SOURCES OF WATER:

The primary source of water is rain. As the rain falls part of it percolates into the ground,
another part is lost through evaporation/transpiration and the rest flows into rivers and
streams and eventually into lakes and oceans.
Thus sources of water are:
 Groundwater (subsurface water)
 streams
 Rivers
 Lakes

Others are:

 Water pans
 Ponds
 Impounded reservoirs

Sources of water are broadly classified into three namely rainwater, groundwater and surface
water.

Rain Water:
This is the primary source of water that replenishes the other sources through hydrological
cycle. Groundwater get recharged from rain water and similarly rivers, lakes, seas and oceans
and continuously fed by rain water. The figure of hydrological cycle hereunder shows the
interdependence of the water sources for sustainability.
The collection and storage of rainwater is referred to as Rain Water Harvesting (RWH).

Definition of RWH:
RWH is defined as the collection of rainfall from various surfaces such as roofs, ground, rocks or
any other surface and its storage in structures such as tanks, pans, dams to provide water for
domestic use, livestock, commercial purposes or supplemental irrigation. The term includes
flood water harvesting as well as water stored within the soil profile.

This unit is concerned with the water harvested from open surfaces and stored in structures
which is basically rainwater that is harvested and directed into a storage facility.
Rainwater Collection and Storage:
Most water supplies mainly obtain water from rivers, lakes and groundwater. However, rivers
and groundwater turnover accounts for only 40% of the rain and snow that falls on the land
surfaces. In some of the dry areas, rivers may account for as little as 4% of the precipitation.
In areas where rivers represent a small percentage of annual precipitation or where available
technology is expensive to exploit river water, then collection of rain water immediately it falls
for use becomes feasible. This is mainly more feasible at household and small community level.
This is done by collecting rainwater from roofs, directing runoff from paved and unpaved
surfaces to a cistern, from hilly and rock surfaces and specially surfaced areas into cisterns. In
most of the semi-arid and arid areas in Kenya, water pans have been widely used to collect
rainwater.
Types of Rainwater Harvesting Systems:

1. Land Based Systems:

 Collecting runoff from land surfaces
 Water pans or ponds
 Reservoirs

2. Roof Based Systems:

 Collecting runoff from roof surfaces
 Cisterns or water tanks (plastic, concrete, iron etc)
 Any other form of containers
Benefits of Rainwater Harvesting:

 Zero hardness, pH neutral, sodium free and very little contamination

 Ease pressure on water utilities: lower peak demand, delay infrastructure development,
lower demand on other sources
 Safeguard environment: reduces storm water runoff, reduces nonpoint source pollution
and creates awareness of value of water

Rainwater harvesting and utilization is applicable to all climate zones but are more suitable in
arid and semi-arid (ASAL) areas at household and small community levels. ASAL areas have an
average annual rainfall of 200-800mm. rainwater harvesting is ideal where there is sufficient
rain but inadequate groundwater supply and surface water resources are either lacking or
insufficient.
Constraints associated with RWH:
Project Scale: RWH projects are small in scale and nature and therefore unattractive where
large quantities of water are required.
Cost: storage facilities are expensive especially for small communities and individual
households. Similarly O&M costs which includes repair, materials, transport, spare parts and
desilting can be very high.

Poor Workmanship: poor quality construction, materials and failure to follow right procedures
can lead to failure of storage structures.
Seepage Losses: particularly in unlined pans, ponds and earth dams. Materials to control
seepage can be very costly.
High evaporation losses: most of these systems are located in hot areas where evaporation
rate is high especially from open pans, tanks and dams.
Siltation: rainwater is normally collected during intense rainfall events, which usually carry
large volumes of silt. This silt is deposited in the storage facility thereby reducing its useful
storage capacity. After sometime it the storage facility may require desilting which is expensive.
Limited technical capacity: of personnel, artisans implementing RWH projects which hamper
proper selection of site, construction, O&M of storage structures as well as delivery systems.
Socio-economic constraints: includes land ownership, cultural values and community
mobilization hamper developmentand management of such projects.

