Computer Science 2009 Edited

M/G/H/A/M/Academy Tactics Department February 2016
INTRODUCTION TO COMBAT SUPPORT

Introduction
In this course you will be study combat support. The aim of this course is to introduce
you the role of combat engineering, signal communication and military intelligence in army. At
the end, you will be developing basic skills and knowledge about the courses.
The term combat support refers to units that provide fire support and operational
assistance to combat elements. Combat support units provide specialized support functions to
combat units in the areas of combat engineering, intelligence and communications. Combat
support should not be confused with combat service supports, units which primarily provide
logistical support by providing supply, maintenance, transportation, health services, and other
services required by the soldiers of combat units to continue their missions in combat.
Expressed another way, Combat Support units are focused on providing operational support to
combat units, while Combat Service Support units are focused on providing logistical and
administrative support to combat units. Actual combat units are collectively referred to
as combat arms units; hence, all army units fall into the category of combat arms, combat
support, or combat service support.
This course focuses on combat support in the area of combat engineering,

communications and military intelligence. Bearing this in mind, this course is divided into ten
chapters. Combat engineering covers Mission of combat engineering and military explosive,
Fortification and Camouflage, Land Mine, Engineering Reconnaissance and Tactical River
Crossing. Introduction to military signal and radio communication covers Basic Concepts of
Communication, Introduction to Communication Equipment and Role of Radio Communication
in Different Combat Situation. Introduction to military intelligence covers fundamentals of
military intelligence, fundamentals of reconnaissance and security. Regarding to this courses,
different activities and assessment questions are designed for each sub topics of this course. You
should seriously attempt on these questions rely to do them on your own because they help to
assess your progress knowledge and skill before you move on in your study.
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Course objectives
After accomplishing this course, you will be able to:
 Clarify the use, type, characteristics and handling of explosive
 Elucidate the importance of fortification and camouflage
 Identify the types and characteristics of land mines.
 Explain the methods and characteristics of engineering reconnaissance.
 Describe the methods and equipment of river crossing.
 Describe basic concepts of communication.
 Analyze the relation between communications and effective command and control.
 Explain the role and function of intelligence.
 Identify and use different method of collecting and analyzing military intelligence.
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COMBAT SUPPORT
Content page
Introduction to combat engineering 4
Chapter One: Mission of Combat Engineer and Military Explosive 6
Chapter Two: Fortification and Camouflage 19
Chapter Three: Land Mine 33
Chapter Four: Engineering Reconnaissance and Tactical River Crossing 45

Introduction to Radio Communication 56
Chapter Five: Basic Concepts of Signal and Radio Communication 58
Chapter Six: Introduction to Radio Communication Equipment 74
Chapter Seven: Role of Radio Communication in Different Combat Situation 81

Introduction to military intelligence 108
Chapter Eight: Fundamentals of Intelligence 108
Chapter Nine: Fundamentals of Reconnaissance 122
Chapter Ten: Security 137
Glossary 141
Appendix 144
Reference 149
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COMBAT ENGINEERING
Content page
Introduction 4
Chapter One: Mission of Combat Engineer and Military Explosive 6
Chapter Two: Fortification and Camouflage 19

Chapter Three: Land Mine 33
Chapter Four: Engineering Reconnaissance and Tactical River Crossing 45
Summary 54
Assessment question 55
Introduction
Welcome to this exciting sub-course in which you will learn combat engineering. This
sub-course introduces you to the basics of combat engineering and provides you with the
opportunity to develop some basic skills in combat engineering activities.
A combat engineer, called pioneer or sapper in many armies, is a soldier who performs
a variety of construction and demolition tasks under combat conditions. Such tasks typically
include constructing and breaching trenches, tank traps and other fortifications, bunker
construction, bridge and road construction or destruction, laying or clearing land mines, and
other physical work in the battlefield. More generally, the combat engineer's goals involve
facilitating movement and support of friendly forces while impeding that of the enemy. A
combat engineer is also trained as an infantry man and combat engineering units often have a
secondary role fighting as infantry. Combat engineers use practices and techniques of
camouflage, reconnaissance, water obstacle crossing method and enhancement of survival by
other troops. In these roles, combat engineers use a wide variety of hand and power tools. They
are also responsible for construction rigging, the use of explosives and carrying out demolition.
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In general, this sub-course includes chapter one: Mission of combat engineer and Demolition,
chapter two Fortification and camouflage, chapter three Land mine, chapter four Engineering
reconnaissance and Tactical river crossing .
Regarding to the sub-course assessment and different activity questions are designed for
every chapter of this part. You should seriously attempt these questions on your own because
they help to assess your progress before you move on in your study of the material.
Objectives
After successfully completing this part, you will be able to:-
 Demonstrate the mission of engineering units in different combat situation.
 Clarify the use, type, characteristics and handling of explosive.
 Explain the importance of fortification and camouflage.
 Identify the types and characteristics of land mines.
 Explain types, methods and characteristics of engineering reconnaissance.
 Make out the methods and equipment of river crossing.
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CHAPTER ONE
MISSION OF COMBAT ENGINEER AND MILITARY EXPLOSIVE
Content page
Introduction 6
1.1 Mission of Combat Engineer 7
1.1.1 Basic and Specific Mission of Combat Engineer 7
1.1.2 The Duties of Combat Engineer in Different Combat Situation 8
1.2 Military Explosives 10
1.2.1 Definition 10
1.2.2 The Use of Explosive 10
1.2.3 Basic Characteristics and classification of explosives 11
1.2.4 Types of Explosive 12
1.2.5 Safety Regulation 16
1.2.6 Military Target 18
Summary 18
Assessment Questions 18
Introduction
Combat engineering consists of those engineering capabilities and activities that support
the maneuver of land combat forces and which require close support to those forces. Therefore,
combat engineering activities are focused on the tactical level of war, though they can also
contribute directly to the achievement of strategic and operational objectives. There are three
types of combat engineering capabilities and activities. Those are mobility, counter-mobility,
and survivability.
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Explosives and demolitions focuses on the procedures that support the combat operations
provided by engineer capabilities to the combined arms team. It is important reducing the
effectiveness of barriers, obstacles, infrastructure, and minefields to maintain mobility and
momentum in the operating area. Military demolitions are the destruction by explosive and
mechanical means of areas, structures, facilities, or materials to accomplish a military objective.
This chapter, deals about Mission of combat engineer, Military explosive, The Use of
Explosive, Basic Characteristics of Explosive, Safety regulation and Military targets.
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
 Demonstrate the mission of engineering units in different combat situation.
 Discuss the importance of explosive.
 Identify the characteristics, use, types and handling of explosives.
 Explain the use of military explosive.
 Acquire safety regulation of military explosive.
1.1 Mission of Combat Engineer

1.1.1 Basic and specific mission of combat engineering
Activity 8 minutes
The following introductory activity is designed to help you to express
your experience to share and do it carefully.
1. From your past experience what do you know about combat
engineering? What is its mission? Please explain.
2. Describe the duties of combat engineers in different combat situation.
3. Explain tasks which are done by regiment level combat engineers.
A. Basic Mission
The primary mission of combat engineering troop units in operations is to increase the
combat power of our forces by construction or destruction that facilitates our movements and
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operations or impedes that of the enemy’s. Engineers give technical assistance to other arms in
construction of protective works, in camouflage, fortification and materials. They are
technically trained and engage in combat as infantry when directed.
B. Specific Missions
1. Mobility operations: Combat engineering mobility capabilities and activities assure the
ability of land combat forces to maneuver. They only include tasks that meet the definition of
combat engineering, and they typically include tasks associated with conducting combined
arms breaching operations, clearing operations, and gap crossing operations, constructing and
maintaining combat roads and trails, and performing forward aviation combat engineering
(FACE). Joint forces should be prepared to encounter obstacles across the range of military
operations. Preserve the freedom of maneuver of friendly forces. Engineering troops that
create suitable conditions for the main forces and facilitate the movement of own forces by
means of removal or passage of obstacles placed by the enemy.
2. Counter mobility operations: The tactical function of engineering units during counter
mobility operation placing different obstacles that to protect, defend, canalizing and deny the
mobility of enemy forces towards own force. Combat engineering counter mobility
capabilities and activities reinforce terrain to delay, disrupt, and destroy the enemy. Their
primary purpose is to slow or divert the enemy, to increase time for target acquisition and
fires, and to increase weapons’ effectiveness. They only include tasks that meet the definition
of combat engineering, and they typically include tasks associated with the development of
barriers and obstacles and their integration with fires and with the maneuver of land forces.
Emplacement of large-scale barriers or obstacles will likely require support from general
engineers.
3. Survivability operations: Combat engineering survivability capabilities and activities

enhance the protection of land combat forces. They only include tasks that meet the
definition of combat engineering, and they typically include tasks associated with the
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construction of fighting protective positions and recovery after attack actions. In most cases,
survivability support is designed to reduce vulnerability to enemy fires and is a means to
enhance force protection. Protect friendly forces from the effects of enemy weapon systems.
Give technical assistance and certain specialized construction, in connection with layout and
preparation of defense dispositions and the installation of camouflage.
4. Engage in combat as infantry: Usually, a combat engineer is also trained as an infantry man
and combat engineering units often have a secondary role fighting as infantry.
1.1.2. The Duties of Engineer in Different Combat Situation
A. The Duties of Engineers during Attack
 Reconnaissance both before and during the attack, especially the main supply route
and other routes of advance and of enemy obstacles and opening lanes.
 Establishment and maintenance of routes of advance (including bridges) for combat
troops and for the forward movement of essential supplies.
B. Duties of the Engineers during Defense
 Reconnaissance necessary to Engineering missions.
 Maintenance of routes of communication.
 Preparation of fortifications.
 Engineer supply, primarily fortification and camouflage materials.
 Establishing and maintaining water points.
 Installation and operation of general engineer service facilities.
 Combat as infantry in an emergency.
C. Duties of the Engineers During Retrograde
 Maintenance of routes of withdrawal.
 Providing engineer support for delaying and security operations.
 Denial operations.
 Reconnaissance necessary to the above missions.
 Combat as infantry if required.
D. Duties of the Engineers in Tactical River Crossing
To furnish engineer support to the assaulting troops before, during, and immediately
after the crossing. This may include:
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 Construction, maintenance and repair of road.

 Removal of mines and other obstacles.
 Construction of bridge approaches.
 Construction of footbridges.
 Installation of vehicular bridges, floating and fixed.
 Construction of dummy bridges.
 General engineer work, including water supply, camouflage, and demolitions.
1.2. Military Explosives
Activity (8 minutes)
The following introductory activity is designed to help you to express your experience to
share. So that, give short answer in your own words.
1. What is an explosive mean? For what purpose we use?
2. Identify the basic characteristics of military explosive.
3. Explain use of composition C4 plastic explosive.
1.2.1 Definition
Explosive: made up of different chemical substances and its speeds up by heat or friction from
solid or liquid immediately to gas the material that can change chemically and rapidly when
acted on by external energy giving of a great deal of heat and producing a large amount of
gas. The process of chemical change of the explosive is called explosion.
Demolition: is a technology that utilizes the energy of explosion dynamite acting on medium
around to achieve the expected objective. In military, it is mainly used to kill the enemy
effective forces, destroy the enemy technical weapon, demolish the communication lines and
military targets, speed up the earthwork in projects, and accomplish the supporting tasks of
engineering projects and so on.
1.2.2. The Use of Explosive
It classified into two as:
a. In peace time.
b. In war time.
a. In peace time
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We use to construct infrastructure for development purpose for military duties.

For Example:
 To construct road.
 To construct air field.
 To cut trees.
 To take out water from underground.
b. In war time
We use to destroy the enemy targets.
For Example:
 By making obstacle to block the enemy movement.
 To destroy our equipment before taken by the enemy.
 In offensive to destroy the enemy obstacle and to speed up our unit advancement.
 To demolish bridge.
 To cut roads (routs).
 To demolish buildings.
 To demolish installations of petroleum.
 To speed up the earth work (construction).
1.2.3 Basic Characteristics and classification of Explosives
A. Basic Characteristics of Military Explosive
a. It is dull no sensation by striking and friction.
 It does not explode with striking and friction.
 It does not explode nor burn with penetration of bullets.
b. The process of explosion is rapid.
c. A large amount of gas and heat released.
d. It can directly use for demolition in side water.
e. It can adapt the temperature between -80 - 165°F.
f. It detonates by simply made detonator.
g. It usually made in shape of suitable to transport.
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B. Classifications of explosives
Explosives are classified in to three. Those are:-
1. Highly inflammable explosives
2. High explosives
3. Low explosives
1. Highly inflammable explosives: - are very sensitive and very power full military explosives.
They speed up by simple movement, friction and flame. They are used as filler in different
fuses to set off the main charge and have a detonating speed above 8501m/s. e.g.
 Mercury filament
 Tetra nitrate
 Lead azayd
 Teners
1. High explosives:- are the main charge that changes from solid or liquid to gas by the
detonating speed of between 1000m/s - 8501m/s. e.g.
 TNT
 Plastic (c4)
 Tetrytol
 Detonating cord e.t.c.
2. Low explosives: - are changed from solid or liquid to gas slowly and used as a propellant to
the main charge. They have a detonating speed of less than 1000m/s. e.g.
 Black powder
 Smokeless powder
1.2.4 Types of Military Explosives
a. TNT /Trinitron Toluene/.
b. Tetrytol.
c. Plastic (composition C4).
d. Creating Charge.
e. Shaped Charge.
f. Bangalore Torpedo.
g. Dynamite.
h. Detonating Cord.
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a. TNT (Trinitron Toluene)

