o Larger friction coefficient

o Smaller shear angle à there is a larger shear area à larger cutting force
is needed to do the operation
• Increased tip radius tool
4. Shear and normal stress in the shear zone
• Analyses stresses along the shear plane and interface. Assume these stresses are
distributed uniformly

Õ\
• Area at shear plane
𝐴Ô = ¿ÀÁ 5Ö where w is the width of the cut

𝐹Ô 𝐹Ô sin 𝜙
• Average shear stress in shear plane

𝜏= =
𝐴Ô 𝑤𝑡=

𝐹Z 𝐹Ô sin 𝜙
• Average normal stress

𝜎= =
𝐴Ô 𝑤𝑡=
Shear angle
• Shear stress in the shear plane
× ×¾ ¿ØÃ(ÙFÅ) ÃÄ¿(Ö-ÙFÅ) ¿ÀÁ Ö
𝜏 = 4Í = remember that sec = .,Ô
^
Í Õ\5

𝛼 𝛽
• Relation between shear angle (𝜙), rake angle (𝛼) and friction angle (𝛽) is:

𝜙 = 0.785 + −
2 2
o 𝛼 smaller (tube is less sharp) and/or 𝛽 larger (more friction) à 𝜙 smaller à
chip thicker (more resistance to the chip because of the large friction)
Specific Energy
• Definition: energy per unit of volume à [Nm/m3]

𝑃 = 𝐹. 𝑉 [Nm/s]=[W]
• Total power during machining:

Total energy per unit of volume of removed material:

×Æ ×
𝑢^ = Õ\¾ = Õ\¾ [Nm/m3]
•

5Æ 5

𝑉. 𝐹 𝐹- (𝐹. sin 𝛼 + 𝐹\ cos 𝛼)𝑟

• Specific energy friction:

𝑢+ = = =
𝑤𝑡= 𝑉 𝑤𝑡= 𝑤𝑡=
Specific energy shearing:
Æ ×Í
𝑢Ô = Õ\Í
•

5Æ

𝑢\ = 𝑢+ + 𝑢Ô
• Total specific energy:

Figure 9- Table 21.2: required specific energy in machining processes

30
 Note the units!!: [Ws/mm3] =
[Nm/mm3] = 1·109 [Nm/m3] !!!

Example 8.1: relative energy in machining

• A machining process with:
tO = 0.127 [mm] (depth of cut)
V = 122 [m/min] (cutting speed)
α = 0.175[rad] (rake angle) (=10°)
tc = 0.229 [mm] (chip thickness)
Fc = 556 [N] (cutting force)
Ft = 222 [N] (thrust)
• Calculate the percentage of total energy used up by frictional at the tool-chip
interference

Solution:
×-Û.\Û,Z08 /Z/-[Ü ×ƾ ×-
= =
Ý,\08 /Z/-[Ü ×¾ Æ ×¾
• Percentage frictional energy is
\5 ƾ
• Because conservation of volume dictates: 𝑉𝑡= = 𝑉. 𝑡. ⟹ \¾
= Æ
= 𝑟 then
𝑟 = \5 = =.``• = 0.55 [−]
\ =.^`Þ
¾
𝐹 = 𝑅 sin 𝛽
𝐹. = 𝑅 cos(𝛽 − 𝛼)
𝑅 = ß𝐹\` + 𝐹.` = 599 [𝑁]
𝐹. = 556 ⟹ 556 = 599 cos(𝛽 − 0.179) ⟹ 𝛽 = 0.555 [𝑟𝑎𝑑] therefore
𝐹 = 599 sin(0.555) = 316 [𝑁]
%𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = (ŠŠ¹) = 0.313 ≈ 𝟑𝟏% and %𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 = 𝟔𝟗%
(a^¹)(=.ŠŠ)

