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Climate change impacts on tropical and temperate fisheries, aquaculture, and

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LRRD News
Development 29 (01) 2017 papers paper
Climate change impacts on tropical and temperate fisheries, aquaculture,
and seafood security and implications - A review

Golam Kibria, A K Yousuf Haroon1 and Dayanthi Nugegoda

School of Applied Sciences, RMIT University, Australia

kibriagolam0@gmail.com
1
Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Citation: Kibria Golam, Haroon Yousuf A K and Nugegoda Dayanthi 2017 Climate change impacts on tropical
and temperate fisheries, aquaculture, and seafood security and implications - A review. Livestock Research for
Rural Development. Volume 29, Article #022. http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd29/1/kibr29022.htm

Abstract

Fish is an important source of animal protein for billions of people and in some tropical countries like
Bangladesh, the Pacific islands, and the Maldives, fish provides more than 60% of animal protein
supply. Climate change [the rise in temperatures (T°C), ocean acidification (OA), sea-level rise (SLR)
and extreme events (EE)] is an additional threat and risk to world fisheries, aquaculture, and seafood
security, in addition, to existing threats posed by other stressors.

The T°C will have both the negative and positive effects on fisheries and aquaculture, of which, the
temperate areas/countries will benefit, while the tropical regions/countries will be losers due to
shifting in fish species from the tropical areas to the temperate areas to escape the warmer water. The
T°C would cause coral bleaching and mortalities and may enhance seafood contamination (by algal
toxins and metals). The OA would adversely affect many organisms that use calcium carbonate for
their skeletons and would cause a decrease in abundance of commercially exploited seafood
organisms (shellfish and finfish). SLR would cause salinisation of freshwater fisheries and
aquaculture facilities and would damage or destroy many coastal ecosystems including mangroves
and salt marshes, which are essential habitat for wild fish stocks. Climate change is projected to
increase the frequency and intensity of EE. Besides, EE would destroy seagrass and seaweed beds and
mangroves (which are important nursery areas for fishes). The economic loss and impacts on
fisheries, aquaculture and seafood security due to T°C, OA, SLR, EE could be substantial in both
tropical and temperate areas/countries.

To achieve sustainability in fisheries and aquaculture in line with the new global sustainable
development goals (2016-2030), it will be essential to identify appropriate adaptation and mitigation
measures. Such measures may include promotion of climate-smart fisheries and climate-smart
aquaculture, and conservation of seagrass and seaweed beds, salt marshes, and mangroves.
Community awareness and education on climate change, an introduction of climate change courses in
schools, colleges, and universities and incorporation of climate change risks in all the current and
future development projects/plans would be vital to minimise threats and risks of climate change on
fisheries, aquaculture, and seafood security.

This review reveals that fisheries in the least developed tropical countries/regions such as Bangladesh,
the Maldives, the Pacific islands, and parts of Africa would be most vulnerable due to lack or limited
resources, capacity and capabilities to adapt to climate change and high dependency on fish, fisheries,
fishing and aquaculture as a source of food, animal protein, revenues, and livelihoods.

Keywords: extreme events, ocean acidification, sea-level rise, temperature

Kibria e t a l . 2 0 1 7 . Livestock Research for Rural Development 29 (01). 1 | 29

Introduction

Fish is an important source of animal protein for billions of people (about 2.6 billion people)
(Allison et al 2009). It is also an important source of essential vitamins and fatty acids (e.g.
omega-3 poly-unsaturated fatty acids). Fish provides about 20% of animal protein intake
(Thorpe et al 2006) in 127 developing countries and this can reach to more than 60% to a
poor country like Bangladesh, or 90% in Small Island Developing States (SIDS) or in coastal
areas (FAO 2005). Although aquaculture (fish farming) provides a significant contribution as
seafood, however, approximately two-thirds of fish are still from capture fisheries (Daw et al
2009). About 200 million people and their dependants worldwide, mostly in developing
countries, live by fishing and aquaculture (FAO 2005), this includes 43.5 million directly
employed in fisheries and aquaculture (of which 90% are small-scale fishers) and the rest are
associated with activities generated by the supply of fish (trade, processing, transport, retail,
etc.) and ‘backward linkages’ to supporting activities such as, boat building, net making,
engine manufacture and repair, supply of services to fishermen and fuel to fishing boats, etc.
(Daw et al 2009). Asia dominates both in capture fisheries and aquaculture, where 85.5% of
the world’s fishers and fish farmers depend on fishing and aquaculture for their livelihoods
(Hijioka et al 2014). Fisheries also contribute indirectly to food security by providing revenue
for food-deficient countries to purchase food. Fish exports from low-income, food deficient
countries are equivalent to 50% of the cost of their food imports (FAO 2005). Fish provides
an important source of cash income for many rural poor. It provides support for local
economies as well as a source of foreign exchange (Kibria et al 2016a).

Climate change [the rise in temperatures (T°C), ocean acidification (OA), sea-level rise
(SLR) and extreme events (EE)] is an additional threat and risk to world fisheries,
aquaculture, and seafood security, in addition to existing threats posed by pollution
(hazardous inorganic and organic chemicals), habitat degradation, invasive species, dams and
river regulations, and overfishing. This paper is a critical review of climate change impacts
on tropical and temperate fisheries, aquaculture, and seafood security (Figure 1) and its
implications and adaptation and mitigation measures to achieve sustainability in fisheries and
aquaculture in line with the new global sustainable development goals [i.e. SDGs related to
poverty (SDG 1), hunger and food security (SDG 2), action on climate change (SDG 13) and
sustainable use of marine resources (SDG 14)].

Rise in temperatures (T°C)

Over the 20th century, the earth’s surface temperature has increased by 0.76°C, of which most
of the warming occurred between 1976 and 2000. Scientists believe it is likely for a further
rise in earth’s temperature by another 1.8°C (range 1.1°C-2.9°C) to 4.0°C (range 2.4-6.4) by
the end of 21st century (IPCC 2007; Schmidhuber and Tubiello 2007). The
temperature increase in rivers and sea-surface (due to climate change) are projected to cause
substantial impacts on fisheries, aquaculture, and seafood security across the globe (negative,
positive and mixed).

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Climate change

Temperature (T°C) Ocean acidification (OA) Sea-level rise (SLR) Extreme events (EE)
(rise in T°C) (decrease in pH) (rise in sea-level) (increase in the frequency and
intensity of EE)

Consequences on aquatic environment and aquatic biodiversity

(fish, corals, oysters, mussels. prawns/shrimps, seagrasses/seaweeds)

T°C OA SLR EE

The rise in river and sea surface
temperatures.
Effects: enhance fish growth,
fish diseases, coral bleaching,
seafood contamination, algal
blooms; poleward
movement/expansion of warm
water species (see Table 1 for
details).
Decrease in pH of the ocean.
Effects: negative effects on
fish food (krill, pteropods)
and seafood organisms (e.g.
molluscs, corals,
echinoderms, fish) and
positive effects on seaweeds
and seagrasses (see Table 2
for details).
Average increase in the
level of world’s oceans.
Effects: salinisation of
freshwater aquaculture
facilities; drowning of coral
reefs; damage of mangroves
and salt marshes (see Table
3 for details).
The increase in the frequency
and intensity of extreme events.
Effects: The destruction of
seagrass and seaweed beds and
mangroves (see Table 4 for
details).

Figure 1. Synopsis of climate change effects on river, estuary, ocean and aquatic biodiversity (fish, coral, shrimp,
seagrass).

Fish growing seasons and fish growth: Fish living in temperate and Polar Regions could be
more beneficial since larger temperature changes are expected in the higher latitudes (as
compared to tropical areas where a small temperature increase is predicted). An increase in
water temperature would extend the fish growing season in the temperate areas. Moreover,
the rising temperature could reduce over-wintering stress normally experienced by temperate
fishes (Table 1). Thus, longer growing season and lower winter stress may enhance the
productivity of temperate fisheries. Aquaculture can be expanded into new areas as a result of
the decrease in ice cover (Handisyde et al 2006; Ficke et al 2007; Muir and Allinson 2007).

Endocrine disruption in fish: Increases in temperature and consequence decrease of oxygen

supply may affect fishes’ growth (oxygen solubility in water is inversely related to
temperature), reproductive success and survival. Furthermore, hypoxic condition (low levels
of dissolved oxygen of <2.8 mg/l) can impair fish reproduction, alter reproductive
behaviours, reduce fertilisation, egg hatching success and can cause endocrine disruption in
fish (Wu 2009).

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Fish diseases: At higher temperatures, there could be an increased frequency of diseases in
fish (Marcos-Lo´pez et al 2010; Table 1). Moreover, fish migrating to polewards from
warmer regions may serve as hosts or vectors for parasites and diseases in the new
environment (Kibria et al 2016a).

Coral bleaching: Increasing temperature is causing mass coral bleaching and resulting
mortalities (Hoegh-Guldberg et al 2007). Such bleaching will have rapid impacts on the
diversity and species composition of coral reef fish communities and other associated
organisms (see also the section on ocean acidification).

Seafood contamination: Changes in temperature may enhance contamination of seafood

(fish, shrimps, oysters, crabs) with algal toxins and chemicals (metals) (Table 1).