Characteristics: It is a high explosive, detonating speed of 6900m/s, Insoluble in water,
making it suitable for under water demolition. Insensitive to shock and cannot be exploded by a
single rifle bullet but may be exploded by the concentrated fire of machine guns or rifles. It has
a beating power 1.0 Pascal. TNT is reasonably stable in any climate and may be stored for a
long period of time without deterioration.
Use of TNT: Because of its high velocity of detonation TNT is used primarily for cutting and
breaching.
b. Tetroytol
Characteristics: Tetrytol is a high explosive, detonating speed of 7000m/s, 1.20and composed
of 75 % TETRYL and 25 % TNT. It has all the desirable characteristics of TNT in addition to a
higher velocity of detonation. Tetrytol is brittle and breaks very easily when dropped.
Forms of Tetrytol: Tterytol is manufactured in two forms, M1 chain demolition block and M2
demolition block. M1 chain demolition is connecting 8 blocks by detonating cord and M2
demolition block has the same size and weight of one block of M1 chain demolition block. The
M2 demolition block is obviously not a chain demolition block. Because, it is just one block.
M1 demolition block M2 demolition block
Use of tetrytol: Whatever its forms, tetrytol is suitable for any demolition project for which
TNT may be used.
c. Composition C4
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Characteristics: composition C4 is plastic explosive with a detonating velocity greater than of

tetrytol (7800m/s) and composed of 91% RDX and 9% non explosive material. You can easily
shape it and give or add more pressure.
Uses of Composition C4: Because of its high velocity of detonation and its plasticity, is ideally
suited for cutting steel. Its plasticity permits close contact irregularly shaped objects. This
explosive may be used as under water charge if it is enclosed in a suitable container to prevent
erosion by the stream current.
Easily shaping Composition c3 Composition c4 packed
d. Cratering Charge (Ammonium nitrate)

Characteristics: less sensitive than TNT. Slower velocity of detonation (3353), it is weaker
explosive than others. It absorbs moisture so readily that it becomes almost useless unless stored
in a dry place.
Packaging: Cratering charge is issued as 18.14 kg and 19.5kg charge packed a watertight,
cylindrical, metal container. A cap well and a detonating cord tunnel are attached to the
container to accommodate the primer. To ensure detonation a booster is provided within the
charge. A metal ring is provided on top of the container for lowering the charge into a hole.
Uses: - because of its relatively slow velocity of detonation, it is not effective as a steel cutting
explosive. But this explosive used for to penetrate the underground hole.
e. Shaped Charge
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Characteristics: The shaped demolition charge is a cone like block of high explosive, detonating
speed of 7800m/s, and composed of composition B and pentalight adnatal. A shaped charge is
an explosive so shaped that the energy of one explosive, released upon detonation.
Uses: It concentrated in a small area, thus creating a tubular hole in the object against which it
is placed. Primary use is for boring holes in earth, metal, masonry, concrete, and paved and
unpaved roads. Its effectiveness depends largely on its shape, composition, and placement.
f. Bangalore Torpedo
Characteristics: the M1A1 Bangalore torpedo is 50 feet long and detonating speed of 7800m/s.
It consists of 10 loading assemblies, 10 connecting sleeves, and a nose sleeve. Each loading
assembly is a 5-feet length of steel pipe of tubing. 2 1/8 inches in diameter and weighting 5.9 kg
of this weight, about 3.8 kg is explosive. Composition of Bangalore torpedo explosive is 80%
ammonium nitrate and 20% TNT.
Uses: the Bangalore torpedo is primarily used to clear a path through barbed wire
entanglements, the standard M1A1 Bangalore torpedo being capable of clearing a path from 10
to 15 feet wide through such an obstacle. When this device is so used, it will also explode the
anti-personnel and most of anti-tank mines in a somewhat narrower path. It’s Result in wire
fence 3-5 meter, stone building 2-3 meter and wooden fence 5 -7 meter etc.
g. Detonating Cord
It has PETN and explosive chemicals and has detonating speed of 6100 – 7300m/s.
Uses
 It uses for detonating cord to prime and detonate other explosive charges.
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 When the detonating cord’s explosive core is initiated by a blasting cap, the core will
transmit the detonation wave to an unlimited number of explosive charges.
 It uses to explode many explosives in a time.
 It uses to charge detonating cap and explosives.
DETONATING CORD
h. Dynamite
Military dynamite is a composite of explosive that contains 75 percent RDX, 15 percent
TNT, and 10 percent desensitizers and plasticizers. It is suitable for underwater
demolitions. It has a detonating speed of 6100m/s.
Use
 Dynamites are for general blasting and demolitions, including land clearing, military
construction, catering and ditching, and quarrying.
 To demolish military targets and it is suitable for underwater demolitions.
Exercise
This assessment will help you to insure your understanding about military
explosive and explain it in detaile.
1. Among types of explosive, which one is a weaker explosive than other? Why ?
2. Write the types of military explosive and give possible examples for each.
3. Do you believe that any types of explosives are neither exploding nor burn with
penetration of bullets? Why?
1.2.4. Safe Handling and Storage of Explosives
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Explosives are dangerous when not handled properly. Carelessness, rough handling and
disregard for safety rules cause unnecessary waste, premature explosions, misfires and in many
cases serious accidents. The following points are important for safe handling and storage of
explosive.
a. Explosive and equipment should be stored and transport separately.
b. Different explosives should be stored separately.
c. Keep it from five things:
 Fire, heat, moisture, vibration and electricity
d. At the time of preparation:
 When you use electrical system don’t use different detonator.
 Don’t put sharp material to detonator.
 Don’t use non electrical detonator inside water.
 Don’t handle together explosive and detonator.
 Don’t make short the ignition cord.
 Makes distance when you connect the ignition cord and detonating cap from your
eyes.
e. Laid down explosives
 Don’t use force when you put explosive inside hole.
 After putting insides the surface don’t put on forced materials.
f. At time of explosion
 Before finishing preparation don’t connect the initiator and the wire.
 After exploding immediately disconnect the initiator and the wire.
 When you ignite the ignition cord don’t put on your hand.
 The initiator always on the hand of commander.
 Wear helmets and flunk jacket.
 You must count the number of explosion.
 Put red flag.
g. Safety for unexploded explosives
 Check demolition site after 30 minute.
 Handle unexploded explosive separately and safely.
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Check point
The following questions designs to help you how much you understand the above
topics.
1. Explosives are very dangerous when not handled properly. So, as a combat
engineer what safety measurement you take to protect those explosives from any
damage?
2. List and explain types of military explosive.
1.2.5. Firing equipment

Electrical detonator Non-electrical detonator
 Electrical detonator Non-electrical detonator
 Electric wire Ignition cord
 Galvanometer Lighter fuse
 Initiator Tape
 Clipper Match
 Plaster, rope, adapter Blade, Rope
1.2.6. Military Targets

Tank, Anti air craft, mortar, Artillery, Air craft and helicopter, Rail way, armored
vehicle, Installation of petroleum, depot /store/, Water pipe and tanker.
Summary
An explosive is defined as a material (chemical or nuclear) that can be initiated to
undergo very rapid, self-propagating decomposition that results in the formation of more stable
material, the liberation of heat, or the development of a sudden pressure effect through the
action of heat on produced or adjacent gases. All of these outcomes produce energy. A
weapon's effectiveness is measured by the quantity of energy or damage potential and it
delivers to the target. Types of military explosive are TNT, C4, Tetrytol, cratering charge,
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shaped charge, detonating cord, military dynamite and Bangalore torpedo. Each explosive has
their own characteristics and forms.
Assessment Questions
Answer the following question
1. Briefly explain the similarity and difference between demolition and explosive.
2. Write all possible uses of military explosive during war time.
3. Describe safety handling of military explosive.
CHAPTER TWO
FORTIFICATION AND CAMOUFLAGE
Content page
Introduction 19
2.1 Definition of Fortification 20
2.2 Importance of Fortification 20
2.3 Establishing Defensive Position 21`
2.4 Materials For Constructing Fortification 21
2.5 Types of Fortification 22
2.6 Definition and Principles of Camouflage 28
2.7 Responsibilities 32
Summary 32
Introduction
Field of fortification and camouflage is defensive works constructed when preparing for
protect an expected enemy attack. When consolidating a position before mounting an offensive,
and when protecting against counter attack the ground taken from the enemy. Since they are
constructed when in contact with the enemy or when imminent, time becomes an important
factor in preparing them. Construction materials are another factor. Field of fortification consist
of clearing filed of fire, digging weapon emplacements and positions of for personnel, laying
19 Combat Support
anti-tank and anti-personnel mine fields, barbed wire entanglements, strengthening natural
obstacles, selecting command and observation post and providing camouflage. Throughout
history soldiers have employed techniques of camouflage to conceal themselves or their
intentions from the enemy. Successful concealment adds the value of surprise in attack and
provides security in defense. Although modern warfare employs increasingly complex and
deadly weapon systems and highly sophisticated electronic surveillance devices, the necessity
and importance of deceiving the enemy remains.
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
 Clarify the definition and importance of fortification and camouflage.
 Identify the type of fortification.
 Distinguish materials used for digging and preparation of fortification.
 Prepare fortification and camouflage.
Activity Take about 5 minutes

The following introductory activity is designed to help you to express your
experience and explain each question in your own words.
1. What do you know about fortification and camouflage? What is its purpose?
2. Assume that you are a military engineer; you have received a mission from
your higher commander to prepare a fortification. So, what requirements are
bearing in your mind?
2.1 Definition of Fortification

The science of fortifying refers to the general designation that built fortifications. Fortification
has observation shelter and cover to defend us from the enemy bombardment. The art or science
of fortifying places to strengthen defense against an enemy. Fortifications are military
constructions and buildings designed for defense in warfare and military bases.
2.2 The importance of camouflage and fortification
 To conceal the soldiers and their equipment.
 To destroy the enemy force and its equipment.
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 To make perfidy.
 To resist the enemy attack.
 To get suddenness and to avoid the reconnaissance of the enemy.
2.3. Establishing Defensive position

We can establish our defensive position in one of the following way, depending on the enemy
situation.
A. Hasty
B. Regular (deliberated)
A. Hasty: Will be cared out when there is insufficient time in combat situation.
B. Regular (deliberated): This is employed when forces are not subjected by enemy pressure.
The defender troops have time to reconnoiter, to plan and built by making barbed wire
entanglements another obstacle.
Establishing defensive position conclude
 Main defensive position
 Secondary defensive position
 Perfidy defensive position
 Main defensive position: It is the front line fortification it has observation, firing position
disposition of weapons and troops.
 Secondary defensive position: It is the same to front line but it use when the front line is
penetrated or controlled by the enemy
 Perfidy defensive position: As its name indicates this position made to perfidy the enemy to
change the intention of the enemy in addition camouflage the same to first and second position.
Cognitive exercise
1. Now a day’s Ethiopian army has use a method of mobile defense, so how do you
describe deliberated defense disposition with in mobile defense method?
2. Explain when to prepare hasty defense? List at least three different possible
examples.
2.4. Materials for constructing fortification
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To make covered block house it needs:

 Soil--------------------- sand, , sand bags with sand
 Metal-------------- hard metal
 Reinforced ------------ concert
a. Technical materials
To build entrenchment and approach trench you can use modern machineries.
1. Dozer
 To make wide block house and their cover.
 To make route for operation and transport.
2. Louder
 To make block houses for heavy weapons.
 To make out the excavated soil.
3. Excavator
To excavate deep block houses command and observation post and approach trench.
4. Grader: To make route and entrancement.
5. Compression: To penetrate rocky area.
6. Explosive
 To dig out the ground (surface).
 To make block house and rout.
b. Hand materials to prepare fortification

 Individual spade. Axe.
 Mattock. Rope.
 Heavy hammer. Meter.
 Cutter. Etc.
 Light hammer.
 Spade.
2.5 Types of Fortification
According to their use fortifications are classified in to 7. Those are:-
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a. Individual block house.

b. Heavy weapons block house.
c. Approach trench.
d. Shelter.
e. Command and observation post.
f. Artillery block house.
g. Vehicle block house.
a. Individual block house

It is the open fortification supplying individual soldier to shoot, observe and concealed
Individual fox hole built in to:
A. Prone fire position
B. Kneeling position
C. Standing position
A. Prone fox hole
 Length----------------170cm.
 Width-----------------60cm.
 Depth-----------------30cm.
 The thickness soil-----30cm.
 The soil far from the hole------20-30cm.
 Time for preparation------------20minute.
B. Kneeling fox hole
 Length----------------------------170cm.
 Width------------------------------60cm.
 Depth------------------------------60cm.
 The thickness of soil left and right----------40-50.
 The thickness of soil in firing position------30cm.
 The soil far from the hole----------------------20-30cm.
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 Time for preparation------------------------------1.20hour.