31
Temperature
• Law of conservation of energy: Required energy for
shearing and friction is converted into heat
• Two major sources of heat production: part of the energy
is dissipated in the shear zone and the other part is
dissipated in the tip of the tool in the tool as friction
• If the tip of the tool becomes blunt à extra heat
production
Temperature increases in the tool/ workpiece
1. Influences properties of tool
• Temperature has influence in à Strength, hardness, wear resistance à if
temperature rises all of these parameters will decrease
2. Increase in temperature influences dimensions of workpiece, it will expand
• Dimensional accuracy is harder to maintain
3. Thermal damaging of the processed surface
• Causes the resistance to corrosion (integrity) and the resistance to fatigue to
decrease
4. Thermal gradient in the tool
• Expansion by temperature
• Adversely affecting dimensional control

• Because of machining there is a temperature increase in the

tool, chip and workpiece and there is a temperature gradient
in such parts (as seen in figure 10)
• Average temperature at the rake-chip interference (part in
red in the figure):
0.00065𝑌+ ² 𝑉𝑡=
𝑇’/0Z = î
𝜌𝑐 𝐾
o 𝜌𝑐 à specific heat
o 𝑌 à Yield stress
o 𝑉 à cutting speed
o 𝑡= à depth of cut
Figure 10- Temperature gradient in tool,

o 𝐾 à conductivity
chip and workpiece

• Effect on material properties when the temperature increases: (look at formula)

o Aluminium: high K, low Yf à low temperature increase
o Steel: low K, high Yf à high temperature increase
o Titanium alloy: low K, very high Yf à very high temperature increase
• Highest temperature in the tool is halfway up the chip-tool interface because there
are two heat sources:
o Shear plane, function of specific shear energy (Fs, Vs) and specific heat à
decreases the temperature as you move up along the rake
o Tool-chip interface, a function of friction à increases the temperature as you
move up along the rake
o The combination of both gives a maximum around the middle

32
 𝑇 ∝ 𝑉 0 𝑓 Ç (look at figure 8)
• Average temperature on turning on lathe:

• Look at figure 11:

o If the cutting velocity is increased, so is the temperature
o Temperature increases with cutting speed
o Highest temperature is slightly higher up from the tip of the tool

Figure 11- (a) temperature of the flank surface (b) temperature at the tool chip
interface

Ch 21.5-21.5: Important aspects – Wear, surface quality,

machinability, materials & cutting fluids

§21.5 Tool wear and breakage

• Factors that play a role:
o Material (tool and workpiece)
o Tool geometry
o Cutting fluids
o Process parameters
§ Cutting speed
§ Feed
§ Depth of cut
• Forms of machining tool wear:
o Flank wear
o Crater wear
o Nose wear
o Chipping of the side
o Plastic deformation of tool

33
Types of wear
Flank wear
Caused by:
• Sliding of tool along machined surface (adhesive, abrasive)

Tool wear ratio for different kinds of steel: 𝑽𝑻𝒏 = 𝑪 à Taylor

• Temperature increase

equation
V= cutting speed
T= Tool-life (min)
n= exponent dependent on cutting conditions
C= constant

Tool-life- Flank wear

Tool life curves
• Tool life is influenced by:
1. Cutting speed
2. Quality of workpiece material
3. Microstructure of workpiece material
• Experimental data of machining various materials under different machining
conditions
• Exponent n can be determined from the tool-life curve

• Increase in temperature causes sharp increase in wear

• Cutting speed is the most important parameter, but depth of cut and feed are also
important

𝑉𝑇 Z 𝑑 ô 𝑓 Ü = 𝐶
• Tool-life ratio can be re-written as:

d= depth of cut
f= feed (in mm/rotation) for turning

34
 • In other words, tool-life drops with increasing cutting speed, feed and depth of cut
(in order of importance)