Fish movement, fish catch, food security and fishing opportunities: Global warming would
result in the poleward movement/expansion of warm water species (fish to move to colder
waters to escape warmer water), resulting in increased marine fish yield in high latitudes
Perry et al 2005; Last et al 2011; Cheung et al 2013; Barange et al 2014). Such movement
would cause a decrease in fisheries in the tropics. As a consequence, south and southeast
Asia, southwest Africa, Peru, and various small island developing states would have a
significant decline in fish catch. Whereas, Norway and Iceland would have a significant
increase in fish catch (Cheung et al 2013; Barange et al 2014). There could be a significant
decrease in catch potentials by up to 40% in the low latitude/tropics, of which, the Indo-Pacific
regions will be most highly impacted (Cheung et al 2010; Perry 2011). On the contrary, fish catch
potentials in higher latitude regions will increase on an average by 30% to 70%, of which, the
largest increases have been projected to occur off Norway, Greenland, Alaska (USA), eastern
Russia and Iceland (Cheung et al 2010; Perry 2011). This will have a negative impact on food
security in many tropical countries and small island nations who are dependent on fisheries resources
for food, animal protein, revenues, and livelihoods. The poleward shifts of fish will result in
associated poleward job shifts, catch and value due to shifting of fish species.

Implications of rise in temperatures: The rise in temperatures will have both negative and
positive effect on fisheries and aquaculture, of which, temperate areas/countries will be
winners and tropical regions/countries will be losers (due to shifting in fish species from the
tropical areas to the temperate areas to escape the heat stress) (Table 1).

Table 1. Examples of the impact of the rise in temperatures on fisheries, aquaculture, and seafood (+ve =
positive; -ve = negative).
Criteria Impacts +ve or -ve

Fish growing Would enhance fish growing seasons (temperate areas) (Handisyde et al +ve (temperate)
season 2006).
Lower wild fish mortality in winter in temperate areas (Handisyde et al +ve (temperate)
2006).
Fish growth, Warmer temperature would enhance fish growth rates and feed conversion ratio +ve (temperate)
reproduction and (metabolic rate) (Handisyde et al 2006; Perry 2011).
survival Warmer temperature would cause a decrease in dissolved oxygen that -ve
may affect fish’s growth, reproductive success, and survival (Muir and
Allinson 2007; Kibria et al 2016a).
Higher water temperatures may cause changes in sex-ratio, altered time -ve
of spawning and migration (Allinson et al 2005; Handisyde et al 2006;
Daw et al 2009).
Fish diversity Reduced dissolved oxygen concentrations will generally reduce aquatic -ve
species (fish) diversity if water quality is impaired by eutrophication

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 (Fischlin et al 2007; Bates et al 2008).
Invasive aquatic The rise in global temperature would enhance invasive aquatic plants, -ve
plants such as Eichhornia spp. (water hyacinth) and Salvinia spp. (floating
fern) (Bates et al 2008). The proliferation of aquatic plants would reduce
water flows, euphotic zone in the water column and reduced areas
available for inland aquaculture (cage or pen culture).
Water quality The rising temperature will deteriorate water quality in lakes, rivers and -ve
oceans via production of algal blooms (e.g. increases in toxic blue-green
algal blooms) (Fischlin et al 2007; Bates et al 2008).
Fish kills Rise in temperature would accelerate algal blooms in water bodies; -ve
when algae die-off fish kills can occur due to depletion of dissolved
oxygen levels (Kibria et al 2016a).
Filter feeding Growth of algae could be beneficial for filter feeding aquaculture +ve
species species such as oyster, mussels and herbivorous fish (Kibria et al 2013).
Fish diseases Rise in temperatures may cause stress, increase susceptibility to infection and -ve
diseases and mortality in both aquaculture fish and wild fish (many fish
diseases display greater virulence at higher temperatures).
Rise in temperatures may increase incidents of disease (e.g. white spot, -ve
bacterial kidney disease, furunculosis (Buchmann and Bresciani 1997;
Jones et al 2007; Malnar et al 1988; Karvonen et al 2010) and parasites
(e.g. Argulus coregoni, (a crustacean parasite of salmon) and protistan
parasite, Perkinsus marinus of oysters) (Cook et al 1998; Hakalahti et al
2006).
Coral bleaching High water temperatures would increase coral bleaching that may reduce -ve
coral reef fisheries productivity (Hoegh-Guldburg 1999 and 2005).
Seafood Increased temperatures may lead to increased growth of blue-green -ve
contamination algae/cyanobacteria in freshwater ponds, lakes, rivers (Microcystis spp.
(algal toxins) Anabaena spp.) and dinoflagellates in marine environment (Alexandrium
spp., Gymnodinium spp., Procentrum spp.); both freshwater cyanobacteria
and marine dinoflagelleates produce toxins (e.g. microcystins,
saxitoxins, ciguatoxins), and human may be increasingly exposed to
these toxins via eating algal toxins contaminated seafood (Kibria et al
2013).
Seafood Uptake and toxicity of common pollutants (e.g. metals) in seafood -ve
contamination organisms (e.g. fish, prawn, shrimps, oysters) may enhance with
(metals) increasing temperatures/global warming (Kibria et al 2016b);
temperature related increases in uptake, bioaccumulation and toxicity of
metals (arsenic, copper, cobalt, cadmium, and lead) have been reported
for several marine organisms, including crustaceans, echinoderms, and
molluscs (Hutchins et al 1996; Wang et al 2005; Khan et al 2006;
Mubiana and Blust 2007; Kibria et al 2013).
Shifts in Global warming is causing poleward shifts of zooplankton distributions +ve (temperate);
zooplankton (range shifts of zooplankton are among the fastest and largest of any -ve (tropics)
(fish food) marine or terrestrial group) and earlier timing of life history events such
as spawning (Richardson 2008). Such changes in abundance and
community structure can cause significant shifts in marine food web
structure and productivity.
Shift in fish and Global warming may result in northward expansion of warm water and +ve (temperate);
other species cold water species in North America, Europe and Asia and the -ve (tropics)
southward expansion of warm water species in Australia and South
America (thus would cause an increase in fish abundance and species
richness towards pole/high latitudes) (Perry et al 2005; Last et al 2011;
Cheung et al 2013; Barange et al 2014).
Fish species in low latitude or equatorial extents will move away from -ve (tropics)
the region resulting in decreased in fish abundance and tropical fish
species diversity (Rijnsdorp et al 2009).
In the North Sea, increases in sea temperature caused shifts in +ve (temperate)
distribution of demersal fishes towards north pole including the
commercially exploited cod (Gadus morhua) and common sole (Solea
solea) (Perry et al 2005); shifted species tend to have faster life and

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 were of significantly smaller body sizes, faster maturation, and smaller
sizes at maturity than non-shifting species (Perry et al 2005).
A recent study found that 45 Australian warm temperate fish have +ve (temperate)
colonized and shifted in their poleward distribution towards south i.e.
region of cooler water (30 species exhibited an increase in abundance in
some parts of Tasmanian, range of which ca. 63% are perch-like fish
and ca. 17% are elasmobranches) (Last et al 2011).
Tuna populations may spread towards presently temperate regions +ve (temperate)
(Wernberg et al 2011).
Ocean warming caused a decline of giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) Not known
and poleward extension of range by an herbivore, such as a sea urchin,
Centrostephanus rodgersii (@~160 km/decade) and other trophically
important reef organisms in Australia (Wernberg et al 2011).
Fish movement Warm surface water temperatures in the ocean are driving some fish -ve
to deeper water species to deeper water to escape heat or warming, for example in
European North Sea (Perry et al 2005; Dulvy et al 2008; Nye et al
2009) this will increase costs of exploitation, as fish moves to deeper
waters.
Fish species will move to off-shore to cooler refuges as the ocean -ve
warms up (Dulvy et al 2008), thus catch potential shifts to off-shore
regions from coastal areas with increases in the cost of exploitation.
New fishing Shifts in fish species from tropical to temperate areas (due to global +ve (temperate)
zone/fisheries, warming) will create some new fishing zones, for example, species that
fish catch habitually live along the African coasts are moving northwards, such as
black codling (Physiculus dalwigki), rockling (Giadropsarus granti)
and snake eel (Pisodonophis semicinctus) which are now spotted in
Galician waters (F and A Europe 2007; Kibria et al 2013).
Catch potential in southern parts of Australia and Africa would increase +ve (temperate)
in the poleward continental margins (because most commercially
exploited species are associated with continental shelves) (Cheung et al
2010).
In sub-tropical and temperate regions, cold-water species are being +ve (temperate)
replaced by warm-water species (Cheung et al 2010) and therefore new
fisheries are being developed for warm water species in UK waters
(Pinnegar et al 2010; Perry 2011).
Ocean warming and retreat of sea ice in high-latitude regions would +ve (temperate)
open up new habitat for lower latitude species (Cheung et al 2010), the
new habitat for lower latitude species may result in a net increase in
catch potential in high latitude regions.
Seafood Due to the shift of species in higher latitudes/temperate areas (due to climate -ve (tropics)
security change), it will have implications on seafood security in many tropical +ve (temperate)
countries and island nations and their communities who depend strongly on
fisheries resources for food, revenues, and livelihoods (Cheung et al 2010;
Kibria et al 2016a).
Livelihoods The temperate countries will benefit with regard to job, catch and value since +ve (temperate);
tropical species are shifting/would shift towards pole as sea surface -ve (tropics)
temperature warms (Murawski 1993; Nye et al 2009).

