excellence for people.

Therefore, the theory should be both consistent and complete.

1. Consistency: there should be no contradictions or incompatible statements.

e.g., the injunctions from folklore morals, "Haste makes waste" and "Look before you leap" would
be inconsistent with "A stitch in time saves nine “or” The race is to the swift."

2. Completeness: there should be no moral truth which is not provable from the basic moral principles
of the theory.e.g., In Christian ethics, the principle "Render therefore unto Caesar the things which
are Caesar's" (Matthew 22:21) is meant to distinguish between secular and religious situations in
order to avoid political difficulty for religious belief and so would be an incomplete theory of action
in the secular realm.

Deontological Ethics, in philosophy, ethical theories that place special emphasis on the relationship
between duty and the morality of human actions. The term deontology is derived from the Greek deon,
“duty,” and logos, “science.”

In deontological ethics an action is considered morally good because of some characteristic of the action
itself, not because the product of the action is good. Deontological ethics holds that at least some acts are
morally obligatory regardless of their consequences for human welfare. Descriptive of such ethics are such
expressions as “Duty for duty’s sake,” “Virtue is its own reward,” and “Let justice be done though the
heavens fall.”

By contrast, teleological ethics (also called consequentialist ethics or consequentialism) holds that the basic
standard of morality is precisely the value of what an action brings into being. Deontological theories have
been termed formalistic, because their central principle lies in the conformity of an action to some rule
or law.

The first great philosopher to define deontological principles was Immanuel Kant, the 18th-century German
founder of critical philosophy (see Kantianism). Kant held that nothing is good without qualification except a
good will, and a good will is one that wills to act in accord with the moral law and out of respect for that law
rather than out of natural inclinations. He saw the moral law as a categorical imperative—i.e., an
unconditional command—and believed that its content could be established by human reason alone. Thus,
the supreme categorical imperative is: “Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will
that it should become a universal law.” Kant considered that formulation of the categorical imperative to be
equivalent to:

VIRTUE ethics example: . Honesty, courage, compassion, generosity, fidelity, integrity, fairness, self-
control, and prudence are all examples of virtues.

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IMPORTANT OF VIRTUE ETHICS

So, virtue ethics helps us understand what it means to be a virtuous human being. And, it gives us a guide
for living life without giving us specific rules for resolving ethical dilemmas.

Virtue Ethics (or Virtue Theory) is an approach to Ethics that emphasizes an individual's character as the
key element of ethical thinking, rather than rules about the acts themselves (Deontology) or
their consequences (Consequentialism).

There are three main strands of Virtue Ethics:

 Eudaimonism is the classical formulation of Virtue Ethics. It holds that the proper goal of human life
is eudaimonia (which can be variously translated as "happiness", "well-being" or the "good life"), and
that this goal can be achieved by a lifetime of practicing "arête" (the virtues) in one's everyday
activities, subject to the exercise of "phronesis" (practical wisdom) to resolve
any conflicts or dilemmas which might arise. Indeed, such a virtuous life would in
itself constitute eudaimonia, which should be seen as an objective, not a subjective, state,
characterized by the well-lived life, irrespective of the emotional state of the person experiencing it.
A virtue is a habit or quality that allows individuals to succeed at their purpose. Therefore, Virtue
Ethics is only intelligible if it is teleological (i.e. it includes an account of the purpose or meaning of
human life), a matter of some contention among philosophers since the beginning of time. Aristotle,
with whom Virtue Ethics is largely identified, categorized the virtues as moral virtues (including
prudence, justice, fortitude and temperance) and intellectual virtues (including "sophia" or theoretical
wisdom, and "phronesis" or practical wisdom). Aristotle further argued that each of the moral virtues
was a golden mean, or desirable middle ground, between two undesirable extremes (e.g. the virtue
of courage is a mean between the two vices of cowardice and foolhardiness).
 Ethics of Care was developed mainly by Feminist writers (e.g. Annette Baier) in the second half of
the 20th Century, and was motivated by the idea that men think in masculine terms such
as justice and autonomy, whereas woman think in feminine terms such as caring. It calls for
a change in how we view morality and the virtues, shifting towards virtues exemplified by women,
such as taking care of others, patience, the ability to nurture, self-sacrifice, etc, which have
been marginalized because society has not adequately valued the contributions of women. It
emphasizes the importance of solidarity, community and relationships rather than universal
standards and impartiality. It argues that instead of doing the right thing even if it requires personal
cost or sacrificing the interest of family or community members (as the
traditional Consequentialist and deontological approaches suggest), we can, and indeed should, put
the interests of those who are close to us above the interests of complete strangers.

