I hear and I forget. I see and I remember.

I
do and I understand.
-Confucius

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Introduction to cells
IBDP Biology

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Looking trends and discrepancies: although
most organisms conform to cell theory,
there are exceptions.

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 Application

Questioning the cell theory using atypical examples,

striated muscles,
giant algae
aseptate fungal hyphae.

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 To test the cell theory

Look as many organism as you can under

microscope to find if they fit to cell theory

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Amphibian RBC

Mammalian RBC

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Septate Hyphae Aseptate (coencytic) Hyphae

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Spirogyra (algae)
Size 10-100 um Giant algae (Acetabularia)

This is single cell algae

having only one nucleus.
Size 5-100mm

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 Skeletal (striated) muscle
Smooth muscle

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 Viruses are considered alive by
some, yet they are not made up of
cells. Viruses have many features
of life, but by definition of the cell
theory, they are not alive.

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 Understandings

Organisms consisting of only one cell carry

out all functions of life

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 • Metabolism - the web of all the enzyme-catalysed reactions in a cell or
M organism, e.g. respiration
R • Response - Living things can respond to and interact with the environment
H • Homeostasis - The maintenance and regulation of internal cell conditions,
e.g. water and pH
G • Growth - Living things can grow or change size / shape
R • Excretion – the removal of metabolic waste
E • Reproduction - Living things produce offspring, either sexually or asexually
• Nutrition – feeding by either the synthesis of organic molecules (e.g.
N photosynthesis) or the absorption of organic matter
MR. H. GREN 19
 Application:

Investigate if a Paramecium and a named

photosynthetic unicellular organism can perform the
functions of life

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Match the two columns
with lines

A Contractile
vacuole

D Cell
membrane

E
Cytoplasm

B
Cilia

C Food Vacuole

F
Nucleus

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Excretion – the plasma membrane Homeostasis – contractile vacuole fill up with Response – the
control the entry and exit of water and expelIed through the plasma membrane wave action of the
substances including expulsion of to manage the water content cilia moves the
metabolic waste paramecium in
response to
changes in the
environment, e.g.
towards food.
Metabolism –
most metabolic
pathways happen
in the cytoplasm

Source: http://umanitoba.ca/Biology/BIOL1030/Lab1/biolab1_3.html#Ciliophora

Nutrition – food vacuoles
contain organisms the
parameium has consumed
Growth – after consuming and
assimilating biomass from food
the paramecium will get larger
until it divides.
Reproduction – The nucleus can
divide to support cell division by
mitosis, reproduction is often
asexual
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Activity 1.1
Prepare a ppt

• Select a micrograph image and a diagram of any photosynthetic unicellular organism

(like Chlamydomonas, chlorella).

• state its habitat

• Label those organelles (in both micrograph and diagram) which are involved in
functions of life.

• Type the descriptions of how these organelles perform functions of life (MR.H.
GREN)
Presentation should be original
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 Understandings

Multicellular organisms have properties

that emerge from the interaction of their
cellular component.

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 Difference between unicellular and multicellular organism

In Multicellular organisms cells depend on each other to survive, whereas

all the life processes in a unicellular organism take place in that one cell.

Multicellular organisms can be much larger and more complex. This is

because the cells of the organism have specialised into
many different types of cells such as nerve cells, blood cells, muscle cells
all performing different functions.

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 Volvox aureus
o a type of algae

o Unicellular
o Lives in colonies
o Colony is a ball of protein gel
with cells attached on its
surface
o Cells not fused together to
form a single mass and
hence not a single organism.

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 Caenorhabditis elegans
o Multicellular: cells are fused together
o Adult body size 1mm
o Adult body has exactly 959 cells (whereas a human
body has 10,000,000,000,000 cells)
o No common name
o Lives in decomposing organic matter
o Feeds on decomposer bacteria
o Has mouth, pharynx, intestine and anus
o Hermaphrodite
o Almost 1/3 of the cells are nurones
o All cells cooperate but none is the leader, they all
interact together to make C.elegans a living
organism with distinctive overall properties.
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The characteristics of the whole organism, including the
fact that it is alive, are known as Emergent properties

Emergent properties arise from the interaction of the

component parts of a complex structure.

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 Emergent properties are like jigsaw puzzle

Emergent property is
a property which a complex system
has, but which the individual
members do not have.

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Human consciousness is often called an emergent property of the human
brain.
No single neuron holds complex information like self-awareness, hope or
pride.
Nonetheless, the sum of all neurons in the nervous system generate complex
human emotions like fear and joy, none of which can be attributed to a
single neuron.

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 Understandings

Specialized tissues can develop by cell

differentiation in multicellular organisms.

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The development of cells in different ways to carry out specific functions is called
differentiation.

A group of cells specialized to perform the same function is called as tissue

In multicellular organisms, different cells perform different functions. This is sometimes

called as division of labour.

Example, Red blood cells are specialized to carry oxygen. In this the cell develop in such a way
that it has many haemoglobin (it also sacrifices its space for nucleus to accommodate more
haemoglobin) as well as changes its shape into biconcave.

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 Understanding

Differentiation involves the expression of

some genes and not others in cell’s genome

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The control of gene expression is the key to development

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 Understanding

The capacity of stem cells to divide and

differentiate along different pathways is
necessary in embryonic development. It
also makes stem cells suitable for
therapeutic use

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Embryonic stem cells

Adult stem cells

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 Teaching assignment
Page 13 to 16 of Oxford Biology (Andrew Allot)
Applications:
o Use of stem cells to treat Stargardt’s disease and one other named condition.
o Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from specially created embryos. From the
umbilical cord blood of a new-born baby and from an adult’s own tissues.

Nature of Science:
o Ethical implications of research: research involving stem cells is growing in
importance and raises ethical issues.