Ocean acidification (OA)

The ocean absorbs approximately ~30% of atmospheric CO2 resulting from human activities
including fossil fuel burning, industries, cement manufacturing, deforestation and land use
changes. CO2 dissolves in water, forms carbonic acid (H2CO3) and cause a decrease in ocean
pH (due to increase in hydrogen ion concentration or H+). This is called ‘Ocean acidification’
(Roessig et al 2005; Meehl et al 2007; Turley et al 2010). The higher absorption of CO2 has
already acidified the surface layers of the ocean causing an overall decrease of 0.1 pH units
since the pre-industrial period, which is equivalent to a 30% increase in hydrogen ion

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concentration or acidity. The surface ocean pH is projected to decrease by 0.3-0.4 pH units by
2100 relative to pre-industrial conditions, equivalent to 150% increase in acidity (H+) and
50% decrease in CO32 (Meehl et al 2007; Wittmann and Pörtner 2013). OA is projected to
adversely affect many organisms that use calcium carbonate for their skeletons and shell
including krill, pteropod, molluscs, corals, echinoderms, and fish.

Fish food organisms (krill, pteropods): Many animals like whales, seals, penguins and fishes
are dependent on krill (Euphausia superba) fishery. But krill population could be vulnerable
to OA. For example, at elevated seawater CO2 levels, egg hatching rates of krills were found
significantly lower, it also showed delayed embryonic development (Kawaguchi et al 2013).
Pteropods are also an important food source for fish such as juvenile salmon, tiny krill, and
giant whales) and birds. The shells of pteropods, Limacina helicina antarctica – living in the
seas around Antarctica are being severely dissoluted by ocean acidification according to a
new study (Bednaršek et al 2012). The consequence of loss of shell of pteropods due to OA
will be increasing the vulnerability of pteropods to predation and infection, which, will in
turn impact other components of the food web.

Molluscs (abalone, oyster, clam, and mussel): OA would cause growth reductions and
abnormal larvae in abalone; decreased calcification and larval shell growth and abnormal
larvae in oysters; reduced survival and calcification rates and decreased fertilisation and
embryo development in scallops and dissolutions of shells in scallops and mussels (Table 2).

Corals: Increasing OA can significantly reduce the ability of reef-building corals to produce
their skeletons via reduced calcification (Bednaršek et al 2012). For example, Albright et al
(2010) demonstrated that OA could comprise successful fertilisation, larval settlement,
growth and survival of Elkhorn coral, Acropora palmate (an endangered and critical reef-
building species which once dominated in the tropical coral reef ecosystems). Research
results (Albright et al 2010) suggest that OA could severely impact the ability of coral reefs
to recover from disturbances since fertilisation, settlement and growth were all negatively
impacted by increasing pCO2. Many marine species use coral reefs as habitat and refuge, for
example, one-fourth of worlds’ marine fish species use the coral habitat at least during a part
of their lifetime.

Echinoderms (sea urchin and sea cucumber): OA caused a decrease in survival, reduced
calcification and fecundity in sea urchin and sea cucumber (Table 2).

Fish: Elevated CO2 results in tissue damage in internal organs (liver, pancreas, kidney, eye,
and gut) of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) larvae; reduced survival in estuarine fish (Menidia
beryllina) and reduced learning abilities and lateralisation (swim towards predator smells
instead of away) in reef-fishes Pomacentrus amboinensis and Neopomacentrus
azysron (Table 2).

Seagrasses and seaweeds: OA has some beneficial impacts as well. An increase in

CO2 levels would enhance the productivity of non-calcifying seagrasses and seaweeds as they
require CO2 for photosynthesis and growth. Photosynthetic organisms such as seagrasses
showed higher growth rates, as much as five-fold or higher with acidification (Hendriks et al
2010). Photosynthesis and growth rates of red seaweeds, Porphyra yezoensis were enhanced
under higher CO2 concentrations (concentrations of 1,000 and 1,600 ppm). Similarly,
enhancement of growth with increasing CO2 is also reported in Gracilaria spp. (red algae)
species (Roleda and Hurd 2012) (Table 2).

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Implications of OA: OA is an effect of climate change and is one of the most critical
anthropogenic threats to marine life. Increases in CO2 levels will make the ocean more acidic
(decrease in seawater pH) adversely affecting many organisms that use calcium carbonate for
their skeletons and shells, such as molluscs, corals, echinoderms. It will have negative effects
on fish food (krill, pteropods) and seafood organisms (e.g. molluscs, corals, echinoderms,
fish) but positive effects on seaweeds and seagrasses (Table 2). OA have important biological
and food security implications as the coastal ocean supports most of the global shellfish and
finfish production. In addition, OA would cause a decrease in abundance of commercially
exploited seafood organisms (shellfish and finfish) and reduce the resilience of other
environmental stressors on the marine ecosystem. Many of the small Pacific Island nations
depend on coral reef fisheries for 90% of their animal protein needs and for livelihoods
(where there is a limited agricultural alternative) (Kibria 2015a). In short, the economic loss
and impacts on food security due to OA could be substantial in both tropical and temperate
areas/countries. OA is a direct consequence of increasing atmospheric CO2 concentrations
and is an emerging global problem. To avoid substantial damage to ocean ecosystems and
marine life, significant and rapid reductions in global CO2 emissions are needed from human
activities (Kibria 2015a).

Table 2. Examples of the impact of ocean acidification (OA) on fisheries, aquaculture and seafood.
Species group Impacts -
ve or
+ve
Phytoplankton OA would increase the frequency and severity of harmful algal blooms that -ve
produces toxins (Hallegraeff 2010). For example, the production of potent
neurotoxins —domoic acid by common and sometimes prolific diatom species of
Pseudo-nitzschia and saxitoxin by dinoflagellate species of Alexandrium has been
shown to increase markedly under OA conditions (Hwang and Lu 2000; Fu et al
2010; Tatters et al 2013).
The fish-killing alga, Heterosigma akashiwo (red tide forming raphidophyte) -ve
responded strongly to an increase in dissolved CO 2 (increased rates of growth and
primary productivity) (Clark and Flynn 2000; Fu et al 2008) regardless of
temperature (Fu et al 2008). The fact that H. akashiwo may gain a competitive
advantage due to OA would seriously threaten salmon aquaculture in Canada
(Haigh et al 2015).
Macroalgae Elevated pCO2 can affect calcifying macroalgae, such as the ability to build and -ve
maintain the calcified component of their tissues (Hurd et al 2009). Hofmann et al
(2012) observed reduced calcification and growth for a cosmopolitan species of
red algae when exposed to elevated pCO2 over a 4-week period.
The direct effect of OA is hypothesised to be positive on non-calcifying species +ve
due to enhanced availability of CO2 for carbon assimilation but negative for
calcifying species due to reduced growth and dissolution of protective shells
(Haigh et al 2015).
Seagrasses will likely benefit from increased pCO2 because higher DIC +ve
(dissolved inorganic carbon) helps them compensate for light limitation (Haigh et
al 2015), for example, seagrasses showed higher growth rates, as much as five-
fold or higher with acidification (Hendriks et al 2010).
The growth rates of red seaweeds, Porphyra yezoensis and Gracilaria (red +ve
seaweed) were enhanced with increasing CO2 concentrations (Roleda and Hurd
2012).
Mesozooplankt Mesozooplankton (such as Acartia spp. and Calanus spp.) are critical for several
on commercially-valuable fish species that prey on them directly, such as Pacific
(copepods) Herring, Pacific Hake, Pacific Sardine, various salmon species, and Spiny
Dogfish (Squalus acanthias) (Mackas et al 2001), In Puget Sound, Washington
egg hatching in Calanus pacificus was reduced under elevated pCO2 whereas
survival rates were unaffected by OA (Haigh et al 2015).
Pteropods Live pteropods harvested from waters under, or near, saturation with respect to -ve

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 aragonite showed evidence of dissolution (Bednarsek et al 2012; Roger et al
2012; Bednarsek et al 2014).
Live pteropods incubated for short periods at the high end of present-day pCO2 -ve
and elevated pCO2 showed reduced calcification (Comeau et al 2010; Lischka and
Riebesell 2012).
Larvae of the Mediterranean pteropod, Cavolinia inflexa were exposed to pH 8.1, -ve
7.82 and 7.51 (equivalent to pCO2 levels of 380, 857 and 1,713 μatm
respectively); larvae exhibited malformations and lower shell growth at pH 7.82
and the larvae did not make shells at pH 7.51 (Comeau et al 2010).
Shelled pteropod Clio pyramidata exposed at arag< 1 caused shell dissolution -ve
(Feely et al 2004; Orr et al 2005).
Corals Negative effects on calciferous animals, including slowed rates of coral growth -ve
(Hoegh-Guldberg et al 2007) (note: corals are extremely sensitive to temperature
changes since increased water temperatures due to global warming can cause mass
coral bleaching (white or “bleached”), the symbiotic algae that live within coral
tissues can be expelled by heat stress; when the algae are expelled, the coral appears
white or “bleached”; these algae provide corals with most of their food and oxygen
(http://icran.org/pdf/ClimateChangeIssueBriefs.pdf).
Molluscs Blacklip abalone, Haliotis rubra and Greenlip abalone, H. laevigata exposed to -ve
pH 7.78 and pH 7.39 caused 5% and 50% growth reductions respectively (Harris
et al 1999).
OA significantly reduced calcification (by 40%), growth (by 17%) and -ve
development (by 25%) in molluscs (reviewed by Kroeker et al 2013).
Crim et al (2011) reported increased abnormalities in Northern Abalone, shell
abnormalities increased substantially, occurring in 99% of larvae at pCO2 1,800
μatm. In the field, the abnormal larvae would be more susceptible to predation.
Clam, Mercenaria mercenaria when exposed at arag= 0.3. caused shell -ve
dissolution in juvenile clam leading to increased mortality (Green et al 2004).
Embryonic growth was reduced and hatching delayed under elevated pCO2 -ve
(Sigwart et al 2016).
The Pacific oyster juveniles and adults exposed to elevated PCO2 caused in -ve
decline in calcification (Gazeau et al 2007).
Parker et al 2010; Barros et al 2013; Kurihara et al (2007) reported increased -ve
abnormalities in Pacific oyster larvae under elevated pCO2.
Hettinger et al (2012) conducted some experiments to investigate the -ve
consequences of OA (at three levels of seawater pH 8.0, 7.9 and 7.8) for early life
stages of the Olympia oyster (Ostrea lurida) and found a 15% decrease in larval
shell growth rate, a 7% decrease in shell area at settlement and 41% decrease in
shell growth rate after a week under pH 7.8.
Oyster, Crassostrea gigas exposed to pCO2 740 ppmv caused 10% decrease in -ve
calcification rate (Gazeau et al 2007).
In juvenile Bay scallops, elevated pCO2 does not affect shell and tissue growth -ve
but does reduce survival (Talmage and Gobler 2011).
It has been observed that calcification rates declined under reduced pH in adult -ve
Zhikong scallops (Chlamys farreri) (Mingliang et al 2011).
Giant scallop, Placopecten magellanicus exposed to pH 8.0 showed decreased -ve
fertilisation and embryo development (Desrosiers et al 1996).
The threads of the common mussel (Mytilus trossulus) have been weakened under -ve
elevated pCO2 (O’Donnell et al 2013).
Mussel, Mytilus edulis exposed to pH 7.1 / 10,000 ppmv caused shell dissolution -ve
(Lindinger et al 1984).
Mytilus edulis (mussel) specimens were cultured under current and projected -ve
pCO2 (380, 550, 750 and 1,000 μatm), at 1,000 μatm pCO2, juvenile mussels did
not produce aragonite (Fitzer et al 2014).
Echinoderms Clarke et al (2009) examined the effects of lowered pH (6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 7.5, 7.7, 7.8 -ve
and ambient) on larvae from tropical (Tripneustes gratilla), temperate
(Pseudechinus huttoni, Evechinus chloroticus), and a polar species (Sterechinus
neumayeri). Lowering pH resulted in a decrease in survival and reduced in size
and calcification.
Survival of juveniles Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis (sea urchin) was reduced

