Junctions in devices

➢ Formation of electronic devices requires putting together two or more dissimilar materials
(semiconductors, metals, insulators).
➢ The interface between these materials becomes crucial because it effects the electrical
properties (transport) of the devices. This interface is called the junction.
➢ An ideal junction is one where there are no defects formed at the interface.
➢ Forming ideal junctions is challenging and most real materials have defects at the interface
which can effect the electronic properties. But we can get an idea of the interaction between
materials by studying ideal junction. 1. Metal-Metal (Pt-Mo)

2. Metal-semiconductor (Si-Au)

3. Semiconductor-Semiconductor (P-N)
 >
contact potential
Metal-Metal Junction

Fermi levels must line up at equilibrium (no external bias)

➢ The distance from the Fermi level to the vacuum level is called the work function

➢ Electrons move from Mo to Pt a net positive charge develops on the Mo side and a net negative charge on the
Pt side
Contact potential is related to the difference in the work functions
 Thermocouples
➢ Metal-metal junctions are used to form
thermocouples, which are used for
accurate temperature measurements.

➢ Temperature measurement by a contact

and non-contact technique. Pyrometer
Seeback potential

S is called the Seeback coefficient and is a material

dependent parameter and also a function of temperature.
 Thermocouples

The potential can be measured using a standard digital

voltmeter and converted into temperature.
 Metal and Semiconductor junctions
Two types

➢ Electrons can move from

semiconductor to metal, forming
a contact potential.

➢ The electrons are removed not

only from the surface but also
from a certain depth within the
semiconductor.

Formation of a depletion
region within the
semiconductor
 Schottky junction
highest resistivity

Contact potential =

The barrier for the electrons to move from the n-type

SB CP semiconductor to the metal.

Schottky barrier metal to semiconductor.

 Schottky junction under forward bias

Metal N-Semiconductor Metal N-Semiconductor

A is the Richardson constant for thermionic emission

 Schottky junction under reverse bias

Metal N-Semiconductor
Metal N-Semiconductor
➢ I-V characteristics of a Schottky junction between n-Si and Au.
➢ The barrier potential energy is 0.83 eV
➢ Forward bias current is more than three orders of magnitude higher than the reverse bias
current
 Ohmic junction

The accumulation region has a higher conductivity than the bulk of the semiconductor due to this
higher concentration of electrons.
 Ohmic junction under bias

Heat Heat
absorption release

Semiconductor to
Metal
Metal to
semiconductor

Reverse bias Forward bias

 Peltier cooler

For Ohmic junctions, depending on the direction of current flow (forward or reverse
bias), heat can be generated or absorbed.
Semiconductor-Semiconductor (P-N)
 Let the cross-sectional area of the junction be A. Hence, for charge
balance

the depletion width is inversely proportional to the dopant concentration

 one-dimensional interface

The boundary
condition is that
the field must
go to zero at the
boundaries i.e.
x = -wp
and x = wn

at

NA Wp = Nd Wn Another proof
the potential function should be continuous the two expressions at x = 0
 Junction potential
the potential prevents further motion of carriers once equilibrium is reached

Boltzmann statistics
NA Wp = Nd Wn
➢ This shift when converted to potential gives a value
of 0.78 V which is the contact potential

➢ The contact potential developed in a pn junction due

to the motion of the charge carriers is nothing but
the shift in Fermi levels to achieve equilibrium.
 Contact potential for various semiconductors

With increasing band gap, the contact potential also increases.

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