C. Standing fox hole
 Length---------------------------------------170cm.
 Width----------------------------------------60cm.
 Depth-------------------------------------------110cm.
 Depth from down-------------------------------50cm.
 The thickness of soil left and right---------50-60cm.
 The soil far from the hole-----------------------30-40cm.
 The soil far from the hole left and right---------20-30cm.
 Time for preparation----------------------------------1.30hour.
b. Heavy weapon block house
The machine gun block house is the open fortification guarantees develops the fire power and
the shooters.
o Machine gun block house prone fires
 Length---------------------------170cm.
 Width-----------------------------60cm.
 Depth-----------------------------30cm.
 In firing position the thickness of soil---100x100cm.
 The soil far from the edge-------------------30-40cm.
 Time for preparation----------------------------1:30hour
o Machine gun block house kneeling fires
 Length-------------------------------------------170cm
 Width--------------------------------------------60cm
 Depth---------------------------------------------60cm
 In firing position the thickness of soil -----40-50cm
 In firing position in front the thickness of soil--20cm
 Angle in firing position-----------------------90-150
 The place of gun scat-------------------------1X1meter
 The shape----------------------------------------V
24 Combat Support
 Time for preparation---------------------------1:30hour
c. Trenches
Trenches are excavated as fighting positions and to connect individual foxholes, weapons
emplacements, and shelters in the progressive development of a defensive area. They
provide protection and concealment for personnel moving between fighting positions or
in and out of the area. Trenches should be included in the overall layout plan for the
defense of a position. The excavation of trenches involves considerable time, effort, and
materials and is only justified when an area will be occupied for an extended period.
Trenches are usually open excavations but sections may be covered to provide additional
protection if the overhead cover does not interfere with the fire mission of the occupying
personnel. According to the depth classified in to:-
1. Kneeling.
2. Bending.
3. Standing.
1. Kneeling movement
 Depth-------------------------------------60cm.
 Width-------------------------------------50cm.
2. Bending movement
 Depth-------------------------------------110cm.
 Width-------------------------------------50cm.
3. Standing movement
 Depth------------------------------------150cm.
 Width-------------------------------------40cm.
Disposition of entrenchment
The disposition of entrenchment should be according to battle assignment and topography.
The entrenchment and approach trench should form in:-
1. Broken line.
2. Curve shape.
3. Changeable line.
d. Shelter (Banker)
25 Combat Support
Shelters are constructed primarily to protect soldiers, equipment, and supplies from
enemy action and the weather. Shelters differ from emplacements because there are usually
no provisions for firing weapons from them. However, they are usually constructed near or
supplement the fighting positions. When natural shelters such as caves, mines, woods, or
tunnels are available, they are used instead of constructing artificial shelters. Caves and
tunnels must be carefully inspected by competent persons to determine their suitability and
safety. The best shelter is usually the one that will provide the most protection with the least
amount of effort. Actually, combat troops that have prepared defensive positions have some
shelter in their foxholes or weapon emplacements. Shelters are frequently prepared by troops
in support of front unit. Troops making a temporary halt in inclement weather when moving
into positions prepare shelters as do units in bivouacs, assembly areas, rest areas, and static
positions. It is classified in to two. These are:
 covered
 uncovered
Uncovered shelter: - Built when there is insufficient time and materials.
Covered shelter: - Built when there is sufficient time and materials. It needs to build:-
 Stone
 Sand bags
 Metal
 Log
Squad banker (shelter)
 Length-------------------------300cm.
 Width---------------------------150cm.
 Depth---------------------------150cm.
 The seat depth----------------110cm.
 The seat width-----------------40-50cm.
 That can hold--------------------6-7persons.
Check point
1. Write the similarity and difference among, shelter, trench and emplacement.
2. Explain how individual foxhole is prepared?
26 Combat Support
e. Command and observation fortification

The observation fortification is used to guarantee the safety of the observer and the commander
and observing the battle field and command the fighting field vision.
In offensive position
 In platoon and company level built observation post.
 In battalion and brigade level command and observation fortification will built.
 In brigade in addition to the main command and observation fortification will
prepare secondary.
In defensive position
 In platoon and company level observation and check point
 In brigade level in addition to the main command and observation fortification
will built another or secondary.
Open observation fortification
The open observation fortification can be hold 3 - 4 persons it usually serves the platoon and
company leader.
 Length-------------------------------150cm.
 Width---------------------------------150cm.
 Depth----------------------------------140cm.
 The width of seat--------------------40cm.
 In observation age the thickness of soil---------20cm.
 The surrounding soil--------------------------60cm.
 The width of observation---------------------50cm.
Regiment command and observation fortification
Regiment command and observation fortification built on the area that convenient to
control and lead the units.
It should select at the place of good field of vision.
It is composed of three parts. (CP, OP and radio communication fortification)
Radio operator fortification
 Length--------------------------------------150cm.
27 Combat Support
 Width----------------------------------------110cm.
 Depth----------------------------------------110cm.
 Depth of radio seat-------------------------75cm.
 Width of radio seat------------------------30cm.
 Depth of the seat---------------------------40cm.
 Width of the seat---------------------------40cm.
2.6 Definition and Principles of Camouflage

The following introductory activity is designed to help you to express your
experience and to share it with your classmate.
1. Define camouflage in your own words.
2. Clarify the difference between camouflage and concealment.
3. Explain how to protect the enemy surveillance.
2.6.1 Definition of camouflage

It is the art of using artificial aids to achieve concealment by using man made or natural
materials to camouflage yourself and your equipment. Camouflage is the use of natural or
artificial material on personnel, objects, or tactical positions with the aim of confusing,
misleading, or evading the enemy.
2.6.2 Three Principles of Camouflage
How the factors of recognition are used to detect and identify military personnel, equipment, or
activity. To counter these factors, the principles of camouflage have been developed, and
despite the sophistication of modern techniques, are essentially the same today’s as they were in
ancient times. Good camouflage now based on three principles: sitting, discipline, and
construction.
A. Sitting
Sitting for camouflage is choosing the most advantageous position in which to hide personnel,
equipment, or activity. Every type of terrain has some characteristic which may be used to aid
concealment. Proper sitting, taking maximum advantage of these characteristics, can reduce
28 Combat Support
and sometimes eliminate the need for artificial camouflage. The factors which govern site
selection are as follows:-
a. Mission. The most important consideration in the selection of a site for any military use is the
mission of the unit. However excellent a site may be from the concealment standpoint, if it in
any way inhibits the accomplishment of the mission, it is useless.
b. Size. The site must be sufficient size to permit proper dispersal for effective operation. Such
dispersal is necessary not only for concealment, but also to reduce losses from enemy fire.
c. Terrain patterns. Terrain can be divided into four general types, each of which has a
distinctive and characteristic appearance from the air. The site chosen must provide
concealment without disturbing or altering the characteristic pattern of the terrain. The four
terrain types are: agricultural, urban, wooded, and barren.
1) Agricultural. The controlled lines created by cultivation, such as fence lines, hedgerows and
furrows, are the most prominent characteristic of agricultural terrain. In flat areas, this may
appear as a checkerboard pattern resulting from different types of crops. In more rolling
country, the curved parallel lines of contour plowing or terracing are typical. In any case, sitting
in such rural areas must conform to the existing pattern, leaving it unaltered in appearance.
2) Urban. Cities, towns, and villages also have controlled lines, in these cases created by the
regular pattern of streets, bordered on each side by buildings and carefully spaced trees. Most
urban areas provide abundant concealment with numerous shadowed areas and large
warehouses, factories, or garages.
3) Wooded. Wooden terrain is characterized by irregular forest outlines, streams, and relief
features. Example of proper sitting and dispersal of tents in sparsely vegetated terrain (barren),
Wooded areas, the tree canopy provides excellent concealment from most visual or camera
surveillance. Even sparsely wooded areas afford some protection if proper dispersal is practiced.
4) Barren. Irregular terrain features, without the controlled man-made lines of agricultural or
urban areas are also typical of barren terrain. These features consist of washes, drifts, and other
irregular folds, scattered rock accumulations, and scrub growth. The best sitting measures for
such areas are to make maximum use of the shadowed parts of the terrain, and of defilade.
B. Discipline
The second basic condition for the achievement of success in any camouflage effort is the strict
maintenance of camouflage discipline, by both the unit as a whole and the individual soldier.
29 Combat Support
This means avoidance of any activity that changes the appearance of an area or reveals the
presence of military equipment. Camouflage discipline is a continuous, around-the-clock
necessity and applies to every individual. If the rigid routine of such discipline, both visual and
audio, is not followed by one man, the entire camouflage effort will fail. Carelessness and
laxness will undoubtedly reveal the position to the enemy. Tracks, spoil, and debris are the
most common signs of concealed military activity or objects.
a. Tracks. Tracks are especially revealing to the aerial observer. They indicate type, location,
strength, and even intentions of a unit. Often a single track across an area of low vegetation
is clearly visible. This is especially true in the early morning hours when there is heavy dew.
The gradual turns of wheeled vehicles are distinguishable from the skidding turns of a track
laying vehicle. Tracks should follow closely and be parallel to hedges, fences, cultivated
fields, and other natural terrain lines in order to remain inconspicuous from the air. Tracks
should always continue past the position to a logical termination. On short stretches,
exposed tracks may be erased by brushing out, or by covering with leaves and debris.
b. Tracks in snowy areas. In snow covered terrain, concealment of tracks is a major problem.
Even in light snow, tracks make strong shadow lines visible from great distances. Sharp
turns should be avoided because the resulting snow ridges cast even heavier shadows. The
same principles stressed throughout this discussion apply to snow covered terrain, with a bit
more emphasis on following natural shadow-casting terrain lines. It is also important all
vehicles keep to the same tracks. Vehicles leaving the tracks or road may achieve short
periods of track concealment by driving directly into or away from the sun. Camouflage
Disciplinary Measures shadows cast by these tracks will not be apparent until the sun strikes
them from an angle. Short lengths of tracks may be obliterated if they are not too deep, by
trampling them with snowshoes.
c. Shine. Sitting and track discipline do much to conceal a vehicle, but shine can nullify the
best site and finest track discipline. Shine is always present when there is light in the sky,
sunlight, moonlight, or the light of flares. It is caused by the reflection of light from
windshields, windows, mess kits, watch crystals, and other such smooth almost texture-less
surfaces. Even the lenses of field glasses, when used in direct sunlight, can reflect a bright
shine similar to that of a mirror. These danger spots must be concealed by any means. The
30 Combat Support
betraying nature of shine should never be underestimated. Even under heavy overhead
cover, shiny objects may be revealed through the smallest of gaps. They should be covered
with nonreflecting material such as blankets, tarpaulins, burlap, or even mud.
d. Night discipline. No less important is strict observance of blackout rules. At night,
windows, hatches, entrances, and other openings through which light can shine must be covered
with shutters, screens, curtains, and other special opaque materials to prevent enemy ground and
air observers from noticing the interior illumination. Fires can be lighted only in specially
designated and equipped areas. Smoking is forbidden near the enemy, as is the display of lights
of any type. Combat and transport vehicles can be allowed to travel only with their lights turned
off or obscured. Aerial photographs taken at night by the light of flares or by the use of image
intensification equipment can pick up breaches in camouflage discipline, which are more likely
to occur at night than in the daylight hours. Consequently the same standard of camouflage
discipline must be adhered to by night as by day.
e. Sound discipline. Troops must pay special attention to sound camouflage during night
movement and apply all principles of scouting and patrolling. During night time river crossings,
the noise from the paddles should be muffled. Revealing sounds from tank and truck movement
or from engineering work can be muffled by sound screens.
f. Spoil and debris. Spoil and debris must be covered, or placed to blend with the track
discipline.
g. surrounding. Excess dirt from digging fortifications can be dumped in streams or spread
inconspicuously along roads. Under no circumstances should any trash or litter be left where it
can be seen, even after a unit has vacated an area.
C. Camouflage Construction.
The third and final principle of good camouflage is based on camouflage construction. When
the terrain and natural vegetation are such that natural concealment is not possible, artificial
camouflage is added. Artificial or natural materials are used to help blend the object or
individual with the surrounding terrain. Camouflage construction should be resorted to only
when sitting and discipline cannot produce the desired concealment. Natural materials are
preferred over artificial materials, since the former resembles the surrounding vegetation of
terrain. If artificial materials are used, they must be arranged to blend with the surroundings to
31 Combat Support
the greatest possible degree. They must be of sturdy construction to withstand varying weather
conditions, and must be constantly checked and maintained. The construction work must be
hidden, with the work parties observing the strictest discipline. If possible, all engineering work
should be carried out at night, with all traces of the night's activities camouflaged before
morning. There should not be no disruption of the terrain pattern; no destruction of plants or
trampled grasses; nor should there be any new roads or open ditches visible. This is difficult to
do, but unless discipline is maintained during such construction, there is little point to the
camouflage effort.
2.7 Responsibilities
Field fortifications are constructed by personnel of all arms and services. Hasty shelters and
emplacements are normally constructed by the combat units occupying the position. Some
engineer equipment and supervisory assistance are frequently required to assist the combat
units. Fortifications of a more complex character may require construction by engineer troops.
Actually, engineers at all echelons of command assist in the preparation of plans and orders and
furnish technical advice and assistance in the construction of field fortifications.
Summery
Fortification is composed of block houses, foxhole, bunker, entrenchment and approach
trench. It guarantee the infantry shoots, observe and maneuver. In addition this camouflage the
fortification is unforgettable thing. Basic Requirements for Fortifications are Employment of
weapons, Protection, Simplicity and economy, Progressive development, Camouflage and
concealment and ingenuity. Establishing Defensive position is hasty or regular /deliberated.
Deliberated defense position may include Main defensive position, Secondary defensive
position and Perfidy defensive position. Camouflage is the use of natural or artificial material on
personnel, objects, or tactical positions with the aim of confusing, misleading, or evading the
enemy. Good camouflages now based on three principles are: sitting, discipline, and
construction.
1. List and explain the principles of camouflage.
32 Combat Support
2. What are the factors that detect and identify own forces by the enemy surveillance?
3. How discipline is the basic condition for the achievement of successful
camouflaging?
4. Describe who is a responsible for constructing of fortification?
5. Explain types of fortification.
CHAPTER THREE
LAND MINES
Content page
Introduction 33
3.1 Types of Mine Field 33
3.2 Use of Land Mine 35
3.3 Initiation Action of Land Mines 35
3.4 Types of Land Mines 36
3.5 Characteristics of Land Mines and Description 36
3.6 Safety and Regulations 43
3.7 Mine Clearance Materials 44
Summery 44
Assessment questions 44
Introduction
A land mine is a kind of explosives weapon that is designed to destroy or damage equipment
and personnel’s. It is detonate by the action of its target or with control. A typical mine consists
of a fuse, detonator, booster and main charge. This main charge can be an explosive, a toxic
chemical agent, or a material which will burst into flames. Mines are set of as the result of a
series of events called a firing chain. The firing chain starts when an initiating action, usually
outside the mine, acts on the fuse, and causes it to function. The fuse produces flame or
concussion that sets off the detonator, which sets off the booster (if present) or main charge.
This chapter deals about the land mine warfare and their roles.
Objectives
After successfully completing this chapter, you will be able to:
33 Combat Support
 Identify types of mine field.

