materials

Article
Temperature Effect on the Compressive Behavior and
Constitutive Model of Plain Hardened Concrete
Ayman El-Zohairy * , Hunter Hammontree, Eddie Oh and Perry Moler
Department of Engineering and Technology, Texas A&M University-Commerce, Commerce, TX 75429, USA;
hhammontree@leomail.tamuc.edu (H.H.); Eddie.Oh@tamuc.edu (E.O.); Perry.Moler@tamuc.edu (P.M.)
* Correspondence: Ayman.Elzohairy@tamuc.edu; Tel.: +1-903-468-8683




Received: 26 May 2020; Accepted: 19 June 2020; Published: 22 June 2020


Abstract: Concrete is one of the most common and versatile construction materials and has been used
under a wide range of environmental conditions. Temperature is one of them, which significantly
affects the performance of concrete, and therefore, a careful evaluation of the effect of temperature
on concrete cannot be overemphasized. In this study, an overview of the temperature effect on the
compressive behavior of plain hardened concrete is experimentally provided. Concrete cylinders were
prepared, cured, and stored under different temperature conditions to be tested under compression.
The stress–strain curve, mode of failure, compressive strength, ultimate strain, and modulus of
elasticity of concrete were evaluated between the ages of 7 and 90 days. The experimental results
were used to propose constitutive models to predict the mechanical properties of concrete under
the effect of temperature. Moreover, previous constitutive models were examined to capture the
stress–strain relationships of concrete under the effect of temperature. Based on the experimental
data and the proposed models, concrete lost 10–20% of its original compressive strength when heated
to 100 ◦ C and 30–40% at 260 ◦ C. The previous constitutive models for stress–strain relationships
of concrete at normal temperatures can be used to capture these relationships under the effect of
temperature by using the compressive strength, ultimate strain, and modulus of elasticity affected by
temperature. The effect of temperature on the modulus of elasticity of concrete was considered in
the ACI 318-14 equation by using the compressive strength affected by temperature and the results
showed good agreement with the experimental data.

Keywords: temperature; concrete; compressive strength; modulus of elasticity; constitutive model;

mode of failure; strains; stresses

1. Introduction
Concrete is considered one of the most important materials in construction. Therefore, it is
vital to explore the impact of engineering environments on concrete behavior. Factors affecting the
concrete strength are temperature, water/cement (W/C) ratio, coarse/fine aggregate ratio, relative
humidity, concrete age, and concrete curing [1]. Since concrete gains strength through a hydration
process between cement and water curing, the temperature has a significant effect on the compressive
behavior of concrete. The faster reaction is obtained at a higher temperature and subsequently higher
strength. Whereas, that faster rate of hydration causes a reduction in the final strength of concrete
because the physical form of the hardened cement paste is less well-structured and more porous at
high temperatures [2].
Most of the mechanical properties of hardened concrete are also related to its compressive
strength [3]. The uniaxial compression tests are commonly used to determine the strength and
deformation properties of concrete. The standardized method for determining compressive strength is
regulated in ASTM C387 [4]. Specimens are tested up to failure under the effect of uniaxial compression

Materials 2020, 13, 2801; doi:10.3390/ma13122801 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2020, 13, 2801 2 of 18

load. The compressive strength of concrete is calculated by dividing the recorded maximum load by
the cross-sectional area [5].
Previous studies were performed on the compressive behavior of concrete at different temperatures.
The compressive strength of concrete with the same moisture content decreased as the heating
temperature increased [6,7]. The concrete curing temperatures below 5 ◦ C or over 100 ◦ C led to
a reduction of almost 20% in the concrete strength [8]. The optimal mechanical performance of
concrete was obtained when there was less difference between the ambient temperature and concrete
temperature [9]. The setting time was affected by temperature [2]. The low-temperature setting time
was as much as 195% of the setting time at 23 ◦ C (73 ◦ F). Whereas, the setting time was 68% at high
temperatures. The strength of concrete had significant influences on the stress–strain responses both
at room and elevated temperatures [10–13]. Because of the decrease in the compressive strength of
concrete at high temperatures, the slope of the stress–strain curve decreased indicating reductions in
the stiffness of concrete [10]. The strain corresponding to the peak strength increased as the temperature
increased [11,12]. The rate of the strength development of concrete was affected by the W/C ratio as
well as the cement type and temperature [14,15]. The mechanical properties of air-entrained concrete at
elevated temperatures were studied [16]. The air entrainment had an adverse effect on the compressive
strength of concrete at elevated temperatures.
The mechanical properties of concrete can be predicted through fitting analyses of constitutive
models. Hognestad et al. developed the first polynomial constitutive model for concrete, which was
also one of the earliest constitutive models [17]. This model was a dimensionless full curve equation
that was unified for the ascending and descending parts of the stress–strain curve. The formulation of
this model provided a reference for the constitutive models developed later. To improve the accuracy
of the fitting results and meet the needs of engineering, a dimensionless piecewise constitutive model
was developed in which the ascending segment was a parabola and the descending segment was a
straight line [18]. To precisely fit the constitutive curve of concrete under compression, the ascending
curve was appropriate to be fitted by a polynomial equation and the descending curve was fitted
by a rational fraction equation [19,20]. Relationships were proposed to capture the changes in the
mechanical properties of concrete resulting from temperature [12,13,21]. These properties included the
compressive and tensile strength, compressive strain at peak stress, and initial modulus of elasticity of
concrete [21].
Good amounts of data exist on the effect of temperature on the mechanical properties and
stress–strain relationships of concrete. However, there are limited data for this effect on concrete
at different ages. Therefore, concrete cylinders were prepared, cured, and stored under different
temperature conditions to be tested under compression at different ages. The stress–strain curve,
mode of failure, compressive strength, ultimate strain, and modulus of elasticity of concrete were
evaluated at ages between 7 and 90 days. The experimental results were used to propose constitutive
models to predict the mechanical properties of concrete under the effect of temperature. Moreover,
previous constitutive models for the stress–strain relationships of concrete at normal temperatures
were examined to capture these relationships under the effect of temperature.

2. Problem Formulation
Concrete cylinders were prepared to consider the effect of temperature conditions on the
stress–strain curve, mode of failure, compressive strength, ultimate strain, and modulus of elasticity
of concrete at different ages. For the relevant experiment, two concrete grades (C20 and C27) of
seventy-five concrete specimens each were used in this evaluation. The specimens were prepared
according to ASTM C31/C31M [22].

2.1. Materials
To address the temperature effect alone, no admixtures were added to the concrete mix to
counterbalance the alteration in workability due to temperature effects. Table 1 summarizes the
Materials 2020, 13, 2801 3 of 18

concrete mix ratios. Two concrete grades were adopted in this study with different W/C ratios. Coarse
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18
aggregates with a maximum aggregate size of 10-mm continuously graded gravel aggregates were
used,used,
whereas the fine aggregate adopted river sand with a fineness modulus of 3.36. Figure 1
whereas the fine aggregate adopted river sand with a fineness modulus of 3.36. Figure 1
demonstrates
demonstratesaggregate
the grading
the aggregate curves
grading usedused
curves in theinpreparation of concrete.
the preparation The concrete
of concrete. mixtures
The concrete
were mixed
mixtures were mixed using Ordinary Portland Cement type (І) manufactured by QUIKRETE and to
using Ordinary Portland Cement type (I) manufactured by QUIKRETE and conformed
the specifications
conformed toof theASTM C150 [23].
specifications TableC150
of ASTM 2 provides the 2chemical
[23]. Table providescomposition of the used of
the chemical composition cement
the as
usedby
provided cement as provided by the manufacturer.
the manufacturer.

Figure
Figure 1.1.Aggregate
Aggregate grading
grading curves.
curves.

Table 1.1.The
Table Theconcrete mix ratios.
concrete mix ratios.

Design
Design Portland
Portland
Concrete Aggregate
Concrete Strength Aggregate Slump
Slump W/C Gravel
Gravel Sand
Sand Cement
Fly Ash
Fly Ash
Grade Strength Size * (mm) (mm) W/C (kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 ) Cement (kg/m3 )
Grade (MPa) Size * (mm) (mm) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3 ) (kg/m3)
(MPa) (kg/m3)
C20 20 10 127.20 0.55 1067.9 830.6 334.6 30
C20 20 10 127.20 0.55 1067.9 830.6 334.6 30
C27 27 10 82.55 0.45 1067.9 830.6 334.6 30
C27 27 10 82.55 0.45 1067.9 830.6 334.6 30
* Maximum aggregate size.
* Maximum aggregate size.
Table 2. Chemical composition of the used cement.
Table 2. Chemical composition of the used cement.
Constituent % by Weight *
Constituent % by Weight *
Lime (CaO) 65.00
Lime (CaO) 65.00
Silica
Silica(SiO 2 ) 2)
(SiO 21.00
21.00
Alumina
Alumina(Al 2 O23O
(Al ) 3) 5.60
5.60
IronOxide
Iron Oxide (Fe(Fe
2 3O
O 2 ) 3) 3.80
3.80
Magnesia
Magnesia (MgO)(MgO) 2.10
2.10
SulphurTrioxide
Sulphur Trioxide (SO (SO 3) 2.22
3) 2.22
Loss of Ignition 0.65
Loss of Ignition 0.65
Lime saturation factor 0.90
Lime saturation factor 0.90
* Provided by the manufacturer (QUIKRETE Companies, Atlanta, Georgia).
* Provided by the manufacturer (QUIKRETE Companies, Atlanta, Georgia).
2.2. Mixing, Fabrication, and Curing of Specimens
2.2. Mixing, Fabrication, and Curing of Specimens
To produce the concrete batches, an open pan mixer was used as shown in Figure 2a. The
To produce
concrete wasthe concrete
mixed batches,
for about 4 minan open
until pan mixer
uniform wasworkable
color and used as shown in Figure
consistency 2a. The concrete
were achieved. All
was mixed
mixingsforwere
about 4 min until
conducted uniform
at the desired color and workable
temperatures. consistency
After mixing, a slumpwere
testachieved.
was carriedAll outmixings
as
were conducted
presented inat the desired
Figure temperatures.
2b and reported in TableAfter mixing, a100
1. Seventy-five slump
mm ×test
200 was
mm (4carried
in. × 8 out as presented
in.) cylinders
were2bthen
in Figure andcast in single-use
reported in Tableplastic molds from
1. Seventy-five 100each
mmbatch
× 200(C20
mmand C27).
(4 in. × 8 The
in.) specimens
cylinders werewere then
prepared according to ASTM C31/C31M [22]. More details about the preparation
cast in single-use plastic molds from each batch (C20 and C27). The specimens were prepared according process of the
concrete cylinders are provided in Figure 2. A total of one hundred and fifty concrete
to ASTM C31/C31M [22]. More details about the preparation process of the concrete cylinders are cylinders were
fabricated for this study. Finally, the plastic cylinders were covered to maintain the concrete water
provided in Figure 2. A total of one hundred and fifty concrete cylinders were fabricated for this study.
content and the concrete specimens were kept in the molds for 24 h. After removing the specimens
Finally, the plastic cylinders were covered to maintain the concrete water content and the concrete
from the plastic molds, the curing process started for 7 days at the desired temperature.
specimens were kept in the molds for 24 h. After removing the specimens from the plastic molds,
the curing process started for 7 days at the desired temperature.
Materials 2020, 13, 2801 4 of 18
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Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 18

(a) (b)
(a) (b)

(c)(c) (d)(d)
Figure
Figure 2.
2. Preparation
FigurePreparation process
process
2. Preparation ofof
process the
theconcrete
concretecylinders: (a) mixing
(a)mixing
cylinders: (a) mixing concrete;
concrete; (b)(b) slump
slump test;test; (c) pouring
(c) pouring
concrete; (d) concrete
concrete; specimens
(d) concrete specimensininplastic molds.
plasticmolds.
molds.

2.3. Detection
2.3. Detection of The
2.3. Detection
of The Temperature
of The Effect
Temperature
Temperature Effecton
Effect ononthe
theMechanical
the Properties
Propertiesofof
Mechanical Properties
Mechanical Concrete
Concrete
of Concrete
To thoroughly
To To thoroughly
thoroughly investigate
investigate thethe
investigate influence
the influenceof temperature
influence of temperature
of temperatureon the mechanical
onon thethe properties
mechanical
mechanical of hardened
properties of
properties of
hardened
concrete, the concrete,
specimens the specimens
were curedwere were cured
and stored and stored at five different ◦
temperatures; ◦0 °C ◦
(32 °F), ◦ F),
hardened concrete, the specimens cured atandfivestored
different
at fivetemperatures; 0 C (32 F), 21
different temperatures; 0 °CC (32
(70 °F),
21 C21(70
40 ◦°C °C (70
(104 ◦ F),°F),
°F), 4012140◦ C
°C(250
°C (104
(104◦°F),
°F),F),
121
121 °C
and
°C260
(250
◦ °F),
(250C°F),
and
(500 ◦ 260
andF).260
°C concrete
The (500 °F). The concretewere
°C (500 °F).specimens
specimens
storedwere
The concrete specimens
stored
in temperature
were stored
in temperature control ovens at the desired temperature until the day of testing as shown in Figure
control
in ovens atcontrol
temperature the desired
ovens temperature
at the desired until the day of testing
temperature until the as day
shown in Figure
of testing as 3.
shown in Figure
3.
3. To detect the mechanical properties of concrete, standardized compression tests were performed
To detect the mechanical properties of concrete, standardized compression tests were performed
after To
thedetect
after
specimens
the specimens
had
the mechanical come
had come
to the thermal
properties equilibrium
of concrete,
to the thermal equilibrium standardized of thecompression
of the normal
normal laboratory
tests were
laboratory temperature.
temperature.
performed
These
These tests
after tests were
the specimens carried
were carried had out
come
out according
to theto
according to ASTM
thermal C39/C39M–20
ASTM equilibrium
C39/C39M–20of[24] [24]
theusing using
normal a closed-loop servo-controlled
laboratoryservo-controlled
a closed-loop temperature. These
standard
tests werecompression
standardcarried machine
machineworking
out according
compression to ASTM
working under a force-control
C39/C39M–20
under a force-control [24]with with
using aaclosed-loop
a loading loading rate
rate of 9.0 of 9.0(see
kN/min
servo-controlled
kN/min
(see Figure
Figure 4).
4). The
The compression
compression tests
tests were were conducted
conducted at 7, at
14, 7,
28, 14,
56, 28,
and 56,
90
standard compression machine working under a force-control with a loading rate of 9.0 kN/min (see and
days. 90 days.
Three Three
specimens specimens
were
were
Figuretested
tested for
4). Theforeach
eachgroup
group
compression andand
the the
tests average results
average
were wereatwere
results
conducted adopted.
7, 14,adopted.
28, 56, and 90 days. Three specimens were
tested for each group and the average results were adopted.

Figure 3. Temperature control ovens.

Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 18

Materials 2020, 13, 2801 5 of 18

Figure 3. Temperature control ovens.

Figure 4. Test set-up.

Figure 4. Test set-up.
3. Test Results and Discussion
3. Test Results and Discussion
The mechanical properties of the tested specimens were investigated by monitoring the stress–strain
The mechanical
relationship, mode of properties of the tested specimens
failure, compressive were investigated
strength, ultimate strain, and by modulus
monitoring ofthe stress–
elasticity
strain relationship,
as following. mode of failure, compressive strength, ultimate strain, and modulus of elasticity
as following.
3.1. Stress–Strain Relationships
3.1. Stress–Strain Relationships
The stress–strain relationships of concrete are often used as input data in mathematical models.
The stress–strain
Therefore, it is crucial to relationships
evaluate theoftemperature
concrete areeffect
oftenon used as relationships
these input data in to mathematical models.
explore the thermal
Therefore, it is crucial to evaluate the temperature effect on these relationships
resistance of concrete structural members. The stress–strain curve of concrete is mainly constructed to explore the thermalof
resistance
an ascending of concrete
part, which structural
ends at members. The stress–strain
the compressive strength andcurve of concrete is ultimate
the corresponding mainly constructed
strain, and
aofdescending
an ascending partpart,
[25].which ends at the compressive strength and the corresponding ultimate strain,
and aThe descending
behavior of part
the[25].
stress–strain relationships of concrete under compression is inevitably changed
due to Thethebehavior
damage of the stress–strain
caused by temperature relationships
[21]. These of changes
concreteatunder compression
different is inevitably
ages are illustrated in
changed5 and
Figures due 6toforthe thedamage
two grades caused by temperature
of concrete considered[21].in this These changes
research at different
(C20 and C27). At ages are
an early
illustrated
age, in Figures
the strains 5 and 6 forto
corresponding thepeak
two stresses
grades ofhadconcrete
not been considered
affectedinbythis theresearch (C20 and
temperature C27).
increase.
At an early
However, moreage,reductions
the strainsincorresponding to peak stresses
these strains occurred because had not beenWith
of freezing. affected by the temperature
the increase in exposure
increase.
to However,
temperature, themore
peakreductions in these strains
stresses decreased occurred
and caused because of
reductions in freezing.
the area With
underthe theincrease
curve.
in exposure
The concrete to temperature,
started to exhibitthe peakbrittle
a more stresses decreased
response and caused
by increasing thereductions in the area under
exposed temperature the
level [26].
curve. TheThe concrete rate
increasing started to exhibit
of slopes of thea more
linearbrittle response
portions of these byrelationships
increasing thedecreased
exposed temperature
through the
level [26].
concrete age as the temperature increased. This behavior indicated reductions in the stiffness of concrete.
However,The increasing rate of slopes
dramatic reductions wereof the linearinportions
monitored the case of freezing.
these relationships decreased
These reductions through the
are attributed to
concrete
the age in
alteration asthethephysical
temperature
form of increased.
the hardenedThiscement
behavior pasteindicated
when the reductions
hydrationin the stiffness
proceeds of
at lower
concrete.
and faster However,
rates in thedramatic reductions
case of freezing weretemperature,
and high monitored inrespectively
the case of [2,6,27].
freezing.Stiffness
These reductions
degradations are
attributed
and strength to deteriorations
the alteration in the physical
occurred form of
in concrete duethetohardened cement
this alteration. paste when the moderate
Alternatively, hydration
proceeds at lower
temperature (21 ◦ C)and
was faster ratestemperature
the ideal in the case oftofreezing
gain theand fullhigh temperature,
strength of concrete respectively
over time. [2,6,27].
Stiffness degradations and strength deteriorations occurred in concrete due to this alteration.
Alternatively, the moderate temperature (21 °C) was the ideal temperature to gain the full strength
of concrete over time.
Materials 2020, 13, 2801 6 of 18
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(a)
(a) (b)
(b)

(c)
(c) (d)
(d)

(e)
(e)
Figure
Figure 5.
5. Stress–strain
Stress–strain curves
curves for
for concrete
concrete with
with grade
grade C20:
C20: (a)
(a)at
(a) at777days;
at days;(b)
days; (b)at
(b) at 14
at 14 days;
14 days; (c)
days; (c) at
(c) at 28
at 28 days;
28 days;
days;
(d) at 56 days; (e) at 90 days.
days.
(d) at 56 days; (e) at 90 days.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 6. Cont.
Materials 2020, 13, 2801 7 of 18
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(c)
(c) (d)
(d)

(e)
(e)
Figure6.6.Stress–strain
Figure Stress–straincurves
curvesfor
forconcrete
concretewith
withgrade
gradeC27:
C27:(a)
(a)at
(a) atat777days;
days;(b)
days; (b)at
(b) atat14
14days;
14 days;(c)
days; (c)at
(c) atat28
28days;
28 days;
days;
(d) at 56 days; (e) at 90 days.
(d) at 56 days; (e) at 90 days.

The
Theexposure
The exposure
exposure totodifferent temperature
todifferent
different temperature
temperature conditions altered
conditions
conditions the mode
altered
altered theofmode
the failure
mode offailure
ofof the tested
failure ofofspecimens
thetested
the tested
as shown
specimens in Figure
as shown7. Three
in failure
Figure modes
7. Three were captured
failure modes for the
were tested
captured cylinders.
specimens as shown in Figure 7. Three failure modes were captured for the tested cylinders. Well- for the Well-formed
tested cones
cylinders. and
Well-
vertical
formed cracks
cones were
and the modes
vertical of
cracks failure
were adopted
the modes by the
of frozen
failure concrete
adopted by cylinders.
formed cones and vertical cracks were the modes of failure adopted by the frozen concrete cylinders.the frozen Well-formed
concrete cones
cylinders.
without ◦ C and 40 ◦ C.
Well-formed
vertical
Well-formed cones
splitting
cones without
without vertical splitting
were observed
vertical splitting
for were observed
the concrete
were observedat
cylinders for
for the
thethe concrete cylinders
temperatures
concrete cylinders
21 atat the
the
◦
temperatures 21 °C and 40 °C. Columnar vertical cracking was the mode of failure observed at aa
temperatures
Columnar 21
vertical °C and
cracking 40was°C. Columnar
the mode of vertical
failure cracking
observed at was
a the mode
temperature ofof failure
121 C. observed
Side fracturesat
temperature
at ofof121
the top or bottom
temperature 121°C.
°C.the
of Side fractures
concrete
Side fractures atatthe
cylinders thetop
topororthe
were bottom
mode
bottom ofof
ofthe concrete
failure
the noticed
concrete cylinders
for thewere
cylinders were themode
specimens
the mode
at theofof
failurenoticed
noticedfor forthe ◦ C). Such failure
thespecimens
specimens
highest
failure temperature (260 atatthe
thehighest
highestwere
modes temperature
influenced
temperature (260 °C).thermal
by °C).
(260 the Suchfailure
Such failure
stresses modes were
associated
modes were
influenced
with
influenced bythe
by thethermal
the temperature thermal stresses
gradients associated
and associated
stresses caused withthe
variations
with the temperature
oftemperature
damage in the gradients andcaused
microstructure
gradients and caused variations
of concrete [28].
variations
ofofdamage
damageininthe themicrostructure
microstructureofofconcrete
concrete[28]. [28].

(a)
(a) (b)
(b) (c)
(c)
Figure 7. Cont.
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(d) (e)
Figure7.7.Modes
Figure Modesof of failure
failure at age of of 28
28 days:
days:(a) (a)TT= = 0 ◦(well-formed
0 °C C (well-formedcone andand
cone vertical cracks);
vertical (b) T
cracks);
(b)= T21= °C
21 ◦(well-formed
C (well-formed cone);
cone); T T= =4040°C
(c)(c) ◦ C(well-formed cone); (d) TT == 121
(well-formed cone); 121◦ C
°C(columnar
(columnarvertical
vertical
cracking);
cracking); (e)(e)
TT= =260
260◦ C°C(side
(sidefractures
fracturesatattop).
top).

3.2.
3.2.Compressive
CompressiveStrength
Strength
The
Theaverage
averagecompressive
compressivestrength strengthofofeach eachtested
testedgroup
groupisissummarized
summarizedininTable Table3 3andandillustrated
illustrated
ininFigures
Figures 8–11. The presented data are the average results of three concrete cylinders testedfor
8–11. The presented data are the average results of three concrete cylinders tested foreach
each
group at a certain age with a standard deviation range of 2.79% to 3.15%.
group at a certain age with a standard deviation range of 2.79% to 3.15%. Figure 8 presents the Figure 8 presents the influence
ofinfluence
the temperature
of the on the compressive
temperature on thestrength of concrete
compressive at different
strength ages. at
of concrete As different
demonstrated ages. byAs
the
demonstrated by the results, the compressive strength of the frozen specimens remained at lowages.
results, the compressive strength of the frozen specimens remained at low levels over their levels
No significant
over their ages.strength was earnedstrength
No significant over the was concrete
earnedage.over
Keeping the concrete
the concrete age.cylinders
Keeping frozen at an
the concrete
early age could be very harmful and caused more damage to the concrete
cylinders frozen at an early age could be very harmful and caused more damage to the concrete strength. The water in the
concrete mix was frozen and the final product would be irreparably
strength. The water in the concrete mix was frozen and the final product would be irreparably damaged because the temperature
dipped
damaged too low [29]. the
because Therefore, it is particularly
temperature dipped tooimportant
low [29]. to protect concrete
Therefore, against freezing
it is particularly important at anto
early age if possible, to complete the hydration process and gain most
protect concrete against freezing at an early age if possible, to complete the hydration process and of the strength. Otherwise,
most
gainof the of
most compressive
the strength. strength
Otherwise,was most
achieved
of theatcompressive
the early age of the specimens
strength was achieved exposed to high
at the early age
levels of temperature. The hydration process of cement was highly
of the specimens exposed to high levels of temperature. The hydration process of cement was highlyaffected by temperature where
the reaction
affected bybecame faster as
temperature the temperature
where the reactionincreased
became [30].
fasterHydration at a faster rate
as the temperature made the
increased [30].
physical form of the hardened cement paste to be less well-structured
Hydration at a faster rate made the physical form of the hardened cement paste to be less well- and more porous. Figures 9
and 10 demonstrate the effect of the concrete age on the compressive
structured and more porous. Figures 9 and 10 demonstrate the effect of the concrete age on the strength at different temperatures
and the development
compressive strengthinatthe compressive
different strengthand
temperatures of concrete as a percentage
the development of its 28-daystrength
in the compressive strength,of
respectively.
concrete as These figures of
a percentage confirm reductions
its 28-day strength,in the compressive
respectively. Thesestrength
figuresofconfirm
the tested specimens
reductions in at
the
later ages due to the elevated temperatures.
compressive strength of the tested specimens at later ages due to the elevated temperatures.
The
Thespecimens
specimensexposed exposedtotothe themoderate
moderatetemperature
temperature ofof2121◦ C°Cachieved
achievedonly only75%
75%ofoftheirtheir28-day
28-day
compressive strength at the early age of concrete and further strength was
compressive strength at the early age of concrete and further strength was achieved over the concrete achieved over the concrete
age
age(see
(seeFigure
Figure9).9).TheThedevelopment
developmentofofthe thecompressive
compressivestrength
strengthasasa apercentage
percentageofofthe thestrength
strengthatatanan
equivalent ◦
equivalentage ageofofconcrete
concretecured curedand andstored
storedatat2121C°Cis ispresented
presented inin
Figure
Figure 11.11.The
Thehighest
higheststrength
strength
was achieved by the specimens exposed to the temperature of 21 ◦ C.
was achieved by the specimens exposed to the temperature of 21 °C.

Table
Table Compressive
3. 3. strength
Compressive ofof
strength concrete (MPa).
concrete (MPa).
Time Temperature 0 C◦ 21 ◦ C 40 ◦ C 121 ◦ C 260 ◦ C
Temperatur 21 40
Time 0 °C 121 °C 260 °C
e C20°C °C4.47 15.27 16.49 15.42 15.83
7-day
C20 4.47 15.27
C27 16.49
10.08 15.4220.46
22.21 18.44 15.83
17.40
7-
10.0 C20 2.97 17.93
day C27
14-day 22.21 20.46 18.4415.05 15.29 14.64
17.40
8
C27 8.17 26.96 22.06 20.95 20.47
14- C20 2.97 17.93 15.05 15.29 14.64
C20 4.35 19.98 16.45 13.25 12.67
day C27
28-day 8.17 26.96 22.06 20.95 20.47
C20 4.35 C27
19.98 9.19
16.45 27.68
13.2519.81 19.12 18.85
12.67
28-
day C27 9.19 27.68 19.81 19.12 18.85
56- C20 3.73 24.01 18.16 14.47 14.33
day C27 8.43 31.34 23.19 20.66 17.89
Materials 2020, 13, 2801 9 of 18

Table 3. Cont.

Time Temperature 0 ◦C 21 ◦ C 40 ◦ C 121 ◦ C 260 ◦ C

C20 3.73 24.01 18.16 14.47 14.33
56-day
C27 8.43 31.34 23.19 20.66 17.89
Materials 2020,
Materials 2020, 13,
13, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 99 of
of 18
18
C20 3.79 25.61 17.93 14.24 12.40
90-day
90-
90- C20
C20 3.79 C27
3.79 25.61 17.93
25.61 17.93
8.41 14.24 23.37
31.03
14.24 17.74 12.40
18.40
12.40
day
day C27
C27 8.41 31.03
8.41 31.03 23.37
23.37 17.74
17.74 18.40
18.40

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure 8. Effect
8. 8.
Figure Effect
Effect of temperature
of temperature
of temperature on compressive
on the
on the compressive
the compressive strength
strength of concrete
concrete
of concrete
strength of at different
different
at different
at ages:
ages: ages:
(a) (a)
for(a) for
concrete
for
concrete
of concrete of grade
of
grade C20; grade C20;
(b) forC20; (b) for
(b)
concreteforofconcrete
concrete of grade
of
grade C27.grade C27.
C27.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure
Figure 9.
9. 9. Effect
Effect
Effect ofconcrete
ofof concreteage
concrete ageon
age onthe
on thecompressive
the compressive strength
compressive strength at
strengthat different
atdifferent temperatures:
differenttemperatures:
temperatures:(a)(a)
(a) forfor
for concrete
concrete
concrete
of
of of grade
grade
grade C20;
C20;
C20; (b)
(b)
(b) forconcrete
for
for concreteofof
concrete ofgrade
gradeC27.
grade C27.
C27.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure Compressive
10.
10.10.
Figure Compressivestrength
Compressive strengthdevelopment
strength development of
development of concrete
concreteas
concrete asaaapercentage
as percentageof
percentage ofofits
itsits 28-day
28-day
28-day compressive
compressive
compressive
strength:
strength: (a) for
(a)(a)for
strength: concrete
forconcrete of grade
concreteofofgrade C20;
gradeC20; (b)
C20; (b) for concrete
(b) for concrete of grade C27.
gradeC27.
concrete of grade C27.
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18
Materials 2020, 13, 2801 10 of 18
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18

(a) (b)
(a)
Figure 11. Compressive strength development of concrete as a percentage of the(b)compressive strength
at 21Figure
°C: (a)11.
Figurefor
11.concrete of grade
Compressive
Compressive C20;development
strength
strength (b) for concrete
development of gradeas
of concrete
of asC27.
aapercentage
percentageofofthe
thecompressive strength
compressive strength
at 21 ◦ C:°C:
at 21 (a)(a)
forfor concreteofofgrade
concrete gradeC20;
C20;(b)
(b)for
forconcrete
concrete of grade
grade C27.
C27.
Previous constitutive models from the literature to predict the compressive strength of concrete
under the effect of
Previous
Previous temperature
constitutive
constitutive are summarized
models
models fromthe
from in Table
the literature
literature 4. The the
to predict
predict experimental
the compressive
compressive data wereofused
strength
strength to
concrete
of concrete
validate
under these
under models
thethe effect
effect ofand
of to proposeare
temperature
temperature aare
new relationship.
summarized
summarized Regression
in Table
in Table 4. The
The analyses were conducted
experimental
experimental data
datawere
wereon
usedtheto to
used
validate
experimental these
resultsmodels
to and
propose to propose
this a new
relationship relationship.
as expressedRegression
in analyses
Equation
validate these models and to propose a new relationship. Regression analyses were conducted were
(1). The conducted
analysis on
wastheon
experimental
conducted results
on the temperature
the experimental to propose this
range of this
results to propose relationship
21 torelationship as expressed
260 °C. Theasvariation
expressed in Equation
of in
theEquation (1).
compressive The analysis
strength
(1). The was
duewas
analysis
conducted
to temperature
conducted on
thethe
compared
on temperature rangeofof2121
with therange
temperature proposed toto260
and 260◦ C.
°C.The
previous The variation
models
variation ofofthe
is shown thecompressive
compressive
in strength due
Figure 12.strength due to
to temperature
temperature compared
compared withwith the proposed
the proposed andand previous
previous models
models is shown
is shown inin Figure12.
Figure 12.
′
𝑓𝑐 𝑓′𝑐𝑇 0.1410 ln 𝑇 1.4206 20 °C 𝑇 260 °C (1)
= −0.141
fc = fln ) + 1.4206
cT [(−0.141 ln(T ) + 1.4206] 20 ◦ C 20≤°CT ≤ ≤ 260
≤ 260 ◦
C °C (1) (1)

Based on the experimental data and the proposed model, concrete lost 10–20% of its original
Based
Basedonon thetheexperimental
experimentaldatadataand
and the
the proposed model, concrete
proposed model, concretelost
lost10–20%
10–20%ofofitsitsoriginal
original
compressive strength when heated to 100 °C and ◦ C30–40% at 260 °C. A previous study confirmed 10–
◦ C. A previous
compressive strength when heated to 100 and 30–40% at 260
compressive strength when heated to 100 °C and 30–40% at 260 °C. A previous study confirmed 10– study confirmed
20% loss of the original compressive strength when heated to 300 °C and 60–75% at 600 °C [13].
10–20% lossofofthe
20% loss theoriginal
originalcompressive
compressivestrength
strength when
when heated
heated to to
300300°C◦ C and
and 60–75%
60–75% at at °C ◦[13].
600600 C [13].
Moreover, the proposed model fits well with the test results with a goodness of fit (R2) 2equal 2 to 0.94.
Moreover,
Moreover, thethe proposedmodel
proposed modelfits
fitswell
wellwith
with the
the test
test results
results with
withaagoodness
goodnessofoffitfit(R(R) equal
) equalto to
0.94.
0.94.
The experimental
The
results
experimental
and the
results and
proposed
the
model
proposed
indicated
model
a non-linear
indicated a non-linear
relationship
relationship
between
between
the
the
The experimental results and the proposed model indicated a non-linear relationship between the
compressive strength
compressive and temperature.
strength However, the the
previous models gave more conservative
compressive strength andand temperature.
temperature. However,
However, previous
the previous modelsmodels
gavegave
moremore conservative
conservative values
valuesvalues
and showed
andlinear
showedlinear relationships.
linear relationships.More experimental
More experimental tests are required
tests areatrequired at a variety
varietyofof
and showed relationships. More experimental tests are required a varietyatofatemperatures
temperatures lower than than
temperatures 21 °C to°Cdevelop another constitutive model to to
consider the effect
effectofoflow
lower than 21 ◦ Clower
to develop21 to develop
another another
constitutive modelconstitutive
to consider model consider
the effect of lowthe temperatures lowand
temperatures and freezing
temperatures and on the
freezing oncompressive
the compressivestrength of concrete.
strength of concrete.
freezing on the compressive strength of concrete.

Figure 12. Comparisons between compressive strength at different temperatures with experimental
data.12. Comparisons between compressive strength at different temperatures with experimental data.
Figure
Figure 12. Comparisons between compressive strength at different temperatures with experimental
data.
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 18
Materials 2020, 13, 2801 11 of 18
Table 4. Previous compressive strength models of concrete at high temperatures.

Reference Compressive
Table 4. Previous compressive strength Strength
models of concrete at Models
high temperatures.
3 2
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
[31] 𝑓
Li and PurkissReference 𝑓′𝑐 0.00165 Compressive 0.03
Strength Models0.025 1.002
𝑐𝑇  100 3  100 100
T 2
  
T T
Li and Purkiss [31] fcT = fc0 0.00165 100 −′0.03 100 + 0.025 100 + 1.002
Jau [32] 𝑓𝑐𝑇 𝑓𝑐 1 0.001𝑇
Jau [32] fcT = fc0 (1 − 0.001T )
T 𝑇
 
′= f 0 1.008 +
Chang
Chang et al. [33] et al. [33] 𝑓𝑐𝑇 𝑓𝑐 1.008
fcT c T
450lna?( 5800 )
𝑇
450lna?
5800
3.3. Ultimate Strain Corresponding to the Compressive Strength
3.3. Ultimate Strain Corresponding to the Compressive Strength
The ultimate strain corresponding to the maximum stress increased as the temperature increased
as demonstrated
The ultimatein Figure
strain 13. Previous
corresponding to models were developed
the maximum to predict
stress increased as thethis strain at increased
temperature elevated
temperatures
as demonstrated as summarized
in Figure 13.inPrevious
Table 5.models
Moreover,
wereregression
developedanalyses
to predict were
thisconducted on the
strain at elevated
experimental
temperatures results to developina Table
as summarized new relationship
5. Moreover,toregression
predict theanalyses
ultimatewere
strainconducted
as expressed in
on the
Equation (2). The analysis was conducted on the temperature range from 21 to 260 ◦ C. The proposed
experimental results to develop a new relationship to predict the ultimate strain as expressed in
formula
Equationrepresented a linear
(2). The analysis wasrelationship
conductedbetween the ultimaterange
on the temperature strainfrom
and21temperature andproposed
to 260 °C. The fits well
with the test
formula results with
represented R2 equal
a linear to 0.91. between the ultimate strain and temperature and fits well
relationship
with the test results with R2 equal to 0.91.
−6
𝜀 εmax.T
4 10= 4𝑇 × 10 T + 0.0018 20 ◦ C ≤ T ≤ 260
0.0018
◦
20 °C C 𝑇 260 °C (2)
. (2)

Table 5. Previous ultimate strain models at elevated temperatures.

Table 5. Previous ultimate strain models at elevated temperatures.
Reference Ultimate Strain Models
Reference Ultimate Strain Models
Bazant and Chern [34] 𝜀εmax.T = 0.0000064𝑇
0.0000064T + 0.00210.0021
Bazant and Chern [34] .  
Lie [35]
Lie [35] 𝜀 εmax.T
. =0.0025
0.0025 + 6.0𝑇
6.0T + 0.04𝑇
0.04T 10
2 × 10−6

Kodur
Kodur et al. [10]
[10] 𝜀 ε . =0.00180.0018 + 6.7𝑓 6.0𝑇+ 0.03T
0.03𝑇 10
 
et al. max.T 6.7 fc0 + 6.0T 2 × 10−6

Figure 13. Comparison between ultimate strains at different temperatures with experimental data.
Figure 13. Comparison between ultimate strains at different temperatures with experimental data.
3.4. Modulus of Elasticity
3.4. Modulus of Elasticity
The slope of the linear portion of the stress–strain relationship for concrete is defined as the
initialThetangent
slopemodulus of elasticity
of the linear portionwhich
of thewas considered
stress–strain in this study.
relationship for The modulus
concrete of elasticity
is defined as the
isinitial
dependent
tangentmainly
modulus onofthe W/C ratio
elasticity whichin the
wasmixture,
consideredtheinage
thisofstudy.
concrete, and temperature
The modulus [36].
of elasticity is
The variationmainly
dependent in the elastic
on the modulus
W/C ratio due
in to
thetemperature
mixture, theat age
different ages is illustrated
of concrete, in Figure
and temperature 14 and
[36]. The
summarized
variation in thein Table
elastic6.modulus
The results
dueindicated that there
to temperature was a highly
at different ages negative correlation
is illustrated between
in Figure 14 and
the modulus of
summarized in elasticity
Table 6. Theof concrete and temperature.
results indicated that thereThe
wasmodulus
a highly of elasticity
negative decreased
correlation as the
between
temperature
the modulusincreased. At elevated
of elasticity temperature,
of concrete the disintegration
and temperature. The modulus of hydrated cement
of elasticity productsasand
decreased the
breakage
temperature of bonds in theAt
increased. microstructure of cement the
elevated temperature, paste reduced the of
disintegration elastic modulus
hydrated andproducts
cement the extentandof
Materials 2020, 13, 2801 12 of 18

Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 18

this reduction depended on the moisture loss, high temperature, and type of aggregate [10]. However,
significant reductions in these values occurred for the frozen concrete specimens. A new constitutive
of this reduction depended on the moisture loss, high temperature, and type of aggregate [10].
model for the modulus of elasticity of concrete under the effect of temperature was proposed using the
However, significant reductions in these values occurred for the frozen concrete specimens. A new
experimental data as expressed in Equation (3). The developed model was fitted well with most of the
constitutive model for the modulus of elasticity of concrete under the effect of temperature was
experimental results with R2 equal to 0.97.
proposed using the experimental data as expressed in Equation (3). The developed model was fitted
well with most of the experimental resultslnwith
E = E [−0.125 (T ) +R1.359
2 equal to 0.97.
] 20 ◦ C ≤ T ≤ 260 ◦ C (3)
cT c
= −0.125 ln( ) + 1.359 20 °C ≤ ≤ 260 °C (3)

(a) (b)
Figure 14. Effect of temperature on the modulus of elasticity of concrete
concrete over
over time:
time: (a) for concrete of
concrete of
grade C20; (b) for concrete of grade
grade C27.
C27.

Table 6. Modulus of elasticity of concrete (MPa).

Table 6. Modulus of elasticity of concrete (MPa).
Time Temperature 0 C 0 °C ◦ 21 21
C °C ◦ ◦
40 °C
C ◦ ◦
Time Temperature 40 121 121
°C C 260 °C 260 C
C20 C20 7319.287319.2819,762.05
19762.05 17,036.25
17036.25 15,236.0511474.74
15236.05 11,474.74
7-day 7-day
C27 C27 11,821.12
11821.1222,456.88
22456.88 20249.47
20,249.47 18639.21
18,639.2117542.78
17,542.78
C20 C20 3433.343433.34 18821.00
18,821.00 16468.38
16,468.38 16468.38
16,468.3813701.69
13,701.69
14-day 14-day
C27 C27 7904.827904.8223,249.47
23249.47 19762.05
19,762.05 17067.23
17,067.2317884.21
17,884.21
C20 3426.62 22585.20 19937.14 17242.92 14161.26
28-dayC20 3426.62 22,585.20 19,937.14 17,242.92 14,161.26
28-day C27 12000.25 23400.65 20500.1 17500.02 18201.58
C27 12,000.25 23,400.65 20,500.1 17,500.02 18,201.58
C20 3423.95 26349.40 19762.05 17207.77 15370.48
56-dayC20
56-day C27 3423.954526.05626,349.40
34670.26 19,762.05
24467.30 17,207.7719077.615,370.48
18068.16
C27 C20 4526.0563952.4134,670.26
27447.29 24,467.30
22456.88 18,068.1618599.5819,077.6
20702.56
90-day
C20 C27 3952.415269.8827,447.29
35000.31 22,456.88
29061.84 20,702.5621480.49
23231.5 18,599.58
90-day
C27 5269.88 35,000.31 29,061.84 23,231.5 21,480.49
The modulus of elasticity of concrete can be predicted using empirical methods provided in the
current standards. These methods depend on the compressive strength of concrete. According to ACI
The modulus of elasticity of concrete can be predicted using empirical methods provided in the
318-14 [37], the modulus of elasticity is calculated based on the 28-day compressive strength (f’c) using
current standards. These methods depend on the compressive strength of concrete. According to ACI
the following Equation (4):
318-14 [37], the modulus of elasticity is calculated based on the 28-day compressive strength (f’c ) using
the following Equation (4):
= 4700 p 0 (4)
Ec = 4700 fc (4)
To consider the effect of temperature in the ACI 318-14 equation, the compressive strength
To consider the effect of temperature in the ACI 318-14 equation, the compressive strength affected
affected by temperature and predicted by Equation (1) was used. Comparisons were conducted
by temperature and predicted by Equation (1) was used. Comparisons were conducted between the
between the modulus of elasticity experimentally measured and analytically predicted as presented
modulus of elasticity experimentally measured and analytically predicted as presented in Figure 15.
in Figure 15. The analytical results were obtained by the new proposed model, the previous models
The analytical results were obtained by the new proposed model, the previous models (Table 7),
(Table 7), and the ACI 318-14 equation. The previous analytical models were fitted in a linear
and the ACI 318-14 equation. The previous analytical models were fitted in a linear relationship
relationship to consider the effect of the temperature. However, the experimental results and the new
to consider the effect of the temperature. However, the experimental results and the new model
model showed a non-linear relationship for the modulus of elasticity because of temperature.
showed a non-linear relationship for the modulus of elasticity because of temperature. Additionally,
Additionally, the modulus of elasticity of concrete predicted by the ACI 318-14 equation was
matching well with the experimental results.
 Materials 2020, 13, 2801 13 of 18

the modulus of elasticity of concrete predicted by the ACI 318-14 equation was matching well with the
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18
experimental results.

Figure 15. 15.

Figure Comparisons
Comparisons between modulus
between modulusof elasticity developed
of elasticity by ACI
developed 318-14
by ACI andand
318-14 the the
28-day
28-day
experimental
experimental results:
results: (a) for
(a) for concrete
concrete of grade
of grade C20;C20;
(b) (b)
for for concrete
concrete of grade
of grade C27.
C27.

Table 7. Previous modulus of elasticity models at elevated temperatures.

Table 7. Previous modulus of elasticity models at elevated temperatures.
Reference Modulus of Elasticity Models
Reference Modulus of Elasticity Models
Schneider
Schneider [38] [38] = (−0.001552 + 1.03104)
EcT = (−0.001552T + 1.03104)Ec
Lu (reported in ref.
Lu (reported in [39])
ref. [39]) =E(1 − 0.0015
cT = ) )Ec
(1 − 0.0015T
Chang et al.et[33]
Chang al. [33] = (−0.00165 + 1.033)
EcT = (−0.00165T + 1.033)Ec

4. Previous Constitutive
4. Previous Models
Constitutive for for
Models thethe
Stress–Strain Relationships
Stress–Strain Relationships
Previous
Previousconstitutive models
constitutive were
models proposed
were proposed to trace thethe
to trace compressive
compressive stress–strain relationship
stress–strain relationship
of concrete at normal temperatures. The constitutive models proposed by Shah
of concrete at normal temperatures. The constitutive models proposed by Shah et al. [40] et al. [40] andand
Kent
Kent
andand
park [41] were examined in this study to represent the compressive stress–strain relationship
park [41] were examined in this study to represent the compressive stress–strain relationship of of
concrete
concreteunder thethe
under effect of temperature
effect of temperature(see(see
Table 8). 8).
Table TheThenewly affected
newly mechanical
affected mechanical properties of of
properties
concrete (compressive strength, ultimate strain, and modulus of elasticity) due to temperature
concrete (compressive strength, ultimate strain, and modulus of elasticity) due to temperature were were
used in these
used models.
in these models.

Table 8. Previous
Table models
8. Previous for for
models stress–strain relationships
stress–strain at normal
relationships temperatures.
at normal temperatures.

Reference
Reference Stress–strain models
Stress–Strain Models
h
0 1 − (1 − εc A
i Ascending part
= fc =1fc− (1 − εco )) Ascending part
Shah et al. [40] 1.15 Descending part
fc = fc0 e−k(εc −εco )
εco
k = 0.17
( fc0 ) . A = E
Shah et al. [40] =    2 
c f0
Descending
c part
εc Ascending part
fc = fc0 2ε c
εco − εco
Kent and Park [41]
= 0.17 h
fc = fc0 1 − ε50u0.5
i = Descending part
−εco (εc − εco )
3+0.29 fc0
ε50u =
2 145 fc0 −1000
= −
Ascending part
Where fc is the stress value at any strain εc , fc co
0 and ε
are the maximum stress and the corresponding
ultimate strain obtained from the proposed models 0.5(Equations (1) and (2)), respectively. The parameters
A and K are used to determine the=shape1of− the curve in the( ascending
− ) and descending parts, respectively.
Kent and Park [41] − Descending part
The modulus of elasticity (Ec ) of concrete is obtained based on the proposed model for concrete under

3 + 0.29
=
145 − 1000
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 18

Where fc is the stress value at any strain ɛc, fc’ and ɛco are the maximum stress and the
Materials 2020, 13, 2801 14 of 18
corresponding ultimate strain obtained from the proposed models (Equations (1) and (2)),
respectively. The parameters A and K are used to determine the shape of the curve in the ascending
and descending
the effect parts, respectively.
of temperature (Equation The ε50u is the
(3)). modulus of strain
elasticity (Ec) of concrete
corresponding to 50%is obtained based on
of the maximum
the proposed
concrete model for concrete under the effect of temperature (Equation (3)). ɛ50u is the strain
strength.
corresponding
Figures 16 to 50%
and of the maximum
17 provide comparisons concrete
betweenstrength.
the previous constitutive models after considering
Figures 16 effect
the temperature and and
17 provide comparisons
the experimental between
results. the previous
The previous constitutive
models presented modelsresults
analytical after
considering
which the temperature
had good agreements effect andexperimental
with the the experimental results.
results. TheseThemodels
previous models
reflected thepresented
affected
analytical
compression results which had
stress–strain good agreements
relationships due towith the experimental
temperature by usingresults. These models
the mechanical reflected
properties of
the affected
concrete compression
predicted stress–strain
by the proposed models.relationships
Therefore, itdue
can to temperature
be concluded thatbytheusing the constitutive
previous mechanical
properties
models for of concrete predicted
stress–strain by the
relationships proposed
of concrete models.temperatures
at normal Therefore, itcancanbebeused
concluded thatthese
to capture the
previous constitutive
relationships under themodels
effectfor
of stress–strain
temperature relationships
by using theofcompressive
concrete at normal
strength, temperatures can
ultimate strain,
be
andused to capture
modulus these that
of elasticity relationships
were affectedunder
by the effect of temperature by using the compressive
temperature.
strength, ultimate strain, and modulus of elasticity that were affected by temperature.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)
Comparisons between
Figure 16. Comparisons between the Shah et al. model
model and the experimental
experimental results for concrete of
grade C20: (a) T ==00°C;
◦ C; (b) T = 21 ◦ C; (c) T = 40 ◦ C; (d) T = 121 ◦ C; (e) T = 260 ◦ C.
(b) T = 21 °C; (c) T = 40 °C; (d) T = 121 °C; (e) T = 260 °C.
Materials 2020, 13, 2801 15 of 18
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 18

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)
Figure 17. Comparisons
Comparisons between
between thethe Shah
Shah et al. model
model andand the
the experimental
experimental results
results for
for concrete
concrete of
(a) TT ==00°C;
grade C27: (a) (b)TT==2121°C;
◦ C;(b) (c)TT= =4040°C;
◦ C;(c) ◦ C;
(d)(d)
TT = 121
= 121 °C;◦ C;
(e)(e) = 260
T =T260 °C.◦ C.

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
In this
In this study,
study, an
an overview
overview ofof the
the temperature
temperature effect
effect on
on concrete
concrete is
is experimentally
experimentally provided.
provided.
Concrete cylinders
Concrete cylinderswere
wereprepared,
prepared,cured, and
cured, stored
and under
stored different
under temperature
different conditions
temperature to be tested
conditions to be
under compression. The stress–strain curve, mode of failure, compressive strength,
tested under compression. The stress–strain curve, mode of failure, compressive strength, ultimateultimate strain,
and modulus
strain, of elasticity
and modulus of concrete
of elasticity of were evaluated
concrete at ages between
were evaluated 7 and
at ages 90 days.
between The 90
7 and experimental
days. The
results were used
experimental to validate
results were used previous constitutive
to validate previousmodels and tomodels
constitutive developandnew
to models
developtonew
predict the
models
mechanical properties of concrete under the effect of temperature.
to predict the mechanical properties of concrete under the effect of temperature.
1. The previous
The previousconstitutive models
constitutive for stress–strain
models relationships
for stress–strain of concrete
relationships ofatconcrete
normal temperatures
at normal
can be used to capture these relationships under the effect of temperature by using the
temperatures can be used to capture these relationships under the effect of temperature by using compressive
strength,
the ultimate
compressive strain, ultimate
strength, and modulus
strain,ofand
elasticity
modulus affected by temperature
of elasticity affected byand developed
temperature in
and
this study. in this study.
developed
2. Theeffect
The effect of
of temperature
temperature on on the
the modulus
modulus of of elasticity
elasticity of
of concrete
concrete can
can be considered in the ACI
318-14equation
318-14 equation byby using
using the
the compressive
compressive strength
strength affected
affected by temperature.
3. The increasing rate of slopes of the linear portions of the stress–strain relationships of concrete
decreased through the concrete age as the temperature increased. This behavior indicated a
Materials 2020, 13, 2801 16 of 18

3. The increasing rate of slopes of the linear portions of the stress–strain relationships of concrete
decreased through the concrete age as the temperature increased. This behavior indicated a
reduction in the stiffness of concrete. However, dramatic reductions were monitored in the case
of freezing.
4. The exposure to different temperature conditions altered the mode of failure of the tested
specimens. A well-formed cone without vertical splitting was the mode of failure observed for
the concrete cylinders at 21 ◦ C and 40 ◦ C. Columnar vertical cracking was the mode of failure
observed at a temperature of 121 ◦ C. Side fractures at the top or bottom of the concrete cylinders
were the mode of failure noticed for the specimens at the highest temperature (260 ◦ C).
5. Based on the experimental data and the newly proposed model, concrete lost 10–20% of its
original compressive strength when heated to 100 ◦ C and 30–40% at 260 ◦ C.
6. The compressive strength of the frozen specimens remained at low levels over their ages. No
significant strength was earned as the concrete aged. Keeping the concrete cylinders frozen at an
early age could be very harmful and caused more damage to the concrete strength. Therefore, it
is particularly important to protect concrete from freezing at an early age if possible, to complete
the hydration process and gain most of the strength.
7. Most of the compressive strength was gained at the early age of concrete due to the exposure to
elevated temperature. However, reductions in the strength occurred at later ages.
8. The specimens exposed to the moderate temperature of 21 ◦ C achieved only 75% of their 28-day
compressive strength at the early age of concrete and further strength was achieved as the concrete
age increased.

Author Contributions: A.E.-Z. tested the specimens, completed the statistical analysis, and wrote the paper; H.H.
provided the literature review and prepare the samples; E.O. and P.M. review the technical writing. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: The technical support provided by the Engineering and Technology Department at Texas
A&M University-Commerce is gratefully acknowledged.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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