DATA COLLECTION AND DESIGN CRITERIA OF A RWH PROJECT

Planning and design of rainwater collection and storage system is based on water demand for
the various uses of the targeted community. The targeted community may not only use water
for domestic purposes but also for livestock watering, grow crops and even commercial and
industrial purposes.

Thus well planned rainwater collection and storage systems must provide water to
communities with onsite water supply which is easily accessible that is either at home or near
their homesteads. It should be cheap to construct, operate, maintain and have a long functional
lifespan. If well designed it can provide a safe source of water at a low cost compared to
conventional methods.
In order to determine whether RWH system is feasible in any particular situation, it will be
important to determine anticipated rainwater yield and compare it with the water demand of
the targeted area. The resulting system, should then be compared together with technical,
socioeconomic and environmental considerations with possible alternative forms of water
supply available. It is after this that a decision is made whether to or not implement a RWH
system.
Design of RWH system involves a number of considerations and components. They include the
following:
i. Potential rainfall both in terms of amount and intensity for the purpose of calculating
the yield.
ii. Catchment surface from which the rainwater will be collected.
iii. Storage facility where rainwater will be stored until it is used.
iv. Delivery system to transport water from the catchment to where it will be stored –
delivery pipes, gutters, downpipes etc.
v. Water drawing device to draw water from the storage facility – piping, tap, bucket or
pump etc.
vi. Other auxiliary structures – sedimentation basins, filters, spillways and other safety
features.

RAINWATER HARVESTING POTENTIAL (YIELD):

This is the total amount of water which will be effectively harvested from a given catchment
area. There are several factors which influence the rainwater harvesting potential. They
include:
1) Amount of rainfall
2) Intensity of rainfall
3) Catchment characteristics – slope, vegetation, permeability – all of which determine the
coefficient of runoff of the surface.

Rainfall can be harvested in both wet and dry zones and seasons. Sizing of RWH system
depends on:
 Rainfall amounts
 Intensity of rainfall
 Seasonal patterns

In wet zones(areas) the structures will be smaller than in the dry zones where large storage are
required to take care of long dry periods between the rainy seasons. It is always important to
gather adequate rainfall data and its characteristics for proper design.

DETERMINING QUANTITY OF WATER FROM THE CATCHMENT:

The quantity of rainwater which can be harvested from a given catchment over a given period
depends on amount of rainfall in that period, the catchment area and coefficient of runoff
coefficient. Runoff coefficient which is always less than one, takes care of losses due to spillage,
leakage, infiltration, catchment surface wetting and evaporation which all contribute to
reducing amount of runoff and hence the yield of the catchment. It is determined as follows:
Quantity of water harvested = rainfall in mm X area of catchment X runoff coefficient

Runoff coefficient is the factor that takes care the fact that not all the rain falling on the
catchment can be collected.
Runoff coefficient = volume of runoff collected / volume of rainfall
This coefficient is normally 0.8 for metal roofs. It can be higher if the roofs and gutters are well
constructed and sized. For ground catchments it is much lower.
Typical runoff coefficients for various catchment surfaces are given in the table hereunder.
Table showing typical runoff coefficients from different surfaces:

Type of catchment Typical runoff coefficient

Roof Catchments:
 Corrugated metal sheets 0.7 – 0.9
 Tiles
0.8 – 0.9

Paved surfaces:

 Concrete pavement 0.6 – 0.8

 Brick pavement
0.5 – 0.6

Unpaved ground:

 Soil on slope 0.0 – 0.3

 Rocky natural surface 0.2 – 0.5
 Vegetated area
0.05 – 0.1

DETERMINATION OF STORAGE CAPACITY:

The purpose of storage is to ensure that excessive rainwater during the wet season is stored for
use during the dry season. The storage capacity is determined to accommodate enough water
to meet the water demand in the dry season including the time when rainwater supply is less
than water demand. For example, if a daily household water demand is 200 litres and dry
season lasts for 100 days, then storage capacity should be 20,000 litres. This method does not
however take into account variations in different years, rainfall input or capacity of the
catchment to deliver adequate runoff to fill the storage tank. For these reasons, a more
rigorous/accurate methods are used such as graphical, statistical and computer based methods.
Capacity required, V = (t X n X q) + et
Where,
V = capacity of storage required
t = length of dry season in days
n = number of people using tank
q = consumption per capita per day
et = evaporation loss = 0 for closed tank

RAIN WATER CONVEYANCE SYSTEM:

Rainwater conveyance systems are components of RWH system that collect water from the
catchment surfaces and deliver it to the storage facilities. They ordinarily include gutters and
pipes for roof catchment.
Groundwater:

The earth is formed of different layers of materials like clay, sand, gravel, rock etc. The layers
that allow water to flow through are referred to as pervious layers or water bearing and are
known as aquifers. Others like clay and rock do not allow water to flow through and they are
called impervious layers. The figure below shows pervious and impervious layers.

The top surface of water in the soil is called the water table.
Groundwater can be extracted through springs, wells and infiltration galleries. Wells can be:
hand dug, artesian, tube well or boreholes or infiltration wells.
Springs:
A spring is formed when the water bearing stratum get exposed on the slopes of the hills.
 TYPICAL SPRING
Wells:

Wells are classified into two namely: shallow wells and deep wells. However it is important to
note that the terms shallow and deep as used here do not refer to the actual depths of the
wells. It is possible to find shallow wells which are deeper than deep wells.
Shallow wells:
Groundwater is found in the uppermost layer of earth. The well is dug to below the water table.
They get their water directly from the top pervious layer of the earth. They do not cross any
impervious layer. They are suitable to supply water in the rural area especially to one or a few
households.

Deep wells (Tube wells or Boreholes):

These are wells drilled to an aquifer below an impervious stratum. The water is usually clean as
it is naturally filtered as it travels through soil particles to the site of the well. However it may
be hard as it may contain dissolved salts.
Deep wells are usually of small diameter (0.15 -1.0m) normally large enough to accommodate a
pump. The depth can be up to 300-350m. They are usually done by drilling rigs.

Artesian well:
Artesian well is one which water rises to the surface due to its own pressure at the point it is
encountered. They occur when the pervious stratum is enclosed between two impervious
strata with the outcrop so high above the ground that the hydraulic grade level is above the
ground level.
 Artesian Well

Infiltration Gallery:

They are feasible where the layer of sand and porous alluvium is at least 2m deep in the bed of
the river. The gallery is usually laid perpendicular to the direction of flow of the river. They are
normally located where stream or river velocities are low.
 Infiltration Gallery

YIELD OF A WELL
When water is pumped from a well, the level of water in the well falls. The hydraulic gradient
assumes a slope towards the well as in the figure below. A cone of depression is formed within
the circle of influence. The fall in water level in the well is called drawdown and the inclined
part of the water table the drawdown curve. The well can be in an unconfined or confined
aquifer. The general assumptions that apply in cases about the hydraulic conditions of the
aquifer and the pumping and observation wells are:
1. The aquifer is bounded on the bottom by a confining layer
2. All geological formations are horizontal and of infinite horizontal extent
3. The potentiometric surface of the aquifer is horizontal prior to the start of pumping
 4. The potentiometric surface of the aquifer is not changing with time prior to the start of
pumping
5. All the changes in the position of potentiometric surface are due to the effect of the
pumping of the well alone
6. The aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic
7. All flow is radial towards the well
8. Groundwater flow is horizontal
9. Darcy’s law is valid
10. Groundwater has constant density and viscosity
11. The pumping well and observation wells are penetrating i.e. they are screened over the
entire thickness of the aquifer
12. The well has an infinitesimal diameter and is 100% efficient