 Agent-Based Theories, as developed recently by Michael Slote (1941 - ), give an account of virtue
based on our common-sense intuitions about which character traits are admirable (e.g.
benevolence, kindness, compassion, etc), which we can identify by looking at the people we admire,
our moral exemplars. The evaluation of actions is therefore dependent on ethical judgments about
the inner life of the agents who perform those actions.

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 Virtue Ethics, essentially Eudaimonism, was the prevailing approach to ethical thinking in
the Ancient and Medieval periods. It suffered something of an eclipse during the Early Modern period,
although it is still one of the three dominant approaches to normative Ethics (the others
being Deontology and Consequentialism).

The term "virtue ethics" is a relatively recent one, essentially coined during the 20th Century revival of the
theory, and it originally defined itself by calling for a change from the then dominant normative
theories of Deontology and Consequentialism.

History of Virtue Ethics Back to Top

Socrates, as represented in Plato's early dialogues, held that virtue is a sort of knowledge (the knowledge of
good and evil) that is required to reach the ultimate good, or eudaimonia, which is what all human desires
and actions aim to achieve. Discussion of what were known as the Four Cardinal
Virtues (prudence, justice, fortitude and temperance) can be found in Plato's "Republic". He also claimed
that the rational part of the soul or mind must govern the spirited, emotional and appetitive parts in order to
lead all desires and actions to eudaimonia, the principal constituent of which is virtue.

The concept reached its apotheosis in Aristotle's "Nicomachean Ethics" in the 4th
Century B.C.. Aristotle held that eudaimonia is constituted, not by honor, wealth or power, but by rational
activity in accordance with virtue over a complete life, what might be described today as productive self-
actualization. This rational activity, he judged, should manifest
as honesty, pride, friendliness, wittiness, rationality in judgment; mutually beneficial friendships and scientific
knowledge.

Non-Western moral and religious philosophies, such as Confucianism in ancient China, also incorporate
ideas that may appear similar to those developed by the ancient Greeks and, like ancient
Greek Ethics, Chinese ethical thought makes an explicit connection between virtue and statecraft or politics.

The Greek idea of the virtues was later incorporated into Scholastic Christian moral theology, particularly
by St. Thomas Aquinas in his "Summa Theologiae" of 1274 and his "Commentaries on the Nicomachean
Ethics". The Christian virtues were also based in large part on the Seven Virtues from Aurelius Clemens
Prudentius's epic poem (written c.
410 A.D.): chastity, temperance, charity, diligence, kindness, patience and humility. Practice of these virtues
was alleged to protect one against temptation from the Seven Deadly Sins (lust, gluttony, greed, sloth, wrath,
envy and pride).

Virtue Ethics has been a recurring theme of Political Philosophy, especially in the emergence of
classical Liberalism, the Scottish Enlightenment of the 18th Century, and the theoretical underpinnings
behind the American Revolution of 1775. However, although some Enlightenment philosophers (e.g. David
Hume) continued to emphasize the virtues, with the ascendancy of Utilitarianism and Deontology, Virtue
Ethics moved to the margins of Western philosophy.

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Criticisms of Virtue Ethics

According to critics, a major problem with the theory is the difficulty of establishing the nature of the virtues,
especially as different people, cultures and societies often have vastly different opinions on what constitutes
a virtue. Some proponents counter-argue that any character trait defined as a virtue must
be universally regarded as a virtue for all people in all times, so that such cultural relativism is not relevant.
Others, however, argue that the concept of virtue must indeed be relative and grounded in a particular time
and place, but this in no way negates the value of the theory, merely keeps it current.