Kibria e t a l . 2 0 1 7 . Livestock Research for Rural Development 29 (01). 9 | 29

 when both larvae and juveniles were reared at elevated CO2 elevated pCO2 (1,200
μatm, compared to control 400 μatm) (Dupont et al 2013). In addition, elevated
pCO2 had reduced female fecundity (decreased by 4.5-fold), had a negative
impact on subsequent larval settlement success and five to nine times fewer
offspring reached the juvenile stage.
The percentage of normal larvae and size of larvae reduced and arm asymmetry -ve
increased when Echinometra mathaei (sea urchin) were exposed to elevated CO2,
irrespective of the parental environment; adult urchins exhibited a slight decline of
growth in low pH treatments and moderately reduced respiration at the
intermediate level (Uthicke et al 2013).
The sperm motility of a reef-dwelling sea cucumber species (Holothuria sp.) was -ve
impaired at pH values <7.7 (Morita et al 2010).
In the eastern Atlantic Ocean, keystone brittle star - Ophiothrix fragilis was found -ve
to be especially sensitive to small changes in pH, with 100% mortality of larvae at
pH 7.9 vs. 30% mortality in the control (pH = 8.1). (Dupont et al 2008). Exposure
to low pH also resulted in a temporal decrease in larval size as well as abnormal
development and skeletogenesis (abnormalities, asymmetry, and altered skeletal
proportions).
Crustaceans Crab, Cancer pagurus exposed to 1% CO2, 10,000 ppmv reduced thermal -ve
tolerance and aerobic scope (Metzger et al 2007).
Copepods exposed to 860–22,000 ppmv CO2 caused increased mortality with -ve
increasing CO2 concentration and duration of exposure (Watanabe et al 2006).
In Puget Sound, Washington egg hatching in copepod, Calanus pacificus was -ve
reduced under elevated pCO2 whereas survival rates were unaffected by OA
(Haigh et al 2015).
Under higher pCO2 the Antarctic krill species, Euphausia superba, experiences -ve
ingestion rates 3.5 times higher than those under present-day conditions, and
consistently higher metabolic rates (Saba et al 2012).
Krill, Euphausia pacifica exposed to pH 7.6 caused mortality increased with -ve
increasing exposure time and decreasing pH (Yamada and Ikeda 1999).
The cold-water barnacle, Semibalanus balanoides exposed at elevated CO2 -ve
showed reduced adult survival and slowed embryonic development, which
delayed the time of hatching by 19 days (Findlay et al 2009).
The cold-water shrimp, Pandalus borealis (common and commercially important -ve
in British Columbia), exhibited delayed juvenile development at reduced pH
(Bechmann et al 2011).
Fish Experiment with highly commercially important mass spawning fish, Atlantic cod -ve
larvae (Gadus morhua), showed detrimental effects; exposure to elevated CO2
resulted in severe to lethal tissue damage in many internal organs (liver, pancreas,
kidney, eye, and gut) in larval cod; degree of damage increased with increase of
CO2 concentrations (Frommel et al 2012).
The exposure of early life stages of a common estuarine fish (Menidia beryllina) -ve
to elevated CO2 concentrations caused severely reduced survival (70% reduction)
and growth rates (18% reduction in length of embryos); the egg stage was found
significantly more vulnerable to high CO2 induced mortality than the post-hatch
larval stage (Baumann et al 2012).
Tropical reef fish, damselfish, Pomacentrus amboinensis exposed to elevated -ve
pCO2 (850 µatm) showed reduced learning abilities related to common predator
avoidance (failed to respond to predator odour) (Ferrari et al 2012).
Domenici et al (2012) tested the effect of near-future CO2 concentrations (880 -ve
µatm) on behavioural lateralization (to turn left or right) in the reef fish,
Neopomacentrus azysron. They found that elevated CO2 disrupted individual
lateralization. Given that lateralization enhances performance in a number of
cognitive tasks and anti-predator behaviours, it is possible that a loss of
lateralization could increase the vulnerability of larval fishes to predation in a
future high-CO2 ocean (Haigh et al 2015).
Hurst et al (2016) examined the growth responses of northern rock sole NE
(Lepidopsetta polyxystra) eggs and larvae across a range of CO2 levels (ambient to
1,500 atm) and found that early life stages of northern rock sole are less sensitive
to ocean acidification and little effects of CO2 level on egg survival or size at

Kibria e t a l . 2 0 1 7 . Livestock Research for Rural Development 29 (01). 10 | 29

 hatch.
Munday et al (2016) tested the effects of elevated CO2 on the early life history NE
development and behaviour of yellowtail kingfish; they found that the early stages
of kingfish are tolerant to rising CO2 levels and there was no effect of elevated
CO2 on survival to hatching or on larval behaviour.
 = CaCO3 saturation state with respect to aragonite; DIC= dissolved inorganic carbon; NE = no effect;
PCO2= partial pressure of CO2; ppmv= parts per million by volume.

Sea-level rise (SLR)

Sea level rise (SLR) is the average increase in the level of world’s oceans. Global warming or
increases in temperatures cause the oceans to warm and expand in volume inducing a rise in
the sea levels. Furthermore, warmer climate facilitates melting of glaciers, ice caps and ice
sheets causing the further addition of water to the oceans (Kibria and Haroon 2016). The
latest IPCC report predicts a sea-level rise of 0.18-0.38 m (low greenhouse gas emissions- B1
scenario) and 0.2 to 0.59 m (high greenhouse gas emission-A1F1 scenario) at the end of this
century (Solomon et al 2007). Rising sea level is one of the most catastrophic consequences
of global warming/climate change and a major threat to coastal habitats, coastal aquaculture
and fisheries worldwide (Kibria 2016) (Table 3).

Coastal ecosystems: Saltwater intrusion as a result of a combination of SLR, decreases in

river flows and increased drought frequency are expected to alter estuarine-dependent coastal
fisheries during this century in parts of Africa, Australia and Asia (Fischlin et al 2007). The
rising sea-level would most likely damage or destroy many coastal ecosystems including
mangroves and salt marshes. The Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bangladesh is expected to
get more saline due to increasing SLR allowing saline water to penetrate further into the
forest with tidal and storm surges, higher evapotranspiration due to hotter weather and a
reduction of freshwater in the dry season flowing into its rivers due to changing rainfall
patterns (Ahmed et al 1999). It is predicted that the Sundarbans will reduce from 60% to 30%
in the year 2100 with 88 cm SLR (CEGIS 2005). In worst scenario, a 32 cm SLR may flood
84% of the Sundarbans possibly by 2050 and with an 88 cm SLR possibly by 2100 the entire
Sundarbans might be lost (Mohal et al 2006). The World Bank predicts that the Sundarbans
will be completely lost with 1.0 m SLR (World Bank 2000). These ecosystems are essential
habitat for wild fish stocks and a source of natural seed for aquaculture (Table 3).

Aquaculture facilities: Higher sea levels can lead to intrusion of saline water into lowland
and deltaic regions causing a destruction of freshwater aquaculture facilities (e.g. salinisation
of freshwater ponds, dams, lakes, streams, creeks, rivers). In the case of Bangladesh, the SLR
may cause loss/shift of natural breeding grounds of native freshwater fish species in
Bangladesh (Table 3). On the other hand, sea level rise would expand areas suitable for
brackish water aquaculture.