UNCONFINED AQUIFER
Assumptions:

1. The aquifer is unconfined

2. The aquifer has infinite aerial extent
3. The aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic and of uniform thickness
4. The water table is horizontal prior to pumping
5. The aquifer is pumped at a constant discharged rate
6. The well penetrates the full thickness of the aquifer and thus receives water from the
entire saturated thickness of the aquifer

The yield of a well in an unconfined aquifer, Q in m3/day, depends on the following factors:
1. H, the static head or the height of the water table from the impervious stratum,
2. h, the depth of water in the well just after pumping, in m
3. R, the radius of circle of influence, in m
4. ί, slope of drawdown curve or hydraulic gradient.
5. K, Hydraulic conductivity of the water bearing formation, in m3/day/m2 (m/day) which is
a constant for a given formation (aquifer).
6. r, the diameter of the well in m
From Darcy’s formula for flow rate of water in the ground;
Q = KiA thus v = K ί where v = velocity of the flow of water in m/day and A the area.
Where:
Q, is the yield of the well in m3/day
K, is hydraulic conductivity (permeability of the aquifer) in m3/day/m2 or m/day
ί, is slope of draw down curve, or hydraulic gradient
Let the coordinates of any point on the draw down curve be (x, y)
Then:
A = (∏Dh) or = 2∏xy
D = diameter at that point (x, y)
H = height of water table
Therefore;
Q = Av = 2∏xy.K ί = 2∏xy.K.dy/dx
OR
Q⅟x.dx = 2∏K.ydy
On integrating:
Q∫⅟x.dx = 2∏K.∫ydy
Q.Inx = 2∏K.⅟2y2
Integrating from the point (x1, y1) to the point (x2, y2) you get:

Q = ∏K((y2)2 – (y1)2)
In(x2/x1)
When:
X1 = r
X2 = R
y1 = h
y2 = H

Q = ∏K.(H2 – h2)
InR – Inr

Q = ∏K.(H2 – h2) m3/day

In(R/r)

Converting to common log (base 10):

Q = ∏K (H2 – h2)
2.3log10(R/r)

OR:
Q = 1.36K (H2 – h2)
log10(R/r)

CONFINED AQUIFER
Assumptions:
1. The aquifer is confined
2. The aquifer is infinite
3. The aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic and of uniform thickness
4. The water table is horizontal prior to pumping
5. The aquifer is pumped at a constant discharged rate
6. The well penetrates the full thickness of the aquifer and thus receives water by
horizontal flow.

The yield of a well in a confined aquifer, Q in m3/day, depends on the following factors:
1. H, the static head or the height of the water table from the impervious stratum,
2. h, the depth of water in the well just after pumping, in m
3. b, the thickness of the confined aquifer
4. R, the radius of circle of influence, in m
5. ί, slope of drawdown curve or hydraulic gradient.
6. K, Hydraulic conductivity of the water bearing formation, in m3/day/m2 (m/day) which is
a constant for a given formation (aquifer).
7. r, the diameter of the well in m
From Darcy’s formula for flow rate of water in the ground;
Q = KiA thus v = K ί where v = velocity of the flow of water in m/day and A the area.
Where:
Q, is the yield of the well in m3/day
K, is hydraulic conductivity (permeability of the aquifer) in m3/day/m2 or m/day
ί, is slope of draw down curve, or hydraulic gradient
Let the coordinates of any point on the draw down curve be (x, y)
Then:
A = (∏Dh) or = 2∏xb
D = diameter at that point (x, y)
H = height of water table
b = the thickness of the aquifer
Therefore;*
Q = Av = 2∏xb.K ί = 2∏xb.K.dy/dx
OR
Q⅟x.dx = 2∏bK. dy
On integrating:
Q∫⅟x.dx = 2∏bK.∫ dy
Q.Inx = 2∏bK.y
Integrating from the point (x1, y1) to the point (x2, y2) you get:

Q(Inx2 – Inx1) = 2∏bK(y2 – y1)

Q = 2∏bK(y2 – y1)
In(x2/x1)
When:
X1 = r
X2 = R
y1 = h
y2 = H

Q = 2∏bK.(H – h)
InR – Inr

Q = 2∏bK.(H – h) m3/day
InR/r

Converting to common log (base 10):

Q = 2∏bK (H – h)
2.3log10R/r
OR:

Q = 2.73bK (H – h)
log10R/r
SURFACE WATER:
Surface water is available in form of:

1) Rivers and streams

2) Natural lakes
3) Artificial lakes formed by impounding reservoir by a dam
4) Rainwater from roofs
5) Water ponds both natural and manmade/artificial

The portion of rainfall running in streams is called runoff. Factors that determine the portion of
rainfall that is runoff are:
a. The geographical features of the catchment
b. Topography of the catchment
c. Soil type
d. Geological structure
e. Storage in the catchment
f. Temperature
g. Character of rainfall
h. Amount of rainfall

The portion in percentage is usually 20-50 %. Indicative runoff coefficients for some surfaces
are given in the table below.

Surface Description Indicative Runoff Coefficient

Business areas depending on density 0.70 – 0.95

Apartment dwelling areas 0.50 – 0.70

Single family areas 0.30 – 0.50

Parks, playgrounds 0.10 – 0.25

Paved streets 0.80 -0.95

Watertight roofs 0.70 – 0.95

Lawns, depending on surface slope and character of subsoil 0.10 – 0.25

Determination of average runoff:

Every catchment area is unique and therefore no general formula can be used. There are a
number of empirical formulae for determining runoff.
Records of up to 30 years or more are studied to establish the characteristics of the catchment.
The following methods are used.
i. Q = 250.CAR
9
Where:
Q = runoff in l/s
C = Constant depending on area
A = Area in hectares
R = rainfall in cm/h

ii. Actual gauging of streams

iii. Using runoff tables or runoff curves – runoff can be estimated
Methods of determining the maximum discharge
The methods are:
1. Rainfall records
. Area, A, of catchment measured from the map
. Amount of rainfall, d, arrived at from the records
. Maximum discharge, Q, calculated
Q = Ad Where Q = discharge; A = area of the catchment and d = amount of rainfall.

2. Empirical Formulae:
 Dicken’s formula:
Q = 0.01387CM3/4
Where:
Q = discharge in m3
C = Constant (250 for large catchment areas or 1600 for small catchment areas)
M = the catchment area in Km2

Ryve’s formula:
Q = 0.015CM3
Where:
C = 450 – 675
Q = discharge in m3
M = the catchment area in Km2

Inglis formula:

Q = 319
√M
3. Flood levels:
Chezy’s formula:
V = C√(RS)
Where:
V = Velocity of flow in m/s
C = Constant depending on the hydraulic mean depth and roughness of the surface
S = Slope and
R = hydraulic mean depth in m.

Bazin’s formula:

C = 87
1 + r/√R
4. Rating curves
5. Gauging:
Q = AV
Where:
Q = discharge
A = Cross-sectional area measured
V = Velocity measured using current-meter, velocity rods, weirs, pitot tubes
MASS DIAGRAM:
If during the dry season yield is more than the requirements (demand) then storage is NOT
required. However if the yield is less than the demand then storage is required. The quantity of
storage can be computed using a Mass Curve.
The mass curve gives the relationship between – Total quantity of water consumed or supplied
and – Water available for storage at any time from the beginning of the year.
The storage is also necessary when the distribution or service reservoir is filled by pumping
because the pumping is not done continuously while demand is continuous for the whole day.
The mass curve for a tank is drawn as follows:
1) Select period of investigation of the yield from the catchment and the demand
2) Determine the runoff each month (accumulated) for the period
3) Let the horizontal axis represent months and years from the selected period
4) Let the vertical axis represent the accumulated stream flow
5) Plot the accumulated runoff against period (months and years). – OA
6) Plot the demand which is assumed to be a straight line
 Mass Curve Diagram

The storage required is determined by drawing the lines parallel to the demand curve and
tangent to the mass supply curve, Measure the greatest vertical distance between the tangents
in a pair. That will be the requisite storage.
IMPOUNDING RESERVOIR:
It is required for water supply when the lowest flow of the stream is less than the average daily
demand.