Another objection is that the theory is not "action-guiding", and does not focus on what sorts of actions are
morally permitted and which ones are not, but rather on what sort of qualities someone ought to foster in
order to become a good person. Thus, a virtue theorist may argue that someone who commits a murder is
severely lacking in several important virtues (e.g. compassion and fairness, among others), but does
proscribe murder as an inherently immoral or impermissible sort of action, and the theory is
therefore useless as a universal norm of acceptable conduct suitable as a base for legislation. Virtue
theorists may retort that it is in fact possible to base a judicial system on the moral notion of virtues rather
than rules (modern theories of law related to Virtue Ethics are known as virtue jurisprudence, and focus on
the importance of character and human excellence as opposed to moral rules or consequences). They
argue that Virtue Ethics can also be action-guiding through observance of virtuous agents as exemplars,
and through the life-long process of moral learning, for which quick-fix rules are no substitute.

Some have argued that Virtue Ethics is self-centered because its primary concern is with the agent's own
character, whereas morality is supposed to be about other people, and how our actions affect other people.
Thus, any theory of ethics should require us to consider others for their own sake, and not because
particular actions may benefit us. Some argue that the whole concept of personal well-being (which is
essentially just self-interest) as an ethical master value is mistaken, especially as its very personal
nature does not admit to comparisons between individuals. Proponents counter that virtues in
themselves are concerned with how we respond to the needs of others, and that the good of the agent and
the good of others are not two separate aims, but both result from the exercise of virtue.

Other critics are concerned that Virtue Ethics leaves us hostage to luck, and that it is unfair that some people
will be lucky and receive the help and encouragement they need to attain moral maturity, while others will
not, through no fault of their own. Virtue Ethics, however, embraces moral luck, arguing that
the vulnerability of virtues is an essential feature of the human condition, which makes the attainment of the
good life all the more valuable.

Contractualism

The term ‘contractualism’ can be used in a broad sense — to indicate the view that morality is based on
contract or agreement — or in a narrow sense — to refer to a particular view developed in recent years by
the Harvard philosopher T. M. Scanlon, especially in his book What We Owe to Each Other. This essay

61
takes ‘contractualism’ in the narrower sense. We begin with a brief summary of Scanlon's contractualism,
and then situate his view in relation both to other social contract theories and to its main rival among
impartial accounts of morality — namely, utilitarianism. Our discussion is then organized around a series of
challenges to the contractualist account.

The term 'contractualism' can be used in a broad sense—to indicate the view that morality is based on
contract or agreement—or in a narrow sense—to refer to a particular view developed in recent years by the
Harvard philosopher

PROFESSIONALISM ETHICS

Professional ethics are principles that govern the behavior of a person or group in a business environment.
Like values, professional ethics provide rules on how a person should act towards other people and
institutions in such an environment.

EXAMPLES/ ELEMENTS OF PROFESSIONALISM: honesty, trustworthiness, transparency, accountability,

confidentiality, objectivity, respect, obedience to the law, and loyalty.

Following are nine (8) golden rules to being professional in service to your organization:

1. Always strive for excellence; this is the first rule to achieving greatness in whatever endeavor you
undertake this is the quality that makes you and your work stand out. Excellence is a quality of
service which is unusually good and so surpasses ordinary standards, it should be made a habit for
it to make a good impression on your bosses and colleagues.
2. Be trustworthy; in today’s society trust is an issue and any employee who exhibits trustworthiness
is on a fast track to professionalism. Trustworthiness is about fulfilling an assigned task and as an
extension- not letting down expectations, it is been dependable, and reliable when called upon to
deliver a service. In order to earn the trust of your bosses and colleagues, worth and integrity must
be proven over time.
3. Be courteous and respectful; courteousness is being friendly, polite and well mannered with a
gracious consideration towards others. It makes social interactions in the workplace run smoothly,
avoid conflicts and earn respect. Respect is a positive feeling of esteem or deference for a person
or organization; it is built over time and can be lost with one stupid or inconsiderate action.
Continued courteous interactions are required to maintain or increase the original respect gained.
4. Be honest, open and transparent; honesty is a facet of moral character that connotes positive and
virtuous attributes such as truthfulness, straightforwardness of conduct, loyalty, fairness, sincerity,
openness in communication and generally operating in a way for others to see what actions are
being performed. This is a virtue highly prized by employers and colleagues, for it builds trust and
increases your personal value to all.
5. Be competent and improve continually; competence is the ability of an individual to do a job
properly, it is a combination of knowledge, skills and behavior used to improve performance.
Competency grows through experience and to the extent one is willing to learn and adapt.
Continuous self-development is a prerequisite in offering professional service at all times.
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 6. Always be ethical; ethical behavior is acting within certain moral codes in accordance with the
generally accepted code of conduct or rules. It is always safe for an employee to “play by the
rules”. This is always the best policy and in instances the rule book is inadequate, acting with a
clear moral conscience is the right way to go. This may cause friction in some organizations but
ethical organizations will always stand by the right moral decisions and actions of their employees.
7. Always be honorable and act with integrity; honorable action is behaving in a way that portrays
“nobility of soul, magnanimity, and a scorn of meanness” which is derived from virtuous conduct
and personal integrity. This is a concept of “wholeness or completeness” of character in line with
certain values, believes, and principles with consistency in action and outcome.
8. Be respectful of confidentiality; confidentiality is respecting the set of rules or promise that restricts
you from further and unauthorized dissemination of information. Over the course of your career,
information will be passed on to you in confidence – either from the organization or from
colleagues- and it is important to be true to such confidences. You gain the trust and respect of
those confiding in you and increase your influence within the organization.
9. Set good examples; applying the foregoing rules helps you improve your professionalism within
your organization but it is not complete until you impact knowledge on those around and below
you. You must show and lead by a good example. Being a professional is about living an
exemplary life within and without the organization.