 Clarify use of land mine and their characteristics.
 Discuss how to remove and placing land mines.
 Acquire fundamental skills to use and clearing land mines.

The following introductory activity is designed to help you to express
your experience to share and do it carefully.
1. What is a land mine mean? What is its use?
2. Explain types of mine fields.
3. Describe types of land mine and give some examples for each.
3.1 Types of Mine Field

According to their tactical function, mine fields may be classified as protective, defensive,
canalizing, nuisance and phony.
a. A protective mine field: is one employed to assist a unit in its local, close in protection. It
is used for close in protection and warning to units in battle defensive position, in a rear
area, or on an isolated mission. It may be laid initially at short notice for a short duration.
It may continue to be of a temporary nature, easily removed by the defenders, or it may be
absorbed into the minefield system as it develops. They should be beyond hand grenade
range of the position.
b. Defensive mine field: is one laid, to defeat penetration between positions occupied by
units of company, regiment or division size, to strengthen the defense of the positions
themselves. Defensive mine fields are carefully planned fields which are employed to
delay and disorganize enemy attacks and to defeat or limit enemy penetration into the
tactical positions occupied by units. All types of land mines are used. Booby-trapping
devices and flares may be used. Anti-personnel mines should be included particularly in
forward edges of anti-tank minefields. Warning device such as trip flare, smoke streamer
and notice device should be laid to warn of enemy breaching attempts.
c. Canalizing mine field: is one laid to block enemy attack formations in flanks and to
deflect his approach into selected destruction areas. Canalizing mine field are employed to
34 Combat Support
canalize, disrupt and delay the enemy attack in order to provide the defender time to
concentrate fire and reserves against it. Canalizing mine fields are also used to deflect the
enemy into a selected area where he may be destroyed either by intense or by counter
attack.
d. Nuisance mine field: is one laid to delay and disorganize the enemy and hinder his use of
an area or route. This mine field important for separating the enemy main force and his
supporting echelon. Also sabotage and demoralized the attacking force.
e. Phony mine field: is an area of ground used to simulate a mine field with the object of
deceiving the enemy. Phony mine field normally will be used as part of live mine field
systems, that is, they will supplement or extend live mine fields or they may be used when
time, effort or material do not permit the laying of a live mine field.
3.2 Use of Land Mines
 Used to form obstacle.
 To block the way of the enemy.
 To wipe out the enemies effective force.
 To destroy its technical equipment.
 To cut the connection of the enemies infantry soldiers and tanks.
 To reinforce other obstacle.
3.3 Initiation Action
Pressure.
Tension release.
Pressure release.
Vibration.
Magnetic.
Delayed action.
Electric action.
3.4 Types of Land Mine
Mines may be classified according to tactical or several technical considerations. We are
concerned only with their classification from the tactical point of view. There are three major
types of mines.
1. Anti-personnel.
35 Combat Support
2. Anti-tank and.
3. Special mine. Special mines are classified as:-
o Signal.
o Chemical.
o Floater.
3.4 Characteristics of Land Mines and description
Land Mines are according to their performance and characteristics categorized in to six. Those
are:
 Blast eg. M14, M 35, PMD6, PMN, TS 50.
 Fragmentation eg. POMZ 2, POMZ 2M, M3.
 Bounding fragmentation eg. M16, TYPE 69.
 Directional fragmentation eg. MON 50, MON 100, MON 200.
 Chemical/toxic/ eg. M 23.
 Trip candle flare/signal/ eg. M46, M49, M48, VST, Signal mine and Bengal
light e.t.c.
A. Anti-Personnel Land Mine

a. Blast Mine
It is an explosive material that can change chemically and rapidly when acted by external
energy giving of heat and producing gas.
1. PMD6
 It is anti -personal blast mine
 Total weight 0.4Kg.
 Detonation pressure1-10kg.
 Powder charge ----0.2kg TNT.
 Detonating pin------Muv2.
 Initiator -----MD5.
 Underground mine.
 Made in USSR, NAMIBIA.
2. M 14
 It is anti-personal blast mine.
36 Combat Support
 Total weight 0.099kg.

 Detonation pressure 9 - 16kg.
 Powder charge ----0.029kg.
 Detonator ------integral.
 Underground mine.
 Made in USA, INDIA, VETNAM
3. P.M.N (PACLET)
 Total weight -------550g.
 Detonated pressure----------5kg.
 Detonator -------------------MD9.
 Powder Charged ---------------200g TNT.
 Made in-----------------------USSR, RSA, IRAN, IRAQ. EGYPT….e.t.c.
4. PMN2
 Detonated pressure----------5kg.
 Powder Charged ----------------115g TNT.
 Made in-----------------------USSR
5. TS 50
 Detonated pressure----------10-12kg.
 Powder Charged ----------------50g TNT.
 Detonator ------integral.
 Made in-----------------------Italy and RSA.
6. M35
 Detonated pressure----------5-15kg.
 Powder Charged ----------------100g TNT or KNO3.
37 Combat Support
 Detonator ------M5.
 Made in-----------------------BELGIEM.
b. Fragmented Mines
It is an explosive material that can change chemically and rapidly when acted on by
external energy giving of heat, gas and fragmentation.
1. POMZ.2 and POM Z.2M
 It is fragmentation anti- personal mine.
 Total weight------------POM Z 2=3.2KG
--------POM Z 2M=1.8KG.
 Powder charged TNT-------75g.
 Igniter-------------------------M.D.5.
 Detonator pin--------------M.U.V2.
 Detonation pressure--------0.5__1.3kg.
 Killing range--------------------4x4.
 Causality range---------------25meter.
 Number of fragments------50-60.
 Made in USSR, China, and East Germany.
2. M3
 It is fragmentation anti- personal mine.
 Total weight------------4Kg.
 Powder charged TNT-------410g.
 Detonator pin--------------M6A1.
 Igniter-------------------------M7A1.
 Detonation pressure--------1.4-4.5Kg.
 Detonation pulling--------------------3.6-9.1Kg.
 Causality range--------------100M.
 Made in America and Taiwan.
c. Bounding Fragmentation
38 Combat Support
It is an explosive material that can change chemically and rapidly when acted on by external
energy giving of heat, gas and fragmentation. It act jump to explode.
1. Type 16 A1
 It is anti -personal bounding fragmentation mine
 Total weight-------------------------------3.57kg.
 Powder charged------------------------0.513kg.TNT
 Detonator-----------------------------M605- dual.
 Initiation action by pressing and pulling.
 Detonation pressure-------------------3.6-16kg.
 Detonation pulling--------------------1.36kg.
 Jump to explode height------------60cm-1.5m.
 Casualty range---------------------175meter.
 Made in USA.
2. M 69
 It is anti-personal bounding fragmentation mine.
 Total weight-------------------------------1.35kg.
 Powder charged------------------------0.105kg.
 Detonated pin-----------------------------M69.
 Igniter------------------------seems non electrical cups.
 Initiation action by pulling.
 Detonation pulling--------------------1.5-4 kg.
 Killing range--------------------11 meter.
 Casualty range---------------------50meter.
 Made in china.
d. Directional Fragmentation Mine
It is an explosive material that can change chemically and rapidly when acted on by external
energy giving heat, gas and fragmentation. It detonated with the fragments scattering in the
expected direction.
1. M0N 50
 It is directional fragmentation mine.
 Total weight---------------------1.96Kg.
39 Combat Support
 Powder charged TNT-----------0.715kg.

 Detonated with electrical detonator---P.A.W.A.R.
 Killing range in front ---------50m.
 Killing range to rear-----------10m.
 Casualty range -------80m.
 Number of fragment----------455.
 Explosive radius----------------60.
 Made in USSR.
2. MON 100
 It is directional fragmentation mine
 Total weight----------------------5.4kg.
 Powder charged TNT-----------2kg.
 Killing range in front ---------100m.
 Killing range to rear-----------50-75m.
 Casualty range in front-------160m.
 Number of fragment----------405.
 Explosive radius----------------150m.
 At 100 meter, it is mass killing width 6.5-9.5meter.
 Detonated with electrical detonator---P.A.W.A.R and MUV2 and MD5.
 Made in USSR.
3. MON 200
 It is directional fragmentation mine.
 Total weight ---------------------25kg.
 Powder charged------------------12kg TNT.
 Killing range in front----------200meter.
 Killing range to rear---------75 –100 m.
 Casualty range to front-----------240 m.
 Number of fragment------------910.
 Explosion radios ------------------150.
 Made in USSR.
Exercise
40 Combat Support
1. Write an example of anti-personnel land mines which is detonated by the action of both
pulling and pressure.
2. Explain the main difference between fragmented mine and directional fragmented land
mine.
3. List all possible the initiation action of land mines.
B. Anti-Tank Mine
Antitank mine used to blow up the enemy tanks, infantry combat vehicles, and transport
vehicles, so that the enemy loses mobility and fighting abilities.
1. TM57
 It is anti-tank mine.
 Total weight---------------8.47kg.
 Powder charged--------6.34kg.
 Detonator--------------MVZ57.
 Detonation pressure-----above 200kg.
 Made in USSR.
2. P.R.B.M.3
 Total weight -------------6.8kg.
 Powder charged--------6kgTNT and RDX.
 Detonator --------------DKZ60.
 Detonation pressure 250kg.
 Made in Belgium.
3. TYPE15
 Total weight-------13.6kg.
 Powder charge----10kg composition B.
 Detonator-------------603.
 Detonation pressure-----150-340kg.
 Made in USA.
4. M7A2
 Total weight-------2.19kg.
41 Combat Support
 Powder charge----1.62kg tetrytol

 Detonator-------------type 603.
 Detonation pressure-----63.6 kg.
 Made in USA.
5. SPN Magnetic mine
 Total weight-------2kg.
 Powder charge----1kg.
 Detonator-------------VOZ1M.
 Initiator MD5.
 Made in USA.
! The mines are not only laid on the fixed target you can lay on movable targets.
Check point
1. Describe the advantage of anti-tank land mines.
2. Which type of anti-tank land mine is used to for both anti-
personnel and anti-tank?
C. Special Purpose Mines

a. Trip Candle Flare (Signal) Mines
Signal mines can give off white flames and make sound. It uses to indicate the enemy targets.
You can use as indicator and for ceremony.
1. Type 49
 Total weight--------------0.6kg.
 Duration of light-------55—70second.
 The light covers-------------302meter radios.
 Made in USA.
2. Type46
 Total weight -------------------2.72kg.
 Detonator pin---------------6.A.1.
 Duration light-------------20seconds.
42 Combat Support
 The light covers---------------- 300meter radios.

 Made in USA.
3. Signal Mine
 Total weight --------------------400g.
 Powder charge------------------2.56g TNT.
 Detonator-------------------------MUV.
 Duration of sound--------------------8-10seconds.
 Duration of light-------------------10-12seconds.
b. Chemical /Toxic Mine
It has metal casing which has poisonous agent of affect human beings.
M23
 It is toxic mine.
 It is poisonous.
 Total weight-------------- 10.5kg.
 Detonation pressure------------ 136—181kg.
 Detonator--------------M603 or M608 fuse.
3.6 Safety and Regulations
When exposed signs of the existence mines are found:-
 Do not move blindly observe from outside first then check with mine detector
and mine detecting needles.
 Do not carelessly up the weapons and things left be enemies.
 Do not move the obstacles that have not been checked up at the same time.
Mine Clearance
 The operation of mine clearance should be carried out by one person and on the
regulated path.
 Before clearing the mine carefully observe and check whether there are any tricky
devices and other mines.
3.7 Mine Clearance Materials
A military engineer is used mine detecting materials to clear the land mines. Those
materials are:-
 Mine detector
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 Military bayonet
 Mine detecting needles
 Hocks etc.
Summery
Mines are explosives device concealed underground, on the ground, under water, on the
tree, that detonate on contact with person, vehicle or ship. Mines are useful and harmful
for human being. It is important to know performance and structure of the mines, ignition
principles and clearing methods.
According to their tactical function, Mine Fields are classified as protective, defensive,
canalizing, nuisance and phony.
Mines may be classified according to tactical or several technical considerations. We are
concerned only with their classification from the tactical point of view. There are three
major types of mines. Those are: - Anti-infantry, Anti-tank and Special mine.
1. Explain the main difference between anti-personnel and anti-tank land mines.
2. Write the characteristics of the following land mines.
A. P.R.B.M3 --------------
B. M3 ------------------
C. Type 69 ---------------
D. M 49 ------------------
3. Assume that you are a combat engineer; you receive a mission from your superior to
remove the mine obstacles that are laid by the enemy. So, what materials needed to carry
out?
4. Write the merit of land mine.
44 Combat Support
CHAPTER FOUR
ENGINEERING RECONNAISSANCE AND RIVER CROSSING
Content page
Introduction 45
4.1 Use of engineering reconnaissance 47
4.2 Military reconnaissance in tactical units 47
4.3 Methods of engineering reconnaissance 47
4.4 Types of engineering reconnaissance 48
4.5 Principles of engineering reconnaissance 49
4.6 Articles of engineering reconnaissance 50
4.7 Importance of Engineering reconnaissance in different combat situation 50
4.8 Types of River Crossing 51
4.9 Methods of River Crossing 52
4.10 Duties of The Engineers In Tactical River Crossing 53
4.11 The Executions of River Crossing 53
Summary 54
Introduction
Reconnaissance on the battlefield has been a valuable tool for centuries. The ability of
the engineers to support these reconnaissance efforts has, however, been a source of many
discussions. Detailed reconnaissance, not only on the enemy, but also on the terrain allowed our
army to use the terrain to its advantage on the battlefield. Reconnaissance is critical in
determining enemy dispositions and taking advantage of the terrain in this and many other our
army battles. In our army conduct continuous reconnaissance with a definite reconnaissance
objective and a significant part of successful result from the reconnaissance operations. During
operations, they reported on terrain and weather conditions as well as the enemy's size, location,
45 Combat Support
and movements. Not only did they concentrate on enemy positions but also on all aspects of the
battlefield to include the terrain and weather effects on their units as well as the enemy. It was
the reconnaissance unit of the army that discovered an existing stone bridge and locations and
dispositions on the enemy camp as well as another river crossing site. Commanders at all levels
must have situational awareness on the battlefield to make decisive decisions that will influence
the outcome on the battlefield.
The purpose of any river crossing is to project combat power across a water obstacle to
accomplish a mission. A river crossing is a unique operation. It requires specific procedures for
success because the water obstacle prevents normal ground maneuver. It also requires detailed
planning and control measures and different technical support than other tactical operations
require. The nature and size of the obstacle, the enemy situation, and available crossing assets
limit the tactical commander's options. The challenge is to minimize the river's impact on the
commander's ability to maneuver. The force is vulnerable while crossing, as it must break its
movement formations, concentrate at crossing points, and reform on the far shore before
continuing to maneuver. The tactical commander cannot effectively fight his force while it is
split by a river. He must reduce this vulnerability by decreasing his force's exposure time. This
chapter discuss about engineering reconnaissance and tactical river crossing.
Objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
 Define what a reconnaissance mean.
 Discuss the advantage of engineering reconnaissance.
 Apply how to plan and perform engineering reconnaissance.
 Identify the problems of river crossing.
 Explain type, execution and methods of river crossing.
 Describe how to cross water obstacles.