§21.6 Surface quality and integrity

¤ Surface quality à the dimensional accuracy (geometry) of the machined
parts
¤ Surface integrity à the properties of parts, such as fatigue strength and
corrosion resistance.
• Factors which can damage surface integrity:
1. Temperature generated during processing;
2. Residual stresses;
3. Metallurgic transformations;
4. Plastic deformation, tearing, or cracking of surface
• BUE à biggest influence on surface roughness
Relation between radius of cutting edge and depth of cut:
• A dull tool has a large radius along the cutting edge
• At small depths of cut, the rake angle is negative, the tool scrapes
the workpiece surface
• This causes polishing instead of cutting
• Depth of cut is generally larger than the radius of the cutting edge
• Feed marks caused by tip radius
• Spiral track
• Faster feed, greater roughness
• Larger tip radius, less roughness
Feed marks

Example 8.1: relative energy in machining

• Use the Taylor equation for tool-life with n=0.5 and C=400. Calculate the increase in
tool-life if the cutting speed is decreased by 50%
Solution:
õ𝑇` 𝑉^ õ𝑇` 𝑇`
𝑉√𝑇 = 400 ⟹ 𝑉^ õ𝑇^ = 0.5𝑉^ õ𝑇` ⟹ = ⟹ =2⟹ =4
õ𝑇^ 0.5𝑉^ õ𝑇^ 𝑇^
Ý€ FÝ© Ý
= eÝ€f − 1 = 3 which is an increase of 300%
Ý©
Tool-life increase is:
©

𝑓`
• In turning, peak to valley roughness is:
𝑅\ =
8𝑅
f= feed
R= tip radius

§21.7 Machinability
• Machinability of a material is defined by:

35
 1. Surface finish and integrity of processed part;
2. Tool-life;
3. Required forces and power;
4. Chip control.
• Example: improve machinability by adding lead.
o Small particles of lead in molten steel;
o Shearing at the lead particles during machining;
o Lead is smeared along the tool-chip surface;
o Low shear strength of lead à lubrication.

§22.1-22.10 Cutting materials

• A cutting tool material must possess the following properties:
1. Hardness
o Also at high temperatures
2. Toughness
o Prevents breakage
3. Resistance to wear
o Tool-life
4. Chemically stable or inert
o Prevents reactions with the workpiece material

• Carbon tool steels (1880)

• High-speed steels (1900)
• Cast Alloys (steel alloys)(1915)
• Carbides (1930)
• Ceramics (1950)

36
 • Note:
• Hardness (e.g. SCD)
• Temperature
• Modulus of elasticity
(e.g. SCD)
• Brittle: see impact
strength (i.e.
toughness), this is very
low ceramics

§22.12 Cutting fluids

• In other words: lubricants and coolants
• Widely used in machining to:
1. Cool the shear zone;
2. Decrease friction and wear;
o Influence on tool-life and surface quality
3. Decrease forces and energy consumption;
4. Wash away chips;
5. Protect surfaces from damage caused by the surroundings

Ch 23, 24, 25: Specific processes & costs – Turning,

drilling & milling and machining costs

Ch. 23 Machining processes for round shapes

Turning
Parameters:
1. Tool geometry
2. Material-Removal Rate (MRR)
3. Forces involved in turning
4. Tool materials, feed and cutting speed

37
They will be addressed as follows
Tool geometry

Material removing rate (MRR) and cutting time

𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 𝜋𝐷0¯[ 𝑑𝑓𝑁 [mm3/min]

• MRR is removed volume per unit of time

ö𝐷= + 𝐷+ ÷
𝐷0¯[ =
2
N = rotational speed [rev/min]
f = feed [mm/rev]
d = depth of cut [mm]
Davg = average diameter [mm]
8
Cutting time for a workpiece of length l is: 𝑡 =
+±
•
• Cutting time does not include the approach and return of the tool
Forces involved in turning
• 3 primary forces working on the tool: cutting force Fc , feed force Ft and
radial force Fr
• These forces determine the deflection of the tool during precision
processes
Tool materials, feed and cutting speed
• Recommended cutting
speeds for workpiece
material
• Material of cutter
determines cutting speed
and feed