While teaching this you should be able to present an argument in both for
and against of the use of stem cells
Make bibliography also
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 Stargardt's macular dystrophy

The • Affects around one in 10,000 children

problem • Recessive genetic (inherited) condition
• The mutation causes an active transport protein on photoreceptor cells
to malfunction
• The photoreceptor cells degenerate
• the production of a dysfunctional protein that cannot perform energy
transport
• that causes progressive, and eventually total, loss of central vision
The • Embryonic stem cells are treated to divide and differntiate to become
treatment retinal cells
• The retinal cells are injected into the retina
• The retinal cells attach to the retina and become functional
• Central vision improves as a result of more functional retinal cells
The future • This treatment is still in at the stage of limited clinical trials, but will
likely be in usage in the future
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 Leukemia

The • Cancer of the blood or bone marrow, resulting in abnormally high

problem levels of poorly-functioning white blood cells.
The • Hematopoetic Stem Cells (HSCs) are harvested from bone marrow,
treatment peripheral blood or umbilical cord blood
• Chemotherapy and radiotherapy used to destroy the diseased white
blood cells
• New white blood cells need to be replaced with healthy cells.
• HSCs are transplanted back into the bone marrow
• HSCs differentiate to form new healthy white blood cells

The • The use of a patient’s own HSCs means there is far less risk of
benefit immune rejection than with a traditional bone marrow transplant.

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 Comparison of stem cell sources
Embryo Cord blood Adult
Ease of extraction Can be obtained Easily obtained and Difficult to obtain as
from excess stored. Though there are very few
embryos generated limited quantities and are buried deep
by IVF programs. available in tissues

Ethics of the Can only be Umbilical cord is Adult patient can

extraction obtained by removed at birth give permission for
destruction of an and discarded cells to be extracted
embryo whether or not stem
cells are harvested

Growth potential Almost unlimited Reduced potential (compared to embryonic

cells)
Tumor risk Higher risk of Lower risk of development
development
 Comparison of stem cell sources
Embryo Cord blood Adult
Differentiation Can differentiate Limited capacity to Limited capacity to
into any cell type differentiate differentiate
(without (dependent on the
inducement only source tissue)
naturally divide into
blood cells)
Genetic damage Less chance of genetic damage than adult Due to accumulation
cells of mutations
through the life of
the adult genetic
damage can occur

Compatibility Stem cells are not Fully compatible with the patient as the
genetically identical stem cells are genetically identical
to the patient
 Arguments for Therapeutic Cloning

• Stem cell research may pave the way for future discoveries and beneficial technologies that would not have
occurred if their use had been banned

• May be used to cure serious diseases or disabilities with cell therapy (replacing bad cells with good ones)

• Transplants are less likely to be rejected as they are cells which are genetically identical to the parent

• Transplants do not require the death of another human

• Stem cells can be taken from embryos that have stopped developing and would have died anyway (e.g.
abortions)

• Cells are taken at a stage when the embryo has no nervous system and can arguably feel no pain

• Stem cells can be created without the need for fertilisation and destruction of ‘natural’ human embryos –
induced pluripotent stem cells
 Arguments Against Therapeutic Cloning

• Involves the creation and destruction of human embryos (at what point do we afford the right to
life?)
• Embryonic stem cells are capable of continued division and may develop into cancerous cells and
cause tumors
• More embryos are generally produced than are needed, so excess embryos are killed
• With additional cost and effort, alternative technologies may fulfill similar roles (e.g. nuclear
reprogramming of differentiated cell lines)
• Religious or moral objections due to the ‘playing God’ argument.
• The embryo which is created could potentially be used in IVF and develop into a human fetus, so are
we creating human life to destroy it?
• Although cloning humans reproductively is illegal, this has not been ratified by all nations. Potential
for a race to clone the first human.
 Understanding

Surface area to volume ratio is important in

the limitation of cell size

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Rate of diffusion α Concentration gradient * surface area
distance for the molecule to travel

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In summary:

• The rate of metabolism of a cell is a function of its mass / volume

• The rate of material exchange in and out of a cell is a function of its surface area

• As the cell grows, volume increases faster than surface area (leading to a decreased SA:Vol
ratio)

• If the metabolic rate is greater than the rate of exchange of vital materials and wastes,
the cell will eventually die

• Hence the cell must consequently divide in order to restore a viable SA:Vol ratio and survive

• Cells and tissues specialised for gas or material exchange (e.g. alveoli) will increase their
surface area to optimise the transfer of materials

• If the ratio is too small then cell may overheat because the metabolism produces heat
faster then it is lost over the cell surface
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Large SA:Vol is an advantage

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 Large SA:Vol is not always an advantage!!!

Extension: Can you think of any exceptions? See if you can find out
about unusually large cells and how they are adapted to survive.

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What mechanism other than cell division do cells use to maintain viable,
efficient SA:Vol ratio?

What mechanism other than cell division do multicellular organisms use

to maintain viable, efficient SA:Vol ratio?

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 Hypothesis versus theory

In the scientific method, the hypothesis is constructed before any applicable

research has been done, apart from a basic background review. You ask a
question, read up on what has been studied before, and then form a hypothesis.

A theory, in contrast, is a principle that has been formed as an attempt to explain

things that have already been substantiated by data.

If enough evidence accumulates to support a hypothesis, it moves to the next

step — known as a theory — in the scientific method and becomes accepted as a
valid explanation of a phenomenon.

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Use of light microscope to investigate the
structure of cells and tissues

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Virtual microscope: http://www.udel.edu/biology/ketcham/microscope/scope.html
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Drawing cell structure as seen with light
microscope

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Calculation of the magnification of drawings
and the actual size of structures shown in
drawings or micrographs

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Magnification is the degree to which the size of an image is larger
than the image itself.

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