The following introductory activity is designed to help you express your
experience to share. So that, give short answer for those questions.
1. What do you know about military reconnaissance?
2. What is the use of reconnaissance?
3. What is a river and river crossing mean?
4. What are the duties of combat engineers during river crossing?
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Definition
Reconnaissance means the exploration or examination of an area to gather information,
especially about the strength and position of enemy force. It is the process of obtaining
information about the positions, activities, and resources of an enemy or potential enemy.
4.1 Use of Reconnaissance
Engineer reconnaissance useful in peace and war time, those are:
 Analyzing about an expected situation individually or in team work by
observation, listing smelling to achieve goal.
 The commander to gain accurate information about enemy situation, terrain,
water, etc.
 To take intelligence about engineer works in the field natural and artificial
obstacles to give quick decision.
 To know the enemy situation and to take prior action to the enemy.
4.2 Military Reconnaissance in Tactical Units
Tactical units execute reconnaissance to perform their mission successfully. Those are;-
 Infantry reconnaissance.
 Tank reconnaissance.
 Artillery reconnaissance.
 Anti-aircraft reconnaissance.
 Communication reconnaissance.
 Engineer reconnaissance.
4.3 Methods of Engineer Reconnaissance
Any units execute reconnaissance by using two methods. Those are:
a. Without fire reconnaissance.
b. With fire reconnaissance.
a. Without Fire Reconnaissance
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Methods of engineer reconnaissance without fire execute in the enemy position to obtain
information about enemy situation and engineer duty using this method.
b. With Fire reconnaissance
Used during the combat to obtain the duty of enemy engineer, movements, and tactics of
the enemy to control the enemy situation.
4.4 Type of Engineer Reconnaissance
a. General reconnaissance.
b. Special reconnaissance.
c. General Reconnaissance
It is very essential to reconnoiter wide route to observe engineer equipment and terrain. Main
reconnaissance areas are:
 Special reconnaissance.
 National reconnaissance.
 Incline slope.
 Type of soil.
 Plants.
 Man-made futures.
 Valley.
 Suspected area.
d. Special Reconnaissance
 It is reconnaissance obtain special information about water point, bridge and
obstacles.
4.4.1 Reconnaissance Equipment
 Optical equipment (binocular).
 Periscope.
 Range finder.
 Camera.
 Clinometers (record data).
 DSP—broad casting digital signal processor.
 Topography map.
 Compass.
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 Watch.
 Engineer torch.
 Stationary materials.
 Mine detector.
 Cutter.
 GPS------------ satellite navigation system.
4.4.2 Planning procedure of Engineering Reconnaissance
Planning means the enforcement of regulation to accomplish your mission successfully.
“Without planning nothing to do”, at the time of plan preparation be attention and include past
experience. The procedures are following:
1. Obtain mission.
2. Analyze situation.
3. Make combat decision.
4. Plot the area sketch.
5. Deliver task.
6. Execute plan.
7. Assessment.
4.5 Principle of Reconnaissance
There seven principles of reconnaissance which are conducted by engineering
reconnaissance. Those are:-
Reality
Loyalty
Quickness
Wise
Continuity
latest
Clearness
4.6 Articles of Combat Engineering Reconnaissance
1) What-------------------------- the mission?
2) Where---------------------- where is the place?
3) Who-------------------------- who perform?
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4) When----------------------------- time of reconnaissance?

5) Which--------------------------by which method?
4.7. Importance of Engineer Reconnaissance in Different Combat Situation

a. Combat Engineering Reconnaissance in Defensive Combat
Identify terrains which are built up fortification.
To select avenue approach.
To identify water point.
Method of camouflage.
Natural and man-made obstacle.
Supply and store.
b. Combat Engineering Reconnaissance in Offensive Combat
 To select avenue approach to the enemy.
 Natural and man-made obstacle method of open lanes.
 Passage for own units.
 River and obstacle b/n the enemy and own unit.
 Method of cross.
c. Combat Engineering Reconnaissance of during Marching
 The advancement route.
 To remove Natural and man-made obstacle.
 Water point and supply position.
 Reorganization and consideration range.
d. Combat Engineering Reconnaissance during Ride
 Prepare 3-4 combat engineers for mission.
 Enough man power and fire cover.
 Capture the enemy engineer materials.
e. Engineer Reconnaissance during Ambush
 Identify the number of enemy ambush.
 Method of ambush.
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 Control on land mines.

 Place of ambush-------------------date--------- time-----------
4.8. Tactical river crossing

The following introductory activity is designed to help you express your
experience to share. So that, give short answer for those questions.
1. What is a river and river crossing mean?
2. What are the duties of combat engineers during river crossing?
Definition
River is a water body which flows inside the valley from high to low land, a large natural
stream of fresh water flowing along a definite course, usually into the sea, and being fed by
tributary streams.
4.8.1. Types of River Crossing
Types of river crossing are categorized into three:
a. Administration crossing.
b. Unexpected crossing.
c. Tactical crossing.
a. Administration river crossing
 It is performed in a peace time without any interference of the enemy.
 To perform training.
 To change positions (command post).
b. Un expected crossing
 It is performed at the time of surprise.
 When the bridge demolished by the enemy.
 To control strategic terrain before the enemy.
c. Tactical crossing
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 At the time of the enemy interference.

 It needs maneuverability by using cover and concealment.
 Assign the procedure of crossing to the units.
4.8.2 Characteristics of tactical crossing

1. Deliberated crossing.
2. Quick crossing.
1. Deliberated crossing
 First to gain superiority to the enemy.
 It had detail analysis rule and regulation.
 The details are to penetrate the defense position of the enemy.
 Intelligence about the width, length of the river, preparation range, crossing tactics
and prepared in detail before perform the duty.
2. Quick crossing
 It is deliberated but performed in a short period of time.
 To gain superiority to the enemy.
 The performance at any points is quick.
 The main points are during this action.
 Speed
 Suddenness
 Little man power and equipment use properly.
4.9. Methods of River Crossing
To cross the river uses three methods. Thus are:
a. Above the river.
b. On the water.
c. Inside the water.
a. material to cross on the river
 Wooden bridge.
 Concrete bridge.
 Movable bridge.
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 Rope cross.
b. material to cross on the water
 Barrel.
 Gallon.
 Gespe.
 Petes.
c. A material to cross in side water
 Sub marine ship.
4.10. Duties of the combat engineers in tactical river crossing
To furnish engineer support to the assaulting troops before, during, and immediately after the
crossing. This may include:
 Construction, maintenance and repair of road.
 Removal of mines and other obstacles.
 Construction of bridge approaches.
 Construction of foot bridges.
 Installation of vehicular bridges, floating and fixed.
 Construction of dummy bridges.
 General engineer work, including water supply, camouflage, and demolitions.
4.11. The Executions of River Crossing
River crossing according to the enemy situation, obstacles and own unit it performed in three
ways. Those are:
a. One column.
b. Two columns.
c. Three columns.
a. One column
 The combatant unit to execute his fire power and maneuverability uses one
column cross.
 At the time of movement without delay control the last point.
 The combat is heavy but the offensive unit concealed.
b. Two column
 Choose this tactic when the river is not controlled by the enemy.
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 When the units well organizes.

c. Three column
 It express deliberated cross in three columns.
 When the river is wide and unsuitable to cross.
 When the enemy is far from the river.
Summery
Combat Engineering reconnaissance is useful to enhance the understanding of theories

of reconnaissance in the enemy position uplift the capability of units and commanding level of
tactical thinking. Any units execute reconnaissance by using two methods. Those are: Without
fire reconnaissance and Fire reconnaissance. The types of Engineer Reconnaissance are General
reconnaissance and Special reconnaissance.
The purpose of river crossing during operation is to project combat power across a water
obstacle to accomplish a mission. A river crossing is a unique operation. It requires specific
procedures for success because the water obstacle prevents normal ground maneuver. It also
requires detailed planning and control measures and different technical support than other
tactical operations require. The nature and size of the obstacle, the enemy situation, and
available crossing assets limit the tactical commander's options. Tactics of river crossing are
categorized into three: Administration crossing, unexpected crossing and tactical crossing. River
crossing according to the enemy situation, obstacles and own unit it performed in three ways.
Those are: One column, two columns and three columns. The three methods of river crossing
are on the river, on the water and inside the water.
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Answer the following questions
1. Identify the similarity and the difference between general reconnaissance and
special reconnaissance.
2. What are the activity that done by engineering reconnaissance during offensive
combat?
3. List and explain the methods of engineering reconnaissance.
4. What are the materials that needed to carry out by engineering reconnaissance?
5. Describe the planning procedure of engineering reconnaissance.
6. Write the merits and demerits of with fire reconnaissance.
7. Explain the tactical river crossing.
8. List and explain the execution of river crossing
9. What are considerations points that born in your mind during river crossing.
55 Combat Support
PART TWO
INTRODUCTION TO SIGNAL AND RADIO COMMUNICATION
Contents Page
Introduction 56
Chapter Five: Basic Concepts of Signal and Radio Communication 58
Chapter Six: Introduction to Radio Communication Equipment 74
Chapter Seven: Role of Radio Communication in Different Combat Situation 81
Introduction
Communications is the ability and function of providing the necessary liaison to exercise
effective command between tactical or strategic units of command. The process of
communication includes transmission of information, ideas, emotions, skills, knowledge by
using symbols, words, pictures, figures, graphs or illustrations. Military communications are
activities, equipment, techniques and tactics used by the military in some of the most hostile
areas of the earth not only geographically but also from the point of view of the conditions of
operations and equipment functionality like in battle fields, on land, underwater, air and
whatever other conditions one can encounter. It is the means by which the commander
projects his command and control across the width and depth of the battlefield. It includes
Command, Control, Communications and Intelligence, and were known as the C3I model
before computers were fully integrated.
Radio systems used for communications will have the basic components contain
messages from inputs, transmitter, communications channel or medium, receiver, feedback
for transmitter and noise. Radio communications have several roles in the battlefield.
It can be used for traffic control and movement of troops, used by own patrols in case of
emergency call and passing of information, support separate network of administration and
logistics supply, used by intelligence group to send information through radio by separate
network, used in medical units to give forward aid for the units.
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After completing part two, you should able to:

 Describe basic concepts of communication.
 List the elements of communication systems, and the role of antennas.
 Analyze the relation between communications and effective command and control.
 Execute radio communication in different combat situations.
CHAPTER FIVE
BASIC CONCEPTS OF SIGNAL AND RADIO COMMUNICATION
Contents Pages
Introduction 58
5.1 Definition of Communication 59

5.2 Electromagnetic Wave Propagations 60
5.3. Types of Radio Communications
62
5.4. Ways of Signal Communications
63
5.5. Types of Electronic Communications
65
5.6. Communication Means
68
5.7. Principles of Communications
70
Summary 72
Introduction
Dear Officer Cadets, under this chapter we briefly look the definition and historical
development of radio communications, electromagnetic wave propagation, communication
requirements and introduce the principles of communication. Communication is not just an
act. It is a process. The process of communication includes transmission of information,
ideas, emotions, skills, knowledge by using symbols, words, pictures, figures, graphs or
57 Combat Support
illustrations. The act of communication is referred to as ‘transmission’. It is the process of

transmission that is generally termed as communication. Communication regulates and
shapes all human behavior.
After studying this chapter, you will be able to: -
 Define the meaning of Communication.
 Describe what Electromagnetic Wave Propagation is.
 Analyze the types of radio communications, ways of signal communications and the
three types of electronic communications.
 Differentiate various means of communications.
 Discuss briefly the principles of communication.
5.1. Definition of Communication
Dear cadets, before going to discuss about the definition of communication, it is important to
answer the following questions from your experience.
Activity (About 10 minutes)