38
 Example: MRR and cutting force in turning
• Original diameter D0 = 12.7 [mm]
• Turned diameter D1= 12.192 [mm]
• Tool speed Vb = 20.32 [cm/min]
• Material stainless steel 304
• N = 400 [rpm]
• L = 15.24 [cm]
Calculate:
• Cutting speed
• Cutting time
• MRR
• Required Power
• Cutting Force
Solution:
• Cutting speed: 𝑉 = = = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟔𝟒 [ ]
𝝅(𝑫𝟎 -𝑫𝟏 ) 𝝅(^`.Þ-^`.^•`) 𝒎
𝟐𝑵 𝟐(𝟒𝟎𝟎) 𝒎𝒊𝒏
¢5 F¢Y ^`.ÞF^`.^•`
Depth of cut: 𝑑 = = = 0.255 [𝑚𝑚]
` `
•
ÆûBüûý `=a.`
Feed: 𝑓 = = ™== = 0.508 [𝑚𝑚/𝑟𝑒𝑣]
±
•
¢5 -¢Y ^`.Þ-^`.^•`
𝐷0¯[ = = = 12.445
` `
•
𝑴𝑹𝑹 = 𝝅𝑫𝒂𝒗𝒈 𝒅𝒇𝑵 = 𝝅 ∙ 12.445 ∙ 0.255 ∙ 0.508 ∙ 400 = 𝟐𝟎𝟐𝟓. 𝟖𝟔 [ 𝒎𝒊𝒏 ]
𝒎𝒎𝟑
•
8 ^Š.`™
Cutting time: 𝑡 = = =.Š=˜(™==) = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝒎𝒊𝒏
+±
•
]( )** ™.^(`=`Š.˜¹)
Required Power: 𝑃 = = = 𝟏𝟑𝟖 [𝐖]
¹= ¹=
•
Cutting Force: 𝑷 = 𝑭𝒄 𝑽 → 𝑭𝒄 = =
2 ^a˜
•
Æ ^Š.¹™/¹=
= 𝟓𝟑𝟏[𝑵]

Boring
¤ Boring à internal turning
• Producing circular internal profiles in hollow workpieces
• Straight boring: tool is at a set diameter, axial traversing movement
• Tapered boring: tool at adjustable diameter, radial traversing movement

Drilling, reaming and tapping

• Drills have a high length/diameter ratio and can
produce deep holes;
• Flexibility depends on length and diameter
o Care is advised to drill precise holes
o Prevent breakage

39
Material removal rate
MRR for drills: 𝑴𝑹𝑹 = 𝒇𝑵
𝝅𝑫𝟐
𝟒

Figure 12- Recommendations for speed and feeding in drilling

Ch. 24 Machining processes for various shapes

Milling
• Tool rotates, workpiece is stationary
• Multiple cutting edges (teeth)
• Several chips per revolution
• Large diversity of shapes
• 2 important embodiments:
1. Slab milling
2. Face milling
3. (Combination: slab-face milling)
Slab milling
• Rotational axis parallel to workpiece surface
• Teeth (cutting edges) along circumference
• Conventional milling:
o Cutting direction opposite to workpiece feed
o Workpiece has the tendency to be pulled up à proper
clamping important
• Climb milling:
o Cutting direction the same as workpiece feed
o Workpiece is held in its place

Cutting speed: 𝑉 = 𝜋𝐷𝑁 [mm/min]

o Finishing
•
o D =cutter diameter
o N= rotational speed cutter
E
Estimation undeformed chip thickness, tc: 𝑡. = 2𝑓ß
¢
•
o f= feed per tooth [mm/tooth] (distance the workpiece travels per tooth)

¯
Feed per tooth is: 𝑓 =
o d= depth of cut

±Z
• [mm/tooth]
o v= speed of workpiece
o n= number of teeth
8-8¾
Cutting time: 𝑡 =
¯
•