Corals: A rise in sea levels would increase the depth of water above coral reefs, resulting
lower light penetration to support photosynthetic algae living within coral
(e.g. Zooxanthellae). If the water depth increases faster than the corals can grow, they could
effectively destroy habitats for fish upon which many artisanal fisheries are dependent. Two-
thirds of all marine fish species are associated with coral reef environments (Guidry and
Mackenzie 2012; http://eatlas.org.au/content/relationship-between-corals-and-fishes-great-
barrier-reef).

Kibria e t a l . 2 0 1 7 . Livestock Research for Rural Development 29 (01). 11 | 29

Implications: SLR would cause salinisation of freshwater ponds, dams, lakes, streams,
creeks, rivers, it would affect nursery and breeding grounds of many estuarine fish and
migratory species. The possible drowning of corals reefs and coral mortality due to SLR
would impact fisheries depending on coral habitat. One of the positive aspects of SLR is that
it will create new areas for brackish water fish/shrimp. In short, the economic loss and
impacts on food security due to SLR would be in both tropical and temperate areas/countries.
The risks of sea-level rise should be incorporated in all the current and future development
projects including infrastructure, agriculture, fisheries, water projects. Community awareness
and education on the sea-level rise would be vital. Government and private sectors should
formulate appropriate policies and actions to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases, that
cause climate change and the sea-level rise (Kibria 2016).

Table 2. Examples of the impact of ocean acidification (OA) on fisheries, aquaculture and seafood.
Species group Impacts -
ve or
+ve
Phytoplankton OA would increase the frequency and severity of harmful algal blooms that -ve
produces toxins (Hallegraeff 2010). For example, the production of potent
neurotoxins —domoic acid by common and sometimes prolific diatom species of
Pseudo-nitzschia and saxitoxin by dinoflagellate species of Alexandrium has been
shown to increase markedly under OA conditions (Hwang and Lu 2000; Fu et al
2010; Tatters et al 2013).
The fish-killing alga, Heterosigma akashiwo (red tide forming raphidophyte) -ve
responded strongly to an increase in dissolved CO 2 (increased rates of growth and
primary productivity) (Clark and Flynn 2000; Fu et al 2008) regardless of
temperature (Fu et al 2008). The fact that H. akashiwo may gain a competitive
advantage due to OA would seriously threaten salmon aquaculture in Canada
(Haigh et al 2015).
Macroalgae Elevated pCO2 can affect calcifying macroalgae, such as the ability to build and -ve
maintain the calcified component of their tissues (Hurd et al 2009). Hofmann et al
(2012) observed reduced calcification and growth for a cosmopolitan species of
red algae when exposed to elevated pCO2 over a 4-week period.
The direct effect of OA is hypothesised to be positive on non-calcifying species +ve
due to enhanced availability of CO2 for carbon assimilation but negative for
calcifying species due to reduced growth and dissolution of protective shells
(Haigh et al 2015).
Seagrasses will likely benefit from increased pCO2 because higher DIC +ve
(dissolved inorganic carbon) helps them compensate for light limitation (Haigh et
al 2015), for example, seagrasses showed higher growth rates, as much as five-
fold or higher with acidification (Hendriks et al 2010).
The growth rates of red seaweeds, Porphyra yezoensis and Gracilaria (red +ve
seaweed) were enhanced with increasing CO2 concentrations (Roleda and Hurd
2012).
Mesozooplankt Mesozooplankton (such as Acartia spp. and Calanus spp.) are critical for several
on commercially-valuable fish species that prey on them directly, such as Pacific
(copepods) Herring, Pacific Hake, Pacific Sardine, various salmon species, and Spiny
Dogfish (Squalus acanthias) (Mackas et al 2001), In Puget Sound, Washington
egg hatching in Calanus pacificus was reduced under elevated pCO2 whereas
survival rates were unaffected by OA (Haigh et al 2015).
Pteropods Live pteropods harvested from waters under, or near, saturation with respect to -ve
aragonite showed evidence of dissolution (Bednarsek et al 2012; Roger et al
2012; Bednarsek et al 2014).
Live pteropods incubated for short periods at the high end of present-day pCO2 -ve
and elevated pCO2 showed reduced calcification (Comeau et al 2010; Lischka and
Riebesell 2012).
Larvae of the Mediterranean pteropod, Cavolinia inflexa were exposed to pH 8.1, -ve
7.82 and 7.51 (equivalent to pCO2 levels of 380, 857 and 1,713 μatm
respectively); larvae exhibited malformations and lower shell growth at pH 7.82

Kibria e t a l . 2 0 1 7 . Livestock Research for Rural Development 29 (01). 12 | 29

 and the larvae did not make shells at pH 7.51 (Comeau et al 2010).
Shelled pteropod Clio pyramidata exposed at arag< 1 caused shell dissolution -ve
(Feely et al 2004; Orr et al 2005).
Corals Negative effects on calciferous animals, including slowed rates of coral growth -ve
(Hoegh-Guldberg et al 2007) (note: corals are extremely sensitive to temperature
changes since increased water temperatures due to global warming can cause mass
coral bleaching (white or “bleached”) since the symbiotic algae that live within
coral tissues can be expelled by heat stress; when the algae are expelled, the coral
appears white or “bleached”; these algae provide corals with most of their food and
oxygen (http://icran.org/pdf/ClimateChangeIssueBriefs.pdf).
Molluscs Blacklip abalone, Haliotis rubra and Greenlip abalone, H. laevigata exposed to -ve
pH 7.78 and pH 7.39 caused 5% and 50% growth reductions respectively (Harris
et al 1999).
OA significantly reduced calcification (by 40%), growth (by 17%) and -ve
development (by 25%) in molluscs (reviewed by Kroeker et al 2013).
Crim et al (2011) reported increased abnormalities in Northern Abalone, shell
abnormalities increased substantially, occurring in 99% of larvae at pCO 2 1,800
μatm. In the field, the abnormal larvae would be more susceptible to predation.
Clam, Mercenaria mercenaria when exposed at arag= 0.3. caused shell -ve
dissolution in juvenile clam leading to increased mortality (Green et al 2004).
Embryonic growth was reduced and hatching delayed under elevated pCO 2 -ve
(Sigwart et al 2016).
The Pacific oyster juveniles and adults exposed to elevated PCO2 caused in -ve
decline in calcification (Gazeau et al 2007).
Parker et al 2010; Barros et al 2013; Kurihara et al (2007) reported increased -ve
abnormalities in Pacific oyster larvae under elevated pCO2.
Hettinger et al (2012) conducted some experiments to investigate the -ve
consequences of OA (at three levels of seawater pH 8.0, 7.9 and 7.8) for early life
stages of the Olympia oyster (Ostrea lurida) and found a 15% decrease in larval
shell growth rate, a 7% decrease in shell area at settlement and 41% decrease in
shell growth rate after a week under pH 7.8.
Oyster, Crassostrea gigas exposed to pCO2 740 ppmv caused 10% decrease in -ve
calcification rate (Gazeau et al 2007).
In juvenile Bay scallops, elevated pCO2 does not affect shell and tissue growth -ve
but does reduce survival (Talmage and Gobler 2011).
It has been observed that calcification rates declined under reduced pH in adult -ve
Zhikong scallops (Chlamys farreri) (Mingliang et al 2011).
Giant scallop, Placopecten magellanicus exposed to pH 8.0 showed decreased -ve
fertilisation and embryo development (Desrosiers et al 1996).
The threads of the common mussel (Mytilus trossulus) have been weakened under -ve
elevated pCO2 (O’Donnell et al 2013).
Mussel, Mytilus edulis exposed to pH 7.1 / 10,000 ppmv caused shell dissolution
(Lindinger et al 1984).
Mytilus edulis (mussel) specimens were cultured under current and projected -ve
pCO2 (380, 550, 750 and 1,000 μatm), at 1,000 μatm pCO2, juvenile mussels did
not produce aragonite (Fitzer et al 2014).
Echinoderms Clarke et al (2009) examined the effects of lowered pH (6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 7.5, 7.7, 7.8 -ve
and ambient) on larvae from tropical (Tripneustes gratilla), temperate
(Pseudechinus huttoni, Evechinus chloroticus), and a polar species (Sterechinus
neumayeri). Lowering pH resulted in a decrease in survival and reduced in size
and calcification.
Survival of juveniles Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis (sea urchin) was reduced
when both larvae and juveniles were reared at elevated CO2 elevated pCO2 (1,200
μatm, compared to control 400 μatm) (Dupont et al 2013). In addition, elevated
pCO2 had reduced female fecundity (decreased by 4.5-fold), had a negative
impact on subsequent larval settlement success and five to nine times fewer
offspring reached the juvenile stage.