The following activities are designed to help you to express your
experience to share. Do it carefully.
1. What is communication mean?
2. Is communication an act or process? Why?
Communication is a much hyped word in the contemporary world. It encompasses a

multitude of experiences, actions and events, as well as a whole variety of happenings and
meanings, and technologies too. Meetings, conferences or even a procession thus can be a
communication event. Communication in its simplest sense involves two or more persons
who come together to share, dialogue and commune together. It is a process of transmitting
signals from one physical location to another physical location with aid of communication
channel. It is viewed as a transmission of information, consisting of discriminative stimuli,
from a source to recipient. These messages could be oral, written, visual or olfactory. That
means the interchange of thoughts or ideas. In general, the communication is a system
through which the messages are sent, and feedback received. It is therefore, the process of
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transferring particular information or message from an information source to desired, definite

or a particular destination.
5.2. Electromagnetic Wave Propagation
Activity (Take 5 Minutes)

The following activities are designed to check your level of
knowledge. Do it carefully.
1. What do you mean by Electromagnetic Wave Propagation?
2. By what mechanism instructions, orders, and others can be
transmitted from commanders to subordinate leaders without any
cable?
All communication systems use some form of electromagnetic energy to transmit signals
from one device to another. Electromagnetic energy is a combination of electrical and
magnetic fields and includes power, radio waves, microwaves, infrared light, visible light,
ultraviolet light, x rays, and gamma rays. Each of these makes up a portion (band) of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The fundamental nature of all radiation within this spectrum is the
same in that it can be viewed as electromagnetic waves that travel at the speed of light. The
act of a radio wave traveling from one point to another is called propagation.
There are two principal paths by which radio waves travel from a transmitter to the
receiver. One is by ground wave propagation which travels directly from the transmitter to
the receiver. The other is by sky wave propagation which travels up to the ionosphere and is
refracted (bent downward) back to the Earth.
1. Ground wave propagation: -This wave travels directly from the transmitter to the receiver
following the contours of the earth. It is a propagation which is used for short range (VHF) radio
communication and it moves always parallel to the ground. Since ground waves travel near the
surface of the earth, they are greatly affected by the earth’s conductivity and by any obstruction
such as mountains or buildings (natural and manmade obstacles) on its surface. Ground-wave
transmission is used mainly for local communications. Short distance and all UHF and upper
VHF transmissions are travelled by ground waves.
Generally, ground wave propagation:
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 Do not use or depend on waves that are refracted from the ionosphere (sky waves).
 It is affected by the electrical characteristics of the Earth and by the amount of diffraction
(bending) of the waves along the curvature of the Earth.
 The strength of the ground wave at the receiver depends on the power output and
frequency of the transmitter, the shape and conductivity of Earth along the transmission
path, and the local weather conditions.
2. Sky wave propagation: -is an electromagnetic wave propagated at such an angle from the
transmitter that it travels up through the atmosphere, strikes its upper layer (the ionosphere), and
refracts back toward the earth (to the receiver). Sky-wave transmissions are very effective and
the key element for long-distance communications in High Frequency range (3 to 30 MHz).This
propagation depends on the ionosphere to provide the signal path between the transmitting and
receiving antennas. Let’s see the characteristics of Ionosphere and its layers.
Characteristics of Ionospheric layer/structure
The ionosphere has four distinct layers. In the order of increasing heights and decreasing
molecular densities, these layers are labeled D, E, F1, and F2. During the day, when the rays
of the sun are directed toward that portion of the atmosphere, all four layers may be present.
During the night, the F1 and F2 layers seem to merge into a single F layer, and the D and E
layers fade out. The actual number of layers, their height above the Earth, and their relative
intensity of ionization vary constantly as described below.
 D-region: - The D region exists only during daylight hours and has little effect in
bending the paths of high frequency radio waves. The main effect of the D region is to
attenuate high frequency waves when the transmission path is in sunlit regions.
 E-region: - The E region is used during the day for high frequency radio transmission
over intermediate distances (less than 2,400 km). At night the intensity of the E region
decreases and it becomes useless for radio transmission.
 F-region: - The F region exists at heights up to 380 kilometers above the Earth and is
ionized all the time. It has two well-defined layers (F1 and F2) during the day and one
layer (F) during the night. At night the F region remains at a height of about 260
kilometers and is useful for long-range radio communications (over 2,400 km). The F2
layer is the most useful of all layers for long-range radio communications, even though
its degree of ionization varies appreciably from day to day.
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The figure below shows both ground and sky wave propagation including direct wave.
Fig 1.1. Electromagnetic wave propagation.
5.3. Types of Radio Communication

The following activities are designed to check your level of knowledge. Do
it carefully.
1. From your experience how many types of radio communication do you
know?
2. What type of radio communication our army used at tactical,
operational and strategic level?
In general, there are two types’ radio communications in the army. These are: -
5.3.1. Short Range Radio Communication.
5.3.2. Long Range Radio Communication.
5.3.1. Short Range Radio Communication- In technical terminology we call it a very high
frequency (VHF) radio communication. It is used in tactical level units and its
frequency range is from 30 up to 300 MHz’s. They can usually communicate a few
kilometers directly (maximum range 50 km) depending on the performance of the
radio and the convenience of the environment, but using a repeater station (on a hilltop
or a high building) can sometimes communicate several tens of kilometers.VHF radio
communication uses ground wave propagation and it needs always line of sight (LOS)
for communication. Typical ranges for VHF radios are:
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 Handheld to handheld: 2 – 5 km.

 Vehicle unit to vehicle unit: up to 20 km.
 Base unit to handheld: up to 15 km.
 Base unit to vehicle unit: up to 30 km.
 Base unit to base unit: up to 50 km.
Some VHF radios are hand-held, with a small antenna: these are often carried by
humanitarian staff. Larger radios, either VHF or HF, are mounted in vehicles or in buildings,
with larger antennas.
5.3.2 Long Range Radio Communication- In technical terminology we call it a High
Frequency (HF) radio communication and its frequency ranges from 3 up to 30 Mhz.
Depending on the performance and output of the radio communication its maximum
communication might vary up to 3000 km. HF radio communication uses sky wave
propagation and it does not need line of sight for communication. It is used in
operational level and strategically level. This type of communication is highly secured
than any other communication. The Army uses this communication system because it
is highly secure.
5.4. Ways of Signal Communication
There are different ways of signal communication in our army as well as in our world.
Generally we can classify them in to three major parts.
These are: -
5.4.1. Voice (Sound) Communication.
5.4.2. Video (Image) Communication.
5.4.3. Data Communication.
5.4.1. Voice (Sound) Communication
It is a type of communication by using a voice or sound only from the transmitter towards a
receiver. In this type of communication a transmitter or a message generator sends towards a
receiver only sound message. There are different medias that we use to make a voice or
sound communication. The most important materials used for such type of communication in
military aspects are radio, telephone and satellite. Under this part we see only the advantages
and disadvantages of radio.
Radio
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Radio is the primary means of communication. Radio means are the major and unique means
capable to provide management to parts and units in the most complex/difficult conditions
and at a finding of commanders and staff in the movement. Radio communications use
electromagnetic spectrum. Let’s see the advantages and disadvantages of radio
communication.
a) Advantage of Radio Communication
 Flexibility: It is a very flexible means of communication. It can work over long
distances and on the move or at fixed.
 Installation:
 It is extremely fast in establishing communication and can work over land, sea or
air.
 Radio communications facilities usually can be installed more quickly than wire
communications. Thus, radio can be used as a primary means of communications
during the initial stages of combat operations. Once installed in a vehicle, aircraft,
or ship, the equipment is ready for use and does not require reinstallation.
 No construction is required in the space between two radio stations. Because of
this characteristic, radio communication can usually be installed much more
quickly than other means of communication used in different army.
 Mobility: Radio equipment is designed to meet mobility requirements and is used by
airmobile, amphibious, mechanized, and dismounted units.
 Modes of operations: Radio lends itself to many modes of operation, such as
radiotelephone, radiotelegraph, radio teletypewriter, visual presentation, and data.
 The radio communication installation cannot be affected by the feature of the ground.
 It is less vulnerable, except at terminals.
b) Disadvantages of Radio Communication
 Security: Radio is the least secure means of communications, and it must be assumed
that interception occurs every time a transmitter is placed in operation.
 Interference: It is susceptible to atmospheric interference, screening due to natural
obstacles.
 Jamming: Jamming by the enemy and it is prone to frequency congestion especially in
High Frequency band.
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5.4.2. Video/Image Communication
It is the means of communication including image rather than voice communication.

Simple example of this communication is a video conference and it is used to give
information for different army units to give the same information at the same time.
5.4.3. Data Communication
This is also a type of communication done by using different materials and data (written)
communication. The most popular example of this type of communication is Fax, but
now a day army use different types of digital radio to make a data communication.
These exercises are designed to check your level of knowledge. Do it carefully.

1. From your experience by what way sub-units’ leaders communicate with higher
commanders?
2. What is the significance of voice (sound) communication over other ways of
communication?
3. Explain advantages and disadvantages of radio communication.
5.5. Types of Electronic Communications
They are three ways in which electronic communications is classified: one-way or two –way
transmissions, analog versus digital signals, and base band or modulated signals. Let’s
consider two from these categories in more detail.
There are two basic types of electronic communications. The simplest is one way
communications, normally referred to as simplex and two way communications known as
duplex.
a) Simplex versus Duplex
Simplex (One way)

In simplex communications, the information travels in one direction only. It includes
broadcast systems (radio and TV broadcasting), where one station transmits and the others
just "listen". Some missile guidance systems, where the launcher needs only to command the
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missile where to go, and the launcher does not need to receive any information from the
missile. Also, there are spacecraft such as satellites and space probes that have lost their
capability to receive any commands, but they can continue to transmit radio signals through
their antennas. Some early satellites (such as Sputnik 1) were designed as transmit-only
spacecraft. Pioneer 6 has transmitted for decades without being able to receive anything.
Duplex (Two ways)
A duplex communication system is a point-to-point system composed of two connected
parties or devices that can communicate with one another in both directions simultaneously.
An example of a duplex device is a telephone. The people at both ends of a telephone call can
speak at the same time; the earphone can reproduce the speech of the other person as the
microphone transmits the speech of the local person, because there is a two-way
communication channel between them.
There are two form of duplex communication system. Half-duplex system provides
communication in both directions, but only one direction at a time (not simultaneously).
Typically, once a party begins receiving a signal, it must wait for the transmitter to stop
transmitting, before replying (antennas are of trans-receiver type in these devices). Example,
walkie-talkie- wherein one must use "Over" or another previously designated command to
indicate the end of transmission, and ensure that only one party transmits at a time, because
both parties transmit and receive on the same frequency.
Full-duplex or sometimes double-duplex system, allows communication in both directions,
and, unlike half-duplex, allows this to happen simultaneously. Land-line telephone networks
are full-duplex, since they allow both callers to speak and be heard at the same time.
There are several benefits to using full-duplex over half-duplex. First, time is not wasted and
there are no collisions. Second, the full data capacity is available in both directions because
the send and receive functions are separated. Third, stations (or nodes) do not have to wait
until others complete their transmission, since there is only one transmitter for each twisted
pair.
b) Analog versus Digital Signal
Another way to categorize electronic communications is by the types of intelligence signals

transmitted. There are two types of signals: analog and digital.
Analog Signal
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An analog signal is a continuously varying voltage or current. A typical analog signal is a

sine wave tone. Voice and video voltages are analog signals. Analog signal is a function of
time that has a continuous range of values.
Fig.1.2. Analog signal
Digital Signals
The other type of transmitted signals falls under the broad general category of digital. The
earliest forms of both wire and radio communication used a type of on/off digital code. The
telegraph used Morse code, whereas radio telegraphy used an international code of dots and
dashes. Data used in computers is also, digital where binary codes representing numbers,
letters and special symbols are transmitted by wire or radio. The most commonly used digital
code in communications is the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII,
pronounced “ass key”). Although digital transmission can be made up of signals that
originated in digital forms, such as telegraphy messages or computer data, analog signals may
also be transmitted in digital forms. It is very common today to take voice or video analog
signals and “digitize” them with an analog-to-digital converter.
Fig1.3. Digital signal

1. By what way electronic communications are classified?
2. Which one is more preferable: Simplex or duplex? Why?
3. What is the difference between analog and digital signals?
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5.6. Communication Means