40
 o l = length of workpiece
o lc= distance of cutter to workpiece at start
o V= speed of workpiece
8ÕE
𝑀𝑅𝑅 = = 𝑤𝑑𝑣
\
•
o Assumption: lc << l
o l = length of workpiece
o w = width of cutting
o d = depth of cutting
Face milling
• Rotational axis perpendicular to workpiece surface
• Conventional milling
• Climb milling

Planning, broaching, sawing, filing

Ch. 25.8 Machining costs

𝐶. = 𝐶’ + 𝐶Ô + 𝐶8 + 𝐶\
Total costs per part consist of 4 parts:

𝐶. = cost per part

𝐶’ = machining costs
𝐶Ô = setup costs (e.g. positioning tools, clamping)
𝐶8 = costs of setting and removing workpiece and operating the machine
𝐶\ = tool costs

41
 0
Optimal cutting speed: 𝑉/ = © 1 «
°e«F^fe 2¾ -Ýü f³

Optimal tool-life for maximum production𝑇/ = eZ − 1f e’¾ + 𝑇Û f

^ Ý

• C and n from Taylor equation

• Tc= time to change tool
• Ti=time to change tool edge
• m = number of edges used per tool
Costs and times
• Cost per piece
o Tool cost
o Tool-change cost
o Non-productive cost
o Machining cost
o Total costs
• Time per piece
o Tool-changing time
o Non-productive time
o Machining time
o Total time

The plastic deformation techniques described in this chapter are about permanently shaping
materials with forces by various means. All the knowledge you learned in chapters 2 and 3
forms the base for this chapter.

Characteristics of bulk deformation processes

• Forging Producing discrete parts with a set of dies; usually at elevated temperatures;
some finishing needed; high costs of dies & equipment, skilled operator

• Rolling: - flat Producing plate, sheet, foil at high speeds; at both cold & elevated
temperatures; very high investment for both
- shape Producing various structural shapes at high speeds:
- shaped beams/rails, tubes, threads;

42
 • Extrusion Producing long solid or hollow products with a constant cross-section, at
elevated temperatures (s.a. bosch profiles which are beams with a specific
figure) , moderate-high die/equipment cost

• Drawing Producing long rods, wire and tubing; low-moderate cost

Figure 13- Basic Bulk deformation processes:

(a) rolling
(b) forging
(c) extrusion
(d) drawing

Classification by process temperature

Caution: T/Tm > 0.5 à Recrystallization. So a higher
process temperature is not always better. Therefore a
careful selection of process temperature is crucial.

Figure 14- typical forging temperatures for two metal alloys, forging temperatures are higher
than 0.6 times Tm, so it is a hot working process.
• Bulk deformation processes are often classified according to the temperature at which
they are performed: so there are "cold", "warm", or "hot" working.
• The homologous temperature, T/Tm, is the parameter used for classification.
o T is the process temperature
o Tm is the melting temperature of the workpiece material.
o Both of them must be in Kelvin, not in Celsius.

Ch 14: Forging
¤ Forging à the making of parts where plastic deformation takes
place by compressive forces applied through tooling and dies to
achieve a desired shape
• Can be carried out at room or elevated temperatures
¤ Industrial forging production à used huge forging machines
and complicated dies to form sophisticated products
• To operate such system, skilled technicians and engineers are needed

43
Basic Forging Processes
Open-die forging a.k.a upsetting
¤ Open-die forging à typically involves placing a workpiece between two
flat dies and reducing its height by compressing it, also known as
upsetting. upper die
• The die surface can be flat, or more generally, have a cavity
of various shapes, then it’s called impression-die forging.
This top part is an upper die, and this is the lower die.
• In impression-die forging, a workpiece acquires the shape lower die
of the die cavity while deformed between the closing dies.
Hence the term “impression” is used.
Uniform deformation
• Ideal condition: the cylinder deforms uniformly, known as

35 F3©
homogeneous deformation (if no friction at the interfaces)
Reduction in height: 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(%) = × 100%
35
•
o The reduction in height is defined in this equation. Since the final height h1 is
smaller than the initial height h0 of the cylinder, so the reduction in height is