Where possible the reservoir is sited where it will command the entire area without pumping.
The following salient features should be considered in the selection of the site for the
impounding reservoir.
 Should be on an impermeable stratum
 In narrow valley to avoid long dam
 Absence of objectionable salts and minerals to ensure good quality water
 Land to be submerged to be cheap
 Site to be clear of marshy layers and vegetation which affect colour, odour and taste of
water
 The slopes throughout the basin should be steep to reduce the surface area per unit
volume in such a way that the undesirable shallow water and surface evaporation may
be diminished.
 The valley of stream in which the dam is to be constructed should be rapidly widening
upstream of the dam so that it may afford the greater average volume per meter height
of the dam.
 The capacity of the reservoir should be such that it ensures the total demand of water
for the town to be delivered continuously

The capacity depends upon the climatic conditions of the locality and the period of dry
weather.
According to Hawkesley’s rule:
D = 1600
√F
Where:
D = Number of days for which the supply is to be stored
F = the mean annual rainfall of three consecutive dry years expressed in cm
 Siltation is minimal

SELECTION OF SOURCE:
Both surface and underground water can be utilized for water supply. Which one is selected
depends on the local conditions and the requirements – permanency, adequacy and the cost of
the schemes. Water quality of the source will also influence the choice of the source.
 INTAKE STRUCTURES:
After the source has been identified and decided – the next stage is to draw the water from the
source, treat it to the required standards before distributing it to the consumers. The devices
installed for the purpose of drawing water from the source are called intakes.
A typical intake consists of an opening from the source, a conduit and a sump.

Selection of the site of intake:

The selection criteria for the intake site are:
 availability of sufficient and good quality water in all the seasons
 Velocity/currents of the water
 Absence of possible sources of pollution
 Altitude relative to the supply area – supply by gravity preferred
 Distance to the supply area – the nearer the better to reduce the costs

Usually the intakes are constructed with stone, concrete blocks or reinforced concrete. In some
cases devices are provided to control flow into the intake.

Classification of intakes
Intakes can be classified according to the source – Reservoir, lake or river intakes etc. They can
either be gravity intakes where water flows by gravity to the treatment works or pumping
intakes where water is pumped to the treatment plant.
Reservoir Intake
A typical reservoir intake consists of intake tower (well), outlet pipe with a draw off at different
levels and gangway. As far as possible, water should be drawn from the top to avoid water with
silt and clay usually at the bottom.
 Reservoir
Intake

Depending on the water level in the reservoir any one of the pipes at different levels is used.

River intake
River intakes are usually located upstream of the supply/settled area to avoid pollution. Weir
across the river may be necessary to maintain the same depth even during low flows.
Intake well to abstract water from a river
When the difference in water level in the river fluctuates so much such that during the wet
season it is so high while in the dry season it is very low then small weirs are constructed across
the river to store water.

Canal intake
Typically consists of a pipe intake placed in a canal bed and enclosed in a concrete wall.
Canal Intake

Lake intake:
Lake intakes are usually submerged intakes.They are constructed in the bed of the lake such
that water can be drawn even in dry seasons. The intake mainly consists of:
 draw off pipe laid in the bed of the lake and properly anchored/supported
 bell mouth opening fitted with a mesh to act as a screen/strainer and protected with a
concrete surround
 sump to which water is drawn before it is pumped
 pump
 rising or pumping main
Lake Intake