From your previous experience what communication means do you
know? List and explain.
The communications means in a unit depend on the personnel, equipment, and

transportation. The various means of communication have different capabilities and
limitations. The means employed in any situation are generally those that provide the
reliability, flexibility, security, and speed that meet or exceed the minimum required by the
situation. Means should be employed so that they complement each other to provide the
flexibility needed for communicating. Reliable communication can be greatly increased by
using all the means available. The major means of communications are as follows: -
a. Messenger System: - It is the most flexible, reliable, and secure of the communications
systems. They can handle all types of messages, including the bulky messages other
systems cannot handle. In an assembly area, it is the preferred means. On an infrequent
basis, members of the unit may be called on to act as messengers to the parent unit’s
higher headquarters. The major disadvantages include non-availability of personnel and
equipment to support the system, the impersonality of the system, and the relative
slowness of the system. Also, messenger service is affected by weather, terrain, and
combat situations.
b. Visual Systems: - Visual communications are used to transmit prearranged messages

quickly over short distances. For instance, fire team or squads within the platoon may
rely heavily on this type of communications. Since the platoon rarely operates as a unit
over short distances, however, visual signals are seldom used at the platoon level.
Whenever visual signals are used, they must be clear enough to be understood by unit
leaders as they operate in tactical situations. Standard hand-and-arm or flag signals work well
during periods of good visibility. Flashlights, chemical lights, or other types of lights are
required during limited visibility. The platoon must exercise extreme care when using lights
to avoid alerting the enemy to friendly intentions.
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c. Sound Systems: -This form of communications is used mainly to attract attention,

transmit prearranged messages, and spread alarms. Sound signals carry only short
distances; in addition, range and clarity are greatly reduced by noise from combat
operations. Since they are open to enemy interception, use of sound signals may be
restricted for security reasons. Sound signals must be kept simple to prevent
misunderstandings.
Advantages and disadvantages of visual and sound systems: - They have similar
advantages and disadvantages. They are used extensively in almost all situations and are
readily available to everyone. They must be preplanned and coordinated to ensure
comprehension. Advantages include limited electronic signature in creating either visual or
sound signals. They do not emit radio frequency (RF) signals, so EW is not a threat.
Disadvantages are the noise, confusion, dust, and smoke of the battle, which can obscure
many of the signals. Also enemy forces can mimic and deceive by the use of similar signals.
d. Radio System: - The primary means of communications will be radio voice. The radio
is the unit’s most flexible and most frequently used form of communications. The most
effective way to use the radio is to follow standard guidelines for effective RTP; these
include brevity, proper use of authentication, and the use of approved operational terms.
It has advantages when compared to the other means. First, it does not require a physical link;
therefore, radio transmissions can span great distances very quickly. It is easily installed and
requires a minimum of manpower to operate. When required, it can be removed away from
operations centers, retransmitted to achieve even greater distances, and combined with wire
systems as a result of net radio interface (NRI) to allow commanders to communicate over
wire and radio. Secondly, the ability to scramble our transmissions while providing security,
may lead to a disadvantage. When conversations cannot be overheard, operators tend to talk
too long and too often which can make the unit susceptible to enemy electronic warfare.
Radio direction finding (RDF) can target the transmitter. Once found, the transmitter can
easily be destroyed. Interference, jamming, and intrusion can render radio communication
relatively useless. Radio is also susceptible to co-site interference (antennas located too close
to one another); mutual interference (bleed-over caused by radios operating on adjacent
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frequencies); and electronic noise created by placing antennas near power lines, generators,
and other emitters such as radar and microwave sites.
e. Wire System: - This method of communications is especially effective in static positions
or during the conduct of a screening mission. It is very versatile and can be used in many
different situations. Using one of the many wire devices available, the unit establishes hot
loops to communicate within the unit, with OPs, and with the parent unit CP in assembly
areas.
It has advantages when compared to the other means. It is more secure than radio, visual, and
sound systems; but it is never to be considered completely secure without cryptographic
devices. Wire systems are not particularly vulnerable to EW, but they are extremely
susceptible to damage from enemy artillery and our own tracked vehicles. Because of its
limited vulnerability to EW, wire is almost always the system of choice in a defensive
operation. It is also valuable in offensive operations when the situation and time permit its
installation. Surprise may be obtained by using a wire system in preference to radio to
prevent giving away positions. While wire systems have some distinct advantages over radio,
they also have offsetting disadvantages. They are not mobile, with the exception of the
mobile stations in the mobile subscriber equipment (MSE) system. They must be carefully
planned before installation; and their installation requires more time, personnel, and
equipment than the other systems. While they are mostly secure, they can be tapped; and not
all taps require a physical connection to the wire.
5.7. Principles of Communications

A communications system must satisfy one or more of the following requirements, but not at
all.
(a) Anticipation and Foresight: - It must be appreciated by commanders at all levels that
communications need time to be developed as laying lines and establishing radio relay is a
time consuming process. Therefore, based on the operational plan, the communication must
be planned for all phases of the operation (including various contingencies) well in advance.
(b) Responsiveness: - The responsiveness of communication should correspond to the time
available for reaction by commanders. Therefore, in the battlefield, the emphasis will be on
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immediate passage of information whereas in case of logistic support, greater emphasis will
be on catering for large volume of traffic rather than speedy transmission.
(c) Survivability: - Communication should be capable of both physical and electronic
survivability. Physical survivability refers to endurance against hostile terrain, adverse
weather conditions and physical damage or destruction by enemy. Electronic survivability
refers to endurance against atmospheric interferences, electronic counter measures (ECM)
and enemy’s electronic warfare systems.
(d) Reliability: - Reliability of communications is defined as the probability of successful
functioning of a communication equipment or system over a specified period in the
battlefield. It is the ability to function with the desired accuracy and dependability at all
times. Breakdown of communication during critical stages of battle may jeopardize the
chances of success. Elements of a reliable system are robustness resiliency, and a sufficient
capacity to meet all communications requirements.
(e) Economy: - Economy of effort is a basic principle of warfare and is equally applicable to
communication. It ensures timely communications with a minimum amount of personnel
and equipment. Communications should always be planned with available resources,
leaving adequate reserves at all levels for unforeseen commitments.
(f) Speed: - Speed of the system must be sufficient to ensure timeliness of the message.
(g) Security: - It is the ability to protect messages from unauthorized exposure and usage. Also,
security is a protection to the user from exposure to electronic warfare.
(h) Flexibility and Reserves: - Communications should be so planned that sudden
requirements necessitated by changes in operational environment can be met. Flexibility is
the ability to support widely dispersed forces under adverse conditions. Some indicators of a
flexible system are multi-means multi-axis (more than one line or net), mobility (to move
with the supported force), and modular construction for ease of repair and replacement. To
make the communication system flexible, it is necessary to have adequate reserves at all
levels.

1. Why communications need time to develop?
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2. . What is the problem if the communication is not respond by commanders? What is

the advantage on an immediate passage of information?
Summary
This chapter provided you basic concepts of communication. Communication is the process
of transferring particular information or message from an information source to desired,
definite or a particular destination.
All communication systems use some form of electromagnetic energy to transmit signals
from one device to another. In general there are two types of electromagnetic wave
propagation. These are Ground and Sky wave propagation. There are two types of radio
communications: Short range, technically very high frequency, and long range, technically
high frequency radio communication. There are different ways of signal communications in
the army but we classify them into three major parts: Voice or sound, video or image, and
data communication. They are three ways in which electronic communications is classified:
one-way or two –way transmissions, analog versus digital signals, and base band or
modulated signals. There are two basic types of electronic communications--Simplex and
duplex.
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The successful conduct of any military operation depends to a great deal on the command and
control and exchange of information. Reliable, survivable, secure, flexible, and timely
communication is, therefore, a basic requirement for any operation.
Instruction I: Multiple Choice Questions
1. All are correct about long range radio communication except:
A) It needs line of sight.
B) Technically high frequency radio communication.
C) Its frequency range is from 3 up to 30 MHz.
D) It used sky wave propagation.
2. One can handle all types of messages.
A) Wire system. C) Radio system.
B) Messenger system. D) Visual and sound system.
3. One the following is not an advantage of radio.
A) Fast in establishing communication.
B) It doesn’t require a physical link.
C) Installation doesn’t affected by earth features.
D) Radio direction finding can target a transmitter.
4. The ability to support widely dispersed forces under adverse conditions. This shows which
principles of communication?
A. Survivability.
B. Responsiveness.
C. Flexibility.
D. Speed.
Instruction II: Write short answers for the following questions.

1. Why communication is a process rather than an act?
2. What is the difference between communication and information?
3. List and explain electromagnetic wave propagation.
4. Discuss briefly the ways of signal communications.
5. Explain the difference between simplex and duplex communications.
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6. What do you mean by physical and electronic survivability?

7. Why economy is a basic principle in warfare and equally applicable to communication?
8. What is the final result if the communication is least secured by combatant? Why?
CHAPTER SIX
INTRODUCTION TO RADIO COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT
Contents Page
Introduction 73
6.1. Elements of Communication System 74
6.2. Antennas 76
Summary 78
Introduction
Communications is the means by which the commander projects his command and control
across the width and depth of the battlefield. Communication is, therefore, a process of
sharing or exchange of ideas, information, knowledge, attitude or feeling among two or more
persons through certain signs and symbols. Dear Officer Cadets, what do we find in the above
definition? It says that two or more persons are involved in the act, the one who gives
information (sender) and the one who receives it (receiver). What is being shared? An idea or
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information, or an attitude (message) is being shared. And through what means? The
information is shared or exchanged through certain signs or symbols; it could be language,
oral or written.
A radio set consists basically of a transmitter and a receiver. Other items necessary for
operation include a source of electrical power and an antenna for radiation and reception of
radio waves. The transmitter contains an oscillator which generates radio frequency (RF)
energy in the form of alternating current (AC) which is delivered to the antenna. The antenna
converts the AC into electromagnetic energy. Then it sends the radio signal into space toward
the receiving antenna. The receiving antenna intercepts the signal and sends it through a
transmission line to the receiver. The receiver processes the radio signal so that it can either
be heard or used to operate a recording device.
On completion of studying this chapter, you should be able to:
 Discuss briefly the elements of communication systems.

 Explain the role of antenna and choose the right type of antenna according to the mission
and situation given to you.
6.1. Elements of Communication System
Dear Cadets, before going to see elements of communication system, let’s discuss the
following activity.
Activity (About 10 minutes)

The following activities are designed to help you to express your
experience to share. Do it carefully.
1. What are the elements in the process of communication?
2. How does communication work between sender and receiver?
Radio systems used for communications will have the following elements. The basic
components are a transmitter, a communications channel or medium, and a receiver. In
most systems, a human generates a message that we call the information, intelligence or
signal. This signal is inputted to the transmitter which then transmits the message over
the communications channel. The message is picked up by the receiver and is relayed to
another human. Along the way, noise is added to the message in the communications
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channel. Noise is the general term applied to any interference that degrades the
transmitted information. All electronic communications systems have the basic form
shown below. Let’s take a closer look at each of these basic elements.
Feedback
Transmi Communicati Receiv

Human
tter on er Message for
message input
channel/med Human
ium application
Noise Noise Noise Noise

Fig.2.1: The basic elements of any communications systems
a) Transmitter: - The transmitter contains an oscillator which generates radio frequency
(RF) energy in the form of alternating current (AC). It is a component and circuit
designed to convert the information into a signal suitable for transmission over a given
communications medium. In addition transmitter is an electronic device which, with the
aid of an antenna, produces radio waves. It may be as simple as a microphone or as
complex as a microwave radio transmitter. A transmission line or cable feeds the RF to
the antenna.
b) Communications channel: - The communications channel is the medium by which the
electronic signal is sent from one place to another. In its simplest form, the medium may
simply be a pair of wires that carry a voice signal from a microphone to a headset. The
communication medium may also be a fiber-optic cable or “light pipe” that carries the
message on a light wave. On the other hand, the medium may be wireless or radio.
c) Receiver: - In radio communications, a radio receiver is an electronic device that
receives radio waves and converts the information carried by them to a usable form. It
accepts the transmitter message from the channel and converts it back into a form
understandable by humans i.e. to the audio frequencies. The audio frequencies are then
changed into sound waves by a headset or loud speaker. It is used with an antenna.
d) Noise: - Noise is random, undesirable electric energy that enters the communication
system via the communication medium and interferes with the transmitted message.
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However, some noise is also produced in the receiver. Noise comes from the atmosphere
(e.g. from lightning which produces static), from outer space where the sun and other
stars emit various kinds of radiation that can interfere with communications, and from
electrical interference created by manufactured equipment. The electric ignition system
of cars, electric motors, fluorescent light, and other types of equipment generate signals
that can also interfere with the transmission of the message. Noise is one of the more
serious problems of electronic communications. For the most part, it cannot be
completely eliminated. However, there are ways to deal with it.
6.2. Antennas (Aerials)
An antenna or aerial is an electrical device which converts electric currents into radio waves,
and vice versa. It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver. It consists of wires
or rods designed for use with either a radio transmitter or a radio receiver.
i. Function of antenna
All radios, whether transmitting or receiving, require some sort of antenna. The function of an
antenna depends on whether it is transmitting or receiving.
During the transmission, a radio transmitter applies an oscillating radio frequency electric
current to the antenna's terminals. It means a transmitting antenna transforms the output RF
energy produced by a radio transmitter (RF output power) into an electromagnetic field that is
radiated through space. In other words, the transmitting antenna converts energy from one
form to another form. Then, the transmitting antenna sends the radio signal into space toward
the receiving antenna.
During reception, the receiving antenna reverses the process. It intercepts the signal and
sends it through a transmission line to the receiver. It transforms the electromagnetic field
into RF energy which is delivered to a radio receiver to be amplified. Hence, at the distant
station, a receiving antenna is used to receive the signal from space, and then, the receiver
processes the radio signal so that it can either be heard or used to operate a recording device.
Antennas are essential components of all equipment that uses radio because can be used for
both transmitting and receiving. They are used in systems such as radio broadcasting,
broadcast television, two-way radio, communications receivers, radar, cell phones, wireless
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microphones; Bluetooth enabled devices, wireless computer networks and satellite

communications.

1. What is an antenna or aerial? Explain it briefly.
2. How antenna operates during transmission and reception?
6.2.2. Types of Antennas

Antenna is an electronic device which is a part of radio and used to emit and receive
electromagnetic waves. There are different types of antennas used for different types of
electronic communication.
Generally, according to direction adjustment, antennas are classified in to two main parts.
These are: -
1) Directional Antenna.
2) Non Directional Antenna.
1) Directional Antenna. Is an antenna which radiates greater power in one or more

directions allowing for increased performance on transmit and receive and reduced interference
from unwanted sources? It needs an arrangement of direction. There are many types of
directional antennas.
a. Wire Antenna: - It is a type of directional antenna which is installed at 45 0 from the
ground and always the hypotenuse side should be face to the communication direction
and it needs an adjustment of the length of the antenna according to the selected
frequency. It also used in HF radio communication as well as VHF radio communication.
b. Dipole antenna: - It is a type of directional antenna installed always horizontal from the
ground at a minimum height of 12 meters. This antenna also needs an adjustment of length
according to the frequency selected and it is used for HF radio communication.
c. Wide Band Antenna: - It a type of an antenna relatively similar to dipole antenna but it
doesn’t need an adjustment of the length according to the frequency selected and it is used for
HF radio communication. It installed horizontal to the ground at minimum 12 meters.
77 Combat Support
2) Non-Directional (Omni directional) Antenna. In radio communication, an Omni

directional antenna is an antenna which radiates radio wave power uniformly in all
directions. It is an antenna which doesn’t need adjustment of direction while installation.
There are many types of non-directional antennas.
Whip Antenna: - It is a type of non-directional antenna which used for HF radio

communication as well as VHF radio communication. It is capable to communicate in all
direction (3600) without arrangement of direction. Whip antennas are used with tactical radio
sets because they radiate equally in all directions in the horizontal plane. Since stations in a
radio net lie in random directions and change their positions frequently, the radiation pattern
is ideal for tactical communications. These antennas are widely used for hand-held radios
such as cell phones, walkie-talkies, FM radios and GPS receivers, and also attached to
vehicles as the antennas for car radios and two way radios for police, fire and aircraft. When
a whip antenna is mounted on a vehicle, the metal of the vehicle affects the operation of the
antenna. As a result, the direction in which the vehicle is facing may also affect transmission
and reception, particularly of distant or weak signals.