35 F3© 3
always a positive value.
Engineering and true strain: 𝑒^ = and 𝜀^ = 𝑙𝑛 e f
5
35 3©
•
¯ ¯
Strain rate as a function of dies’ relative velocity v: 𝑒^̇ = − and 𝜀^̇ = −3
35
•
©
o 𝑒^̇ à constant
o 𝜀^̇ à increases rapidly as h1 à 0
Barreling
• Caused by frictional forces at the die-workpiece interfaces and/or upsetting of hot
workpieces between cold dies
o Why may this lean to barreling? The reason is that the material at and near
the interfaces cools faster and the rest of the material remains relatively hot.
Since the strength of materials increases with decreasing temperature, the
upper and lower portions of the specimen show a larger resistance to
deformation than the center of the specimen does. A result of barreling is
that, the deformation throughout the specimen becomes non-uniform or
inhomogeneous.
• Deformation is “non-uniform” or inhomogeneous
o Extra work= friction energy + additional internal shearing (redundant work)
• Can be minimized by lubricant or ultrasonic vibration of platens, or by heated dies
or thermal barrier interfaces

Dead zone
means they
are less
deformed

44
Ideal deformation (no friction)
1) Material is perfectly plastic:
• If the material is perfectly plastic, it means that the material
deforms at a constant stress, namely the yielding stress Y
• If the friction at the interfaces is zero, normal compressive
stress on cylindrical specimen is uniform and equal to the
yielding stress Y Figure 15- stress-strain curve for a
• Calculate: force and work of deformation
• Const. compressive stress 𝜎 = 𝑌, if no friction, 𝜇 = 0
perfectly elastic material

45 35
Forging force F at any h1: 𝐹 = 𝑌𝐴^ where 𝐴^ =
3©
therefore, it can be
𝐴 ℎ
rewritten as 𝐹 = 𝑌 ℎ0 0 (F is not constant, it increases in the contact area
1

The conservation of volume is given by 𝐴= ℎ= = 𝐴ℎ

that is inversely proportional to the reduction of height)

J J
𝑊 = 𝑉𝑢 = 𝑉 ∫= © 𝜎𝑑𝜀 = ∫= © 𝑌𝑑𝜀 = 𝑉𝑌𝜀^ where u is the
• Ideal work of deformation is given by:

specific energy. Note that 𝑢^ = 𝑌𝜀^ is the area in grey under the
stress-strain curve

• In this case 𝜎 = 𝐾𝜀 Z and the force 𝐹 = 𝑌+ 𝐴^ = 𝐾𝜀^Z 𝐴^

2) With strain hardening

J© J©
Ideal work is now: 𝑊 = 𝑉 ∫= 𝜎𝑑𝜀 = 𝑉 ∫= 𝐾𝜀𝑛 𝑑𝜀 =
where Yf is the flow stress at h1

𝑉𝑌®𝜀^ where the average flow stress is the following:

•

4
𝑌® =
ª ∫5 © ªJ« EJ ªJ©«
= In this case, 𝑌® is not a constant,
J© Z-^
but it changes with 𝜀^

average flow stress 𝑌®, which is the grey area, must be equal to the one
o From this sketch, you can see that the specific energy defined by the

this equation, if both sides of the equation is divided by 𝜀^ , we see it’s

defined by the power function, which is the hatched area. So we have

equivalent to the one here and finally get the value of 𝑌®.

Forging parameters
Rectangular product
Slab method: select an element & stresses acting
¤ Slab method à one the simpler methods used to analyze the
stresses and load in forging. It requires the selection of an element
in the workpiece and identification of all the normal and frictional

Simple compression with friction ö𝝁𝝈𝒚 ÷

stresses acting on it
•
• Plane strain condition (no deformation along z-axis)
o Plain strain if: w > 5h and w > 5b (b=2a)

45