Professionalism is highly valued by every organization today and professionals are hardly out of work.
Apply the ten golden rules of professionalism and enjoy a wonderful, professional and prosperous career.

NATURALISM THEORY OF ETHICS

It is viewed that moral terms, concepts, or properties are ultimately definable in terms of facts about the
natural world, including facts about human beings, human nature, and human societies.

Types of naturalism theory of Ethics

1. Metaphysical Naturalism: Moral facts are natural facts.

2. Epistemic Naturalism: We know moral claims are true in the same way that we know
about claims in the natural sciences

Ethical theories that can be naturalistic [edit]

 Altruism
 Consequentialism
 Consequentiality libertarianism
 Cornell realism
 Ethical egoism/ Objectivism

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 Evolutionary ethics
 Hedonism
 Humanistic ethics
 Natural-rights libertarianism
 Utilitarianism
 Virtue ethics

Criticisms
Ethical naturalism has been criticized most prominently by ethical non-naturalist G. E. Moore, who
formulated the open-question argument. Garner and Rosen say that a common definition of "natural
property" is one "which can be discovered by sense observation or experience, experiment, or through any
of the available means of science." They also say that a good definition of "natural property" is problematic
but that "it is only in criticism of naturalism, or in an attempt to distinguish between naturalistic and no
naturalistic defines theories, that such a concept is needed."[5] R. M. Hare also criticized ethical naturalism
because of what he considered its fallacious definition of the terms 'good' or 'right', saying that value-terms
being part of our prescriptive moral language are not reducible to descriptive terms: "Value-terms have a
special function in language, that of commending; and so they plainly cannot be defined in terms of other
words which themselves do not perform this function".[6].

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Are a global call to action to end poverty, protect the earth’s environment and climate, and ensure that
people everywhere can enjoy peace and prosperity. These are the goals the UN is working on in Tanzania.
Are also known as the Global Goals, were adopted by the United Nations in 2015 as a universal call to
action to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure that by 2030 all people enjoy peace and prosperity.

17GOALS
The 17 Sustainable Development Goals are: (1) no poverty, (2) zero hunger, (3) good health and well-
being, (4) quality education, (5) gender equality, (6) clean water, (7) affordable and clean energy, (8)
decent work and economic growth, (9) industry, innovation and infrastructure, (10) reduced inequality,(11
Sustainable Cities and Communities,(12) Responsible Consumption and Production,(13) Climate Action
(14) Climate Action (15) Climate Action(16) Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions(17) Peace, Justice and
Strong Institutions
Criticisms:

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  Lack of legitimacy
 Human rights
 Human capital-they lack education, enrollment is very low
 Equity
 Women's empowerment is an issue to some African countries
Success/ Progress