The percentage of normal larvae and size of larvae reduced and arm asymmetry -ve
increased when Echinometra mathaei (sea urchin) were exposed to elevated CO2,

Kibria e t a l . 2 0 1 7 . Livestock Research for Rural Development 29 (01). 13 | 29

 irrespective of the parental environment; adult urchins exhibited a slight decline of
growth in low pH treatments and moderately reduced respiration at the
intermediate level (Uthicke et al 2013).
The sperm motility of a reef-dwelling sea cucumber species (Holothuria sp.) was -ve
impaired at pH values <7.7 (Morita et al 2010).
In the eastern Atlantic Ocean, keystone brittle star - Ophiothrix fragilis was found -ve
to be especially sensitive to small changes in pH, with 100% mortality of larvae at
pH 7.9 vs. 30% mortality in the control (pH = 8.1). (Dupont et al 2008). Exposure
to low pH also resulted in a temporal decrease in larval size as well as abnormal
development and skeletogenesis (abnormalities, asymmetry, and altered skeletal
proportions).
Crustaceans Crab, Cancer pagurus exposed to 1% CO2, 10,000 ppmv reduced thermal -ve
tolerance and aerobic scope (Metzger et al 2007).
Copepods exposed to 860–22,000 ppmv CO2 caused increased mortality with -ve
increasing CO2 concentration and duration of exposure (Watanabe et al 2006).
In Puget Sound, Washington egg hatching in copepod, Calanus pacificus was -ve
reduced under elevated pCO2 whereas survival rates were unaffected by OA
(Haigh et al 2015).
Under higher pCO2 the Antarctic krill species, Euphausia superba, experiences -ve
ingestion rates 3.5 times higher than those under present-day conditions, and
consistently higher metabolic rates (Saba et al 2012).
Krill, Euphausia pacifica exposed to pH 7.6 caused mortality increased with -ve
increasing exposure time and decreasing pH (Yamada and Ikeda 1999).
The cold-water barnacle, Semibalanus balanoides exposed at elevated CO2 -ve
showed reduced adult survival and slowed embryonic development, which
delayed the time of hatching by 19 days (Findlay et al 2009).
The cold-water shrimp, Pandalus borealis (common and commercially important -ve
in British Columbia), exhibited delayed juvenile development at reduced pH
(Bechmann et al 2011).
Fish Experiment with highly commercially important mass spawning fish, Atlantic cod -ve
larvae (Gadus morhua), showed detrimental effects; exposure to elevated CO2
resulted in severe to lethal tissue damage in many internal organs (liver, pancreas,
kidney, eye, and gut) in larval cod; degree of damage increased with increase of
CO2 concentrations (Frommel et al 2012).
The exposure of early life stages of a common estuarine fish (Menidia beryllina) -ve
to elevated CO2 concentrations caused severely reduced survival (70% reduction)
and growth rates (18% reduction in length of embryos); the egg stage was found
significantly more vulnerable to high CO 2 induced mortality than the post-hatch
larval stage (Baumann et al 2012).
Tropical reef fish, damselfish, Pomacentrus amboinensis exposed to elevated -ve
pCO2 (850 µatm) showed reduced learning abilities related to common predator
avoidance (failed to respond to predator odour) (Ferrari et al 2012).
Domenici et al (2012) tested the effect of near-future CO2 concentrations (880 -ve
µatm) on behavioural lateralization (to turn left or right) in the reef fish,
Neopomacentrus azysron. They found that elevated CO2 disrupted individual
lateralization. Given that lateralization enhances performance in a number of
cognitive tasks and anti-predator behaviours, it is possible that a loss of
lateralization could increase the vulnerability of larval fishes to predation in a
future high-CO2 ocean (Haigh et al 2015).
Hurst et al (2016) examined the growth responses of northern rock sole NE
(Lepidopsetta polyxystra) eggs and larvae across a range of CO2 levels (ambient to
1,500 atm) and found that early life stages of northern rock sole are less sensitive
to ocean acidification and little effects of CO2 level on egg survival or size at
hatch.
Munday et al (2016) tested the effects of elevated CO2 on the early life history NE
development and behaviour of yellowtail kingfish; they found that the early stages
of kingfish are tolerant to rising CO2 levels and there was no effect of elevated
CO2 on survival to hatching or on larval behaviour.
 = CaCO3 saturation state with respect to aragonite; DIC= dissolved inorganic carbon; NE = no effect;
PCO2= partial pressure of CO2; ppmv= parts per million by volume.

Kibria e t a l . 2 0 1 7 . Livestock Research for Rural Development 29 (01). 14 | 29

Sea-level rise (SLR)
Sea level rise (SLR) is the average increase in the level of world’s oceans. Global warming or
increases in temperatures cause the oceans to warm and expand in volume inducing a rise in
the sea levels. Furthermore, warmer climate facilitates melting of glaciers, ice caps and ice
sheets causing the further addition of water to the oceans (Kibria and Haroon 2016). The
latest IPCC report predicts a sea-level rise of 0.18-0.38 m (low greenhouse gas emissions- B1
scenario) and 0.2 to 0.59 m (high greenhouse gas emission-A1F1 scenario) at the end of this
century (Solomon et al 2007). Rising sea level is one of the most catastrophic consequences
of global warming/climate change and a major threat to coastal habitats, coastal aquaculture
and fisheries worldwide (Kibria 2016) (Table 3).

Coastal ecosystems: Saltwater intrusion as a result of a combination of SLR, decreases in

river flows and increased drought frequency are expected to alter estuarine-dependent coastal
fisheries during this century in parts of Africa, Australia and Asia (Fischlin et al 2007). The
rising sea-level would most likely damage or destroy many coastal ecosystems including
mangroves and salt marshes. The Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bangladesh is expected to
get more saline due to increasing SLR allowing saline water to penetrate further into the
forest with tidal and storm surges, higher evapotranspiration due to hotter weather and a
reduction of freshwater in the dry season flowing into its rivers due to changing rainfall
patterns (Ahmed et al 1999). It is predicted that the Sundarbans will reduce from 60% to 30%
in the year 2100 with 88 cm SLR (CEGIS 2005). In worst scenario, a 32 cm SLR may flood
84% of the Sundarbans possibly by 2050 and with an 88 cm SLR possibly by 2100 the entire
Sundarbans might be lost (Mohal et al 2006). The World Bank predicts that the Sundarbans
will be completely lost with 1.0 m SLR (World Bank 2000). These ecosystems are essential
habitat for wild fish stocks and a source of natural seed for aquaculture (Table 3).

Aquaculture facilities: Higher sea levels can lead to intrusion of saline water into lowland
and deltaic regions causing a destruction of freshwater aquaculture facilities (e.g. salinisation
of freshwater ponds, dams, lakes, streams, creeks, rivers). In the case of Bangladesh, the SLR
may cause loss/shift of natural breeding grounds of native freshwater fish species in
Bangladesh (Table 3). On the other hand, sea level rise would expand areas suitable for
brackish water aquaculture.

Corals: A rise in sea levels would increase the depth of water above coral reefs, resulting
lower light penetration to support photosynthetic algae living within coral (e.g.
Zooxanthellae). If the water depth increases faster than the corals can grow, they could
effectively destroy habitats for fish upon which many artisanal fisheries are dependent. Two-
thirds of all marine fish species are associated with coral reef environments (Guidry and
Mackenzie 2012; http://eatlas.org.au/content/relationship-between-corals-and-fishes-great-
barrier-reef).

Implications: SLR would cause salinisation of freshwater ponds, dams, lakes, streams,
creeks, rivers, it would affect nursery and breeding grounds of many estuarine fish and
migratory species. The possible drowning of corals reefs and coral mortality due to SLR
would impact fisheries depending on coral habitat. One of the positive aspects of SLR is that
it will create new areas for brackish water fish/shrimp. In short, the economic loss and
impacts on food security due to SLR would be in both tropical and temperate areas/countries.
The risks of sea-level rise should be incorporated in all the current and future development

Kibria e t a l . 2 0 1 7 . Livestock Research for Rural Development 29 (01). 15 | 29

projects including infrastructure, agriculture, fisheries, water projects. Community awareness
and education on the sea-level rise would be vital. Government and private sectors should
formulate appropriate policies and actions to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases, that
cause climate change and the sea-level rise (Kibria 2016).

Table 3. Examples of the impact of sea-level rise (SLR) on fisheries, aquaculture, and seafood.
Category Impacts -ve/+ve

Surface and Contamination of both surface and groundwater resources with chloride -ve
groundwater (salt), in particular in the low-lying coastal areas due to saltwater
intrusion (Kibria 2016).
Coastal habitats Coastal habitats and wetlands (salt marshes, mangroves, and intertidal -ve
and wetlands areas) would be inundated due to SLR, resulting in loss or damage of
wetlands including Ramsar/ World Heritage sites (Kibria 2016).
Nursery and Mangroves and coastal habitats used by commercial fish, shrimps, crabs, -ve
spawning grounds as a nursery or spawning grounds, could be destroyed (Kibria 2016).
of fish/shrimp
Coastal Salinisation of freshwater aquaculture facilities, therefore, would reduce -ve
aquaculture the area available for freshwater aquaculture (Kibria 2016).
Rice-Fish Likely salinisation of rice fields in coastal areas of Bangladesh, which -ve
aquaculture would hinder integrated rice-fish culture in coastal districts (Kibria and
Haroon 2016).
Breeding grounds SLR may cause loss/shift of natural breeding grounds of native -ve
of native fish freshwater fish species in Bangladesh - the Gangetic major carps (rui -
Labeo rohita, katal -Catla catla, and mrigal - Cirrhinus cirrhosus) in the
Halda River, Chittagong (Kibria and Haroon 2016).
Estuarine fish and Nursery and breeding grounds of many estuarine and migratory fish -ve
migratory species species residing in the Sundarbans mangroves in Bangladesh may be
affected due to SLR (World Bank 2000) and this would impact
aquaculture (shrimps/prawns/fish/crab) seed supply and fisheries in
general (Kibria and Haroon 2016).
Coral-associated Drowning of coral reefs, the amount of light reaching corals is reduced -ve
fisheries due to SLR, in particular, the slow growing coral species that are living
at their physiological depth limit are especially susceptible to the
consequences of SLR. The synergetic effects of the rise in surface
temperatures (Table 1) and ocean acidification (Table 2) and SLR (Table
3) on corals would reduce growth rates of corals impacting fisheries
depending on coral habitats (Guidry and Mackenzie 2012).
Fishing harbours, SLR may cause loss of fishing harbours and fishers’ homes. -ve
fishers’ homes
Brackish water SLR also will create new areas for brackish water fish/shrimp +ve
aquaculture aquaculture (Kibria and Haroon 2016).