Q1. What is the requirement to classify antenna?
Q2. What is the difference between dipole and wide band antenna?
Summary
A radio system consists of a transmitter, receiver, and antenna group. The transmitter is an
electronic components and circuits designed to convert the information into a signal suitable
for transmission over a given communications medium. The communications channel is the
medium by which the electronic signal is sent from one place to another. A radio receiver is
an electronic device that receives radio waves and converts the information carried by them to
a usable form. Noise is then random, undesirable electric energy that enters the
communication system via the communication medium and interferes with the transmitted
message.
78 Combat Support
Radio has an antenna that used to emit and receive electromagnetic waves. There are
different types of antennas used for different types of electronic communication. According
to direction adjustment antennas are classified in to two main parts. These are directional and
non-directional antenna. Directional antenna contains a type of wire, dipole and wide band
antenna while non-directional has a type whip antenna.
1. One of the following is not a type of directional antenna.
A) Wire antenna. C) Dipole antenna.
B) Whip antenna. D) Wide band antenna.
2. Pick out the wrong statement from the following.

A) The radio transmitter is a collection of electronic components designed to convert the
information into a signal suitable for transmission.
B) The receiver uses electronic filters to separate the wanted radio frequency signal from all
other signals.
C) Medium supports the transmission of information and it also attenuates it.
D) Noise is random that can be eliminated by various means.
1. What are the basic components of communication system?
2. Transmitters are necessary component parts of many electronic devices. List and explain
them.
3. What kinds of communication channels do you know?
4. How receiver converts message for humans in to understandable form?
5. Why noise is one of the more serious problems of electronic communications?
79 Combat Support
6. Explain that how noise is generated and added in to the basic elements of communication
systems?
7. Describe antenna during transmission and reception.
8. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of directional and non-directional antennas.
9. What is the effect of installation below 12 meters for dipole and wide band antennas?
CHAPTER SEVEN
ROLE OF RADIO COMMUNICATION IN DIFFERENT COMBAT SITUATION
Contents Page
Introduction 80
7.1 Rules for Radio Communication and Disciplines 81
7.2. Battle Area Communication Operations
84
7.3. Communication During Different Combat
Operations 92
7.4. Communication in Different Land Features and Time
96
7.5. Electronic Warfare Overview
100
7.6. Radio Direction Finder
102
7.7. Radio Communication Jamming
103
7.8. Radio Reconnaissance and Signal Intelligence
104
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7.9. Basic Method of Anti-Reconnaissance and Anti-

Jamming in Radio Communications
104
Summary 105
Introduction
Military communications are activities, equipment, techniques and tactics used by the
military in some of the most hostile areas of the earth not only geographically but also from
the point of view of the conditions of operations and equipment functionality like in battle
fields, on land, underwater, air and whatever other conditions one can encounter. Military
communications includes Command, Control, Communications and Intelligence.
Command and control cannot be accomplished without the existence of two-way
communications. Commands could not be passed from the commander to subordinates.
Control would be impossible unless feedback in some form could take place. Basic to any
control system is the incorporation of a reliable communications network. In reality, the more
remote the commander is from the scene of action the more dependent he becomes upon
rapid, reliable communications.
In the modern world, most nations attempt to minimize the risk of war caused by
miscommunication or inadequate communication by pushing the limits of communication
technology and systems. Accordingly, we will see battle area communication operations and
the role of radio communication in different combat situation in this chapter.
After successfully completing this chapter, you should be able to: -
 Perform rules for radio disciplines.
 Describe battle area communication operations.
 Analyze communication during different combat operations, and land features,
 Demonstrate security measures during radio communication.
 Analyze Electronic Warfare.
 Execute communication plan.
7.1 Rules for Radio Communication and Disciplines
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a. Principles of Radio Telephony procedures
The elementary principles of radio telephony (RT) procedure are listed below: -
i. Rhythm. Any phrase spoken in ordinary conversation has a natural rhythm which
helps to make it intelligible. The natural rhythm has to be maintained while
conversing over the radio.
ii. Speed. The message should be spoken at a constant and medium speed. The tendency
to hurry over less important words should be avoided. If spoken too fast, the speech
becomes an unintelligible jumble of words. Slow speed leads to unnecessary wastage
of time.
iii. Volume. During RT, the speech has to be louder than ordinary conversation but not
amounting to shouting. Each word should be spoken equally loudly and the
microphone should be held close to the mouth.
iv. Pitch. High pitched voice is heard more satisfactorily over the radio than a low pitched
one. Pitch the voice as high as it can comfortably be pitched throughout the message.
b. Radio Telephony Procedure
To keep voice transmission as short and clear as possible, radio operators use procedure
words (PROWORDs) to take the place of long sentences. It is important to follow the
standard procedure for speaking on the radio. Radio telephony procedure is a set of rules
designed to ensure accuracy, security and speed in passing information. Uniform procedure is
necessary to ensure that the enemy does not recognize units or formations by their individual
habits on the air. Only one person can speak at one time, and while doing so he or she
prevents anyone else from speaking. Unlike a telephone, anyone with another radio can hear
what you are saying. Do not use the radio like a telephone. Work out what you want to say
before transmitting. Therefore, bear in mind that clarity, brevity and security used while
transmitting and receiving messages. The procedure words (Pro words) those commonly used
are explained on “Appendix A”.
c. Phonetic alphabet
When spelling letters on the radio, or using letters in call signs, the International Phonetic
Alphabet is used. All radio users should know this alphabet by heart. The list of phonetic
Alphabet is explained on “Appendix B”.
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d. Dos and Don’ts of Radio Communications

i. Always
 Use correct voice and data communication.
 Make your message brief but precise.
 Use the standard procedure words.
 Ensure that the correct script and time periods are in use.
 Ensure the correct frequency mode.
 Always call in the correct order without delay.
 Listen carefully before transmitting to ensure that the frequency is clear.
 Break the message into sensible passages with clear pauses between.
 Maintain clear speech with normal rhythm and moderate volume.
 Hold the microphone approximately 5 cm from your mouth.
 Avoid excessive calling. Use radios for work-related purposes only.
 Ensure no one else is transmitting at the same time. Wait for ongoing discussions to
finish completely before beginning transmission.
 Use call signs instead of personal names.
 Begin by pressing the ‘transmit’ button and saying: “Hello [their call sign] this is [your
call sign] over”. Then release the ‘transmit’ button immediately. After they respond
(perhaps by saying “[Their call sign], send over”), you press the ‘transmit’ button, say
your call sign again, send your message, and end with “over” or “out”. Release the
‘transmit’ button.
ii) Never
 Comprise classified information by unauthorized plain language disclosure in non-secure
operation.
 Make unnecessary or unduly long transmission.
 Engage in unofficial conversation.
 Identify yourself or unit by name or any other personal individual sign particularly during
the operation in non-secured mode.
 Transmit specific security-related information or travel plans or discuss transfer of cash
or goods.
 Swear or lose your temper.
83 Combat Support
 Speak faster than the station. The worst reception condition can be expected to receive.
 Mention sensitive information on the radio.
 Touch an antenna when a radio is transmitting (there can be a risk of burns).
 Use a radio close to fuel when it is exposed to the air, for example when filling up a
vehicle (there can be a risk of igniting fuel).

The following activities are designed to check your level of
knowledge. Do it carefully.
1. What do you mean by Radio Telephony Procedure? Explain in
your own words.
2. Do you know dos and don’ts of radio communication during
operation? If yes explain them
7.2 Battle Area Communication Operations
Radio communication becomes crucial in controlling a battle on the ground and in the air.
During the war flexibility and mobility of the units in its various forms are the most important
method of military communications (i.e. Radio communication). Adjacent commands must
maintain communication with each other to ensure coordination of the combat effort. The
command on the left establishes communication with the command on its right (left-to-right
relationship). Communication operations must take advantage of all available techniques to
facilitate accomplishment of the mission. Techniques such as remoting transmitters, radio
retransmission, antenna multiplexer, and the use of directional antennas help the units to
provide timely fires and to survive to fight again.

The following activities are designed to check your level of knowledge. Do
it carefully.
1. What is the problem if command and control is not supported by
radio communication?
2. Explain the roles of radio communications in any battle area
operations.
3. Command and control systems enable information superiority on
the battle field. They provide the commander with the information to
84 make effective decision and they provide the war fighter the capacity
Combat Support
to access information necessary to complete their mission. Discuss.
a) Responsibilities of Commander
The commander is responsible for the adequacy and proper use of the communication
systems within his command. He is also responsible for its efficient operation in the system
of the next higher command. The authority to establish, maintain, control, and coordinate the
various communication means within the command may be exercised by a subordinate in the
name of the commander when such authority is properly delegated. The commander should: -
 Provide for redundancy in communication means by having backup at key locations.
 Make sure subordinates know what to do during interruptions in communications,
specifies immediate actions in case of jamming, including prearranged frequencies to
switch to and code words.
 Avoid overloading the communication systems. Use them only when necessary. Practice
disciplined communication procedures by eliminating nonessential conversations.
Communication is the means by which the commander projects his command and control
across the width and depth of the battlefield. His tasks are: -
 Receives orders and graphics from higher and adjacent units.
 Sends and receives reports.
 Creates and disseminates orders and graphics to subordinate, higher, and adjacent units.
Extracts information from other systems to display a picture of the battlefield that may
include friendly and enemy situational information, terrain, friendly graphics, artillery
fire range, obstacles and contaminated areas, C2 nodes, and supply nodes.
b) Planning Communication
When planning communications systems, consider both internal and external requirements to
communicate:-
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1. Internal Communication Requirements-Which include the facilities for control and

coordination of the activities of the unit. The installation and maintenance of internal
communication systems are the responsibility of the unit commander.
2. External Communication Requirements-Which include the facilities by which a unit
maintains communication with its next higher headquarter adjacent units (as required),
and supported or reinforced units. These allow the unit to receive data and information
necessary to do its mission. The commander of any unit is responsible for the integration
of his communication assets into the communication system of the next higher
headquarters.
c) Establishing Radio Communication
Exercise
1. As a leader what points you consider while establishing radio communication?
Discuss.
i. Netting: - Accurate netting is the basic requirement for smooth and efficient functioning
of any net. It also enables all the stations to get a clear picture of the state of
communications in the net. The various phrases used while netting are Report Signal,
Report Signal Strength, Strength One/Two/Three/Four/Five or Nothing Heard.
ii. Net Titles: - Radio communication systems are divided into separate grouping, called
nets. This division is based on the purposes for which the nets are used. Each net is titled,
and each title has been standardized to consist of four elements:
 Controlling headquarters (division artillery, battalion, and so forth).
 Designated purpose of the nets (command [cmd], fire direction, intelligence [intel],
and so forth).
 Frequency spectrum (HF, VHF, ultrahigh frequency [UHF], and so forth) and/or
modulation (FM, amplitude modulated [AM], a form of amplitude modulation).
 The type, whether the net is a voice (V), a voice and facsimile (fax), or a digital (D)
net.
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For example, the battalion operations/fire (VHF-FM) (digital) net is abbreviated as bn ops/F
(VHF-FM) (D) net.
iii. Net Description: - A radio net is a channel, frequency, or sub frequency with more than
one subscriber for the purpose of transmitting information related to the mission
requirements. Each net has a controlling station called the net control station (NCS). The
net may be a “free net”, in which all stations are free to contact one another at any time,
or a “directed net”, in which all stations must contact the NCS for permission to contact
other subscribers.
iv. Preliminary Instructions: - The preliminary instructions are issued by the control. They
are not passed over the radio. They contain the following: -
(a) Frequencies including reserve frequencies and code words to change them.
(b) Net Diagrams.
(c) Link sign/Code Signs.
(d) Code words.
(e) Security Measures (Special Instructions).
v. Types of Calls: - The various types of calls are Single Call, Multiple Call and Net Call.
All these types of calls have been explained at ‘Glossary’. The link sign allotted to an
outstation is a call both by the control when calling that station and by the outstation
when calling control. This conceals the direction of transmission. If communication
between control and any outstation fails, messages between them can be sent through a
third station that is in touch with both of them. This is known as relaying messages or
radio relay.
vi. Signal Security: - It is essential to maintain the security of information passed through
various means of communication. As we have seen earlier, one of the major
disadvantages of radio communication is the danger of enemy interference of own
broadcasts. The aim of signal security minimizes such leakages of information and makes
it difficult for the enemy to obtain information.
Information may be leaked to the enemy due to any of the following: -
 Messages in clear.
 Incorrect use of RT procedures or codes.
 Use of names, ranks and appointments.
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 Sudden increases or decreases in volume of traffic.

 Peculiar characteristics of operations.
 Lengthy conversations.
 Discussion of classified subjects on unsafe telephone lines.
 Giving information to fake callers without ascertaining their identity.
We have reached the age where advancements in radio technology make communicating
easy, widespread, and reliable. Now the security of the communication becomes as important
as the communication. Now, we’ll discuss communications security (COMSEC), that is,
methods that keep important communications secure. We’ll also talk about transmission
security (TRANSEC) -- schemes