 Multilateral debt reduction: Finance Ministers met in London in June 2005 in preparation for
the Gleneagles Summit in July and agreed to provide enough funds to the World Bank, IMF and
the African Development Bank (AfDB) to cancel the remaining HIPC multilateral debt ($40 to
$55 billion). Recipients would theoretically re-channel debt payments to health and education. The
Gleneagles plan became the Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative (MDRI). Countries became eligible
once their lending agency confirmed that the countries had continued to maintain the reforms they
had implemented.[54]While the World Bank and AFDB limited MDRI to countries that complete the
HIPC program, the IMF's eligibility criteria were slightly less restrictive so as to comply with the
IMF's unique "uniform treatment" requirement. Instead of limiting eligibility to HIPC countries, any
country with per capita income of $380 or less qualified for debt cancellation. The IMF adopted the
$380 threshold because it closely approximated the HIPC threshold.[54]
 Improving living conditions in developing countries may encourage healthy workers not to move to
other places that offer a better lifestyle for their countries
 Increasing of enrolment rate to some African country
 Reduce of maternal death
SEMINAR QUESTIONS

1. “Development is Multidimensional process that cannot be explained by either social or

economic system”. How far do you support or refute the statement
2. “The causes of underdevelopment in the Less Developing countries (LDCs) are internally rooted
rather than externally rooted”. Provide critical analysis of this statement
3. “Africa’s development challenges are purely internally and should be solved internally because
they have little bearing to external factors” Critically discuss the validity of this statement using
relevant examples.
4. Describe W.W. Rostow’s stages of development theory and show its limitations in explaining
development trajectories for African countries.
5. Clearly explain the major contributions of the following theorists in understanding problems of
African development:
 Walter Rodney
 Ragner Nukse
 Karl Marx
 W.W Rostow
 Emanuel Wallenstein

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6. Using African countries of your choice show the relevance of dependency school of thought in
explaining the problems o underdevelopment.
7. “Development is a multidisciplinary and multidimensional concept”. Discuss this assertion as
you survey the different meanings of development in the history of human knowledge and
development.
8. Africa’s development challenges are purely internal, should be solved internally because they
have little bearing to external factors. Discuss
9. “Underdevelopment of the Periphery countries can be explained historically”. How far do you
support or refute this statement
10. Discuss the general features of third world countries and provide a critical assessment of these
features on how they can be addressed
11. Outlines the main causes and indicators of gender inequalities in any country of your choice and
provide concrete proposals on how to address them.
12. “If we transform institutions, we can begin transform gender relations.” Discuss
13. Analyses different forms of gender inequalities in education, employment, home and legislative
and their causes and how can be addressed.
14. One of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) is to promote gender equality and empower
women. How best can African countries achieve this goal?
15. Respect for Human rights is an important strategic and facilitating instrument that ensures rapid
economic growth and social development are achieved and sustained in country.” Discuss
16. “Lack of good governance is a serious challenge facing many African countries”. Discuss
17. “Human rights and Good governance are necessary ingredients for realizing democracy and
sustainable development in Africa”. Discuss this statement in the context of human rights
practice in Tanzania or any African country of your choice
18. Critically discuss the contention that failure to respect Human rights provides a very convincing
explanations of why Africa remains underdeveloped and its level of democracy continues
fragile..
19. Compare and contrast centralization type of leadership from decentralization, and suggest
which type of leadership plays active role to the society.
20. Discuss the differences between centralized and decentralized decision making, support your
argument using central and local governments in Tanzania
21. The second world war in Africa was the watershed of African history.” Discuss this statement
with concrete examples.
22. .”Conflict, civil war and political strife pose serious obstacles to the development process in
Africa”. Make a critical analysis of the causes, consequences and possible solutions to this
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23. Situation. What is ethics? By using concrete examples, discuss ethical challenges in any
society

24. What are the 10 moral values to our society

25. The growing state of poverty and unemployment in Africa has internal links. Discus this
statement by taking in consideration the ongoing process of globalization.
26. Suppose you are appointed by permanent secretary of the Ministry of Land to director of
Planning Surveyor of Temeke Municipal, what issues will you address ethically to control the
rate of corruption in your working place?
27. What is ethics and morality? Discus any moral values and show their importance to the society
28. “Sustainable Development Goals ( SDGs) is un applicable to African societies” By using
concrete examples discuss and the failure and how to address the problem

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