Extreme events (EE)

Climate change is projected to increase the frequency and intensity of extreme events such as
cyclones, heavy precipitation, floods, droughts, hot days, heat waves, dry spell, bush
fires/forest fires (IPCC 2007). Global warming (warmer oceans) is likely to intensify cyclone
activity and heighten storm surges. This would cause greater surges to move further inland,
threatening larger areas (Wheeler 2011). The increase in the frequency of high water events
would cause flooding of low coastal zones and potential inundation of thousands of
kilometres.

Storms: Increased intensity and frequency of storms may cause mortality of corals; destroy
seagrass and seaweed beds and mangroves; erode turtle’s eggs and nest in beaches; introduce

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disease and predators in aquaculture facilities; increase the risk of accidents to fishers; and
damage of aquaculture installations (see also Table 4).

Floods: Floods will have both negative and positive effects on fisheries and aquaculture. For
example, floods will change the salinity in freshwater and brackish water fishponds; fast
flowing rivers (due to floods) would injure larval and juvenile fish; damage fisheries assets
(fish ponds, weirs, pen, cages; rice fields); on the other hand, floods will enhance migration
of fish, enhance spawning of native fishes (which require flood pulse); improve water quality
of rivers and lakes (see also Table 4).

Droughts: Drought would limit water supplies and water availability for aquaculture;
increase the competition for water resources for aquaculture, agriculture, livestock, drinking;
and may cause drying out of lakes, ponds, and loss of fish habitats (see also Table 4).

Bush/forest fires: It is projected that the incidence of bush/forest fire would increase in many
countries including Australia (as a consequence of climate change). During and after the fire,
nutrients from ash and debris would enter into water bodies that may cause water turbid
resulting in fish kills (see also Table 4).

Implications: Extreme events would destroy seagrass beds and mangroves (which are
nursery areas for fishes). Floods will have both negative and positive effects on fisheries and
aquaculture. Drought would increase competition for water resources. In short, the economic
loss and impacts on food security due to EE could be substantial in both tropical and
temperate areas/countries.

Table 4. Examples of the impact of extreme events (EE) on fisheries, aquaculture, and seafood.
Extreme Impacts -ve/+ve
events
Storms Storm and cyclone events can reduce coral growth and increase coral -ve
mortality (http://icran.org/pdf/ClimateChangeIssueBriefs.pdf).
Frequent or more severe storms may destroy seagrass beds and mangroves -ve
(Hobday et al 2006) which are habitats for fish.

Storms may shift the distributions and compositions of seaweed (kelp) -ve
ecosystems (Hobday et al 2006).
Climate – related increases in wave energy and storm events may erode -ve
nesting beaches and reduce egg survival of turtles (Hobday et al 2006).
Storms may facilitate the introduction of diseases or predators into -ve
aquaculture facilities (Kibria et al 2016a).
Coastal ponds, sea cages, and other aquaculture installations would be at -ve
greater risk of damage during storms. Storms may cause loss of aquaculture
stocks and fishing gears deployed.
The increase in the frequency and intensity of storms would increase the -ve
risks of accidents to fishers (both inland and coastal) and coastal community
(Allison et al 2009).
Increase in the frequency and intensity of storms would increase aquaculture -ve
and fishing insurance costs.
Increased in the frequency and intensity of storm events may cause greater -ve
nutrient, sediment, and contaminant loads into lakes, rivers and this, in turn,
would increase the water quality problems (Kibria et al 2016a).
Floods Would cause changes in freshwater and brackish salinity of aquaculture -ve
ponds
Floods may damage productive assets (fish ponds, weirs, rice fields, etc.) -ve
and homes (Allison et al. 2009).

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 Floods would help increase movement of sediments and nutrients and +ve
energy, which are vital for aquatic ecosystem functions (Kibria and Haroon
2016).
Floods would enhance migration of aquatic biodiversity (fish) and helps +ve
dispersal of fish and prawn larvae (Kibria and Haroon 2016).
Floods/ high rivers flow enhances spawning of native fishes (flood pulse is +ve
a cue for spawning of the Gangetic major carps and many native fishes in
many regions including Bangladesh) (Kibria and Haroon 2016).
Floods will improve the water quality of rivers, lakes by flushing out salt +ve
from coastal rivers/lands, reducing the problem of dissolved oxygen or algal
blooms and dilution of chemical and biological pollutants (Kibria and
Haroon 2016).
Projected increase in rainfall would increase the amount of water available +ve
for irrigation, fish ponds and freshwater aquaculture facilities (Kibria and
Haroon 2016).
Drought Prolonged drought may cause loss of fish habitats and wetlands (Kibria et -ve
al. 2016a); it would reduce the quality of fish habitat, and fish may be
overcrowded in small refuge pools that can cause a decline in fish
populations (Kibria et al 2010).
May cause changes in lake and river levels affecting the abundance, -ve
distribution, and composition of fish stocks (Handisyde et al 2006; Muir and
Allison 2007).
Possibilities of loss of freshwater salmon habitat as a result of prolonged -ve
drought (Fischlin et al 2007).
Prolonged drought may change in inland fish migration and recruitment -ve
patterns (Handisyde et al 2006; Muir and Allison 2007).
Drought may cause poor water quality causing more fish diseases (Kibria et -ve
al 2016a).
Precipitation Intense precipitation means more water available for aquaculture (Kibria et +ve
al 2016a).
Where rainfall would decrease, it would reduce the opportunity for farming, -ve
and aquaculture (Allison et al 2009).
Bush Increased frequency and intensity of bush fires may cause an increased -ve
fires/forest fires organic matter and nutrient loads in lakes, dams, streams and rivers, causing
water quality problems (turbidity and low dissolved oxygen) and fish kills
(due to lack of oxygen in rivers and storages) (Kibria 2014).

Case studies: Climate change impacts on selected countries and regions

Fisheries in fish loving tropical nations such as Bangladesh, the Pacific Islands, the Maldives,
and parts of Africa would be most vulnerable due to climate change (fish provides >60%
animal protein supply in these countries/nations). These countries/regions are vulnerable due
to lack or limited resources, capacity and capabilities to adapt to climate change (being poor)
and high dependency on fish, fisheries, fishing and aquaculture as a source of food, animal
protein, revenues, and livelihoods (Figure 2). River and estuarine fisheries and freshwater
aquaculture in Bangladesh; lake fisheries in Africa and the coral reef fisheries in Australia,
the Maldives, the tropical Pacific Islands and Colombia are threatened by climate change.
The temperate North America and Europe will have both positive and negative impacts of
climate change (Figure 2).

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 World: Increase in fisheries yield in high latitudes; decrease in fisheries in
the tropics; South and southeast Asia, southwest Africa, Peru, and various
small island developing states would have significant decline in fish catch; 8. Bangladesh: Bangladesh is most at risk to climate
Norway and Iceland would have significant increase in fish catch (Cheung et change (the world ranks #1), where fish provide > 60%
al 2013; Barange et al 2014). animal protein supply, climate change would cause
1. North America: Would cause negative effects on cold- loss/shift of natural breeding grounds of the Gangetic
water fisheries (e.g. salmonid); positive effects on warm- major carps in the Halda River; significant effects on
water fisheries (e.g. small-mouth bass) & mixed for cool- nursery and breeding grounds for fish, prawn and
water fisheries; iii) warm-water and cool-water species migratory species in the Sundarbans mangroves;
would shift northward of their ranges or to higher latitudes salinisation of freshwater aquaculture facilities (Haroon
(Field et al 2007). and Kibria 2016).
3
2. Colombia: Colombia is one of most vulnerable 1 7. Pacific islands (tropical): Fish is the basis of food
countries to climate change impacts on fisheries (Margin security in the region, fish consumption, based on small-
et al 2014). The rise in temperatures, ocean acidification scale subsistence and commercial fishing (coral reef fish,
and sea-level rise would cause loss of key ecosystems tuna), is often 2–4 times the global average and supplies
such as coral reefs and degradation of the coastal 8
50–90% of dietary animal protein in rural areas; 50% of
mangrove ecosystems; coral reefs produce 12 percent of households earned their first or second incomes from
the country’s fisheries and constitute the nursery of an 2 4
5 fishing or selling fish; aquaculture contributes >20% of
estimated 65 percent of fish species (World Bank 2011). the average GDP derived from the sector and pearl farming
7 employs thousands of people on remote atolls; the coral
3. Europe: Increased in fish recruitment & production in reefs, mangroves and seagrasses that support coastal
northern waters, a marked decrease at the southern edge; 6 fisheries in the tropical Pacific would be under severe
warmer sea temperature would expand growing seasons, threat due to climate change, the coral reef fisheries could
growth rates, feed conversions and primary productivity decrease by 20% by 2050 (Barange 2014).
which would benefit shellfish aquaculture (Alcamao et al
2007); higher water temperatures would adversely affect 6. Australia: Climate change will also cause significant
both wild and farmed freshwater salmon production and Figure 2: Projected climate change impacts on fisheries and aquaculture of effects on Australian marine ecosystems and marine life,
ocean acidification may disrupt the early developmental selected countries and regions (see Boxes 1-8 for explanations). there would be southward expansion of warm water fish
stages of shellfish (Kovats et al 2014). species to Tasmania (Last et al 2011), coral bleaching and
large scale mortality of corals and a decline of population
with calcareous shells and movement of benthic, demersal
4. Africa: Fisheries are an important source of food security in Africa, which 5. Maldives: The fishing industry in the Maldives is the island's fishes and pelagic fish (tuna) to south is also projected
contribute more than one-third of Africa’s animal protein intake, with a rise in global second main industry after the tourism, with around 70 percent (Hobday et al 2009).
temperatures, fisheries in North West Africa and East African lakes could be of the native Maldivian population still involved in fishing and
impacted; in coastal regions (lagoons, lakes) changes in freshwater flows and one-fifth of the populations depend on fisheries for food and
intrusion of saltwater would affect the fish species diversity that is the basis of inland livelihoods population, however, the rising sea temperatures
fisheries or aquaculture; In South Africa, estuarine and coral reef fishes would be would force the precious skipjack and yellowfin tuna (the staple
most vulnerable (Boko et al 2007; Niang et al 2014) whereas in Zimbabwe, the catch and export of the Maldives) out of Maldives and coral
commercial pelagic fish, kapenta (Limnothrissa moidon) at Lake Kariba (Magadza bleaching would significant effects on reef fisheries, Maldives
2011; Ndebele-Murisa et al 2011). is home to the seventh largest coral reef system in the world
(Sovacool 2012).

Kibria e t a l . 2 0 1 7 . Livestock Research for Rural Development 29 (01). 19 | 29

Adaptation and mitigation measures in fisheries and aquaculture

To achieve sustainability in fisheries and aquaculture in line with the new global sustainable
development goals (http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-
goals/), it will be essential to identify appropriate adaptation and mitigation measures, some
of which are highlighted below:

Adaptation: Adaptation is an adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual

or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial
opportunities. In other words, the adaptation can be considered as, tackling the effects of
climate change (Kibria et al 2016a). Adaptation in fisheries in response to climate change can
be achieved (by fishers to be affected) by adjusting their operations, as well as by
applications of scientific and technological advances (Pullin and White 2011). Other
adaptation strategies could be to exit the current fisheries and diversify the livelihoods (e.g.
move from fishing to aquaculture or integrated agriculture-aquaculture farming), or shift
target species or increase effort/ fishing power or access to higher value markets (Kibria et
al 2013). For boom and bust fisheries, Stokes and Howden (2008) suggested to target
different species in different years, change in fishery areas, change in fishing ports, change in
the quota allocated for harvest, and closures in some fisheries or fishing areas

To adapt and mitigate climate change, the following climate-smart aquaculture can be
implemented in tropical poor countries, where fish are the main sources of animal protein
supply and provide significant support for livelihoods for the poor: i. selection of aquaculture
fish species which are tolerant to higher temperatures, salinity, diseases and low water
quality; ii. integrated concurrent rice-fish-duck farming; iii. integrated brackish water
aquaculture-mangrove/aqua-silviculture (the integration of aquaculture and mangrove
forestry will lead to increased production due to ecosystem services, sequester carbon/sinks
carbon and are more resilient to shock and extreme events); iv. the culture of seaweeds and
molluscs (oysters, clams which are energy efficient aquaculture and has a relatively low
carbon footprint); v. wastewater-fed aquaculture (in water-stressed countries/ areas); vi. use
of agricultural crop materials or waste products for growing carnivorous aquatic species etc.
One of the adaptation measures that may be taken to counteract the losses of rice lands or
freshwater ponds due to SLR is to grow salt tolerant rice in affected rice areas or to grow
brackish water shrimp/prawn and salt-water fish species and harvesting rainwater (in SLR
prone areas) (Kibria 2015b). Simultaneous forestry, food, fish production or so-called “Three
F models” can be implemented to reduce the vulnerability of coastal communities in cyclone
and storm prone countries like Bangladesh. Here, mangroves (F) should be planted along the
perimeter of the elevated homesteads to protect against cyclones/storms; vegetables (F) at the
backyard, fish/shrimp farming (F) in dug ponds/gher. Such practices would enhance farmer’s
income, diversify livelihoods and are energy and resource efficient (Kibria 2015b).

Mitigation: Mitigation is tackling the cause of climate change such as, reducing the sources
or enhancing the sinks of greenhouse gases (GHG). GHG emissions from fisheries/fishing
activities can be reduced by eliminating inefficient fleet structures and use of more efficient
vessels and gears (FAO 2008); improving fisheries management; reducing post-harvest
losses; increasing waste recycling; shifting towards static fishing technologies. Marine
organisms including farmed- and capture-fished species and many of their food organisms
(that build calcareous skeletal structures), reef-building corals, marine micro-organisms,
invertebrates, and finfishes contribute to calcium carbonate deposits and can act as oceanic
carbon sinks (Pullin and White 2011). Therefore, protection and conservation of calcifying

Kibria e t a l . 2 0 1 7 . Livestock Research for Rural Development 29 (01). 20 | 29

organisms would be utmost important. Furthermore, afforestation/reforestation, mangroves
restoration would help to reduce carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (via photosynthesis,
carbon sequestration/sinks in sediments/soils). It (mangroves) would help reduce impacts of
disasters (cyclones/storms/floods) to coastal fishers and the community acting as live
seawalls, minimise soil erosion, enhance forest resources/biodiversity, and enhance water
quality, fisheries, tourism business, and livelihoods (Kibria 2015b). Moreover, conservation
of marine vegetated habitats (seagrasses, saltmarshes, seaweeds, and mangroves) build large
carbon deposits acting as important carbon sinks and mitigate the impacts of EE and SLR on
the coastline (Duarte et al 2013). In fact, the adaptation strategies that include the
conservation, restoration or introduction of vegetated coastal ecosystems provide a cost-
effective option for addressing the increased risk from flooding and erosion under climate
change in vulnerable areas. Producing vegetated coastal protections, compared to cement-
based structures (seawalls), are very cost-effective and environment-friendly.

Conclusions

 Fish is an important source of animal protein for billions of people and in some
tropical countries like Bangladesh, the Pacific islands, and the Maldives and parts of
Africa, fish provides more than 60% animal protein supply and supports the
livelihood of the poor. Fisheries in these countries/nations are most vulnerable to the
climate change.
 Climate change (the rise in temperatures, ocean acidification, sea-level rise and
extreme events) is an additional threat and risk to world fisheries, aquaculture, and
seafood security, in addition, to existing threats posed by other stressors.
 River and estuarine fisheries and freshwater aquaculture in Bangladesh, lake fisheries
in Africa and the coral reef fisheries in Australia, the Maldives, the tropical Pacific
Islands and Colombia are threatened by climate change.
 The rise in T°C will have both negative and positive effects on fisheries and
aquaculture, of which, the temperate areas/countries will benefit, while the tropical
regions/countries will be losers due to shift in fish species from the tropical areas to
the temperate areas to escape heat stress. Such movement (shift in fish species) would
cause a decrease in fisheries in the tropics including south and southeast Asia and
various small island developing states, whereas, Norway and Iceland would have a
significant increase in fish catch. The rising temperatures would cause mass coral
bleaching and coral mortalities impacting the diversity and species composition of
reef fisheries and may enhance seafood contamination (algal toxins and metals).
 The OA would adversely affect many organisms that use calcium carbonate for their
skeletons It will have negative effects on fish food (krill, pteropods) and seafood
organisms (e.g. molluscs, corals, echinoderms, fish) and positive effects on seaweeds
and seagrasses (non-calcifying). OA would cause a decrease in abundance of
commercially exploited seafood organisms (shellfish and finfish) and reduce the
resilience of other environmental stressors on the marine ecosystem. Many of the
small Pacific Island nations depend on coral reef fisheries for 90% of their animal
protein needs and livelihoods.
 SLR would cause salinisation of freshwater ponds, dams, lakes, streams, creeks,
rivers. The rising sea-level would damage or destroy many coastal ecosystems
including mangroves and salt marshes. These ecosystems are essential habitats for
wild fish stocks and a source of natural seed for aquaculture. The possible inundation
of corals reefs and coral mortality due to SLR would impact reef fisheries that depend
on the coral habitat. Two-thirds of all marine fish species are associated with coral

Kibria e t a l . 2 0 1 7 . Livestock Research for Rural Development 29 (01). 21 | 29

 reef environments. One of the positive aspects of SLR is that it will create new areas
for brackish water fish/shrimp aquaculture.
 Climate change is projected to increase the frequency and intensity of EE such as
cyclones, heavy precipitation, floods, droughts, hot days, heat waves, dry spell,
bush/forest fires. EE events (storms, cyclones) would destroy seagrass beds and
mangroves (which are important nursery areas for fishes). Floods will have both
negative and positive effects on fisheries and aquaculture and drought would increase
competition for water resources.
 In short, the economic loss and impacts on fisheries, aquaculture, and seafood security
due to T°C, OA, SLR, EE could be substantial in both tropical and temperate
areas/countries.
 To achieve sustainability in fisheries and aquaculture in line with the global SDGs, it
will be essential to identify appropriate adaptation and mitigation measures.
Adaptation measures would moderate climate-related harms to fisheries and
aquaculture or exploit beneficial opportunities. Whereas mitigation measure
would reduce GHG emissions from fisheries and aquaculture sectors or enhance the
sinks of GHG that causes climate change.
 Climate-smart fisheries and climate-smart aquaculture, and conservation of
seagrasses, salt marshes, seaweeds, and mangroves would help to build large carbon
deposits/carbon sinks and mitigate the impacts of EE and SLR on coastline and
fisheries and aquaculture assets.
 Community awareness and education on climate change, introducing climate change
courses in schools, colleges, and universities and incorporation of climate change
risks in all the current and future development projects/plans related to fisheries,
aquaculture, agriculture, and water security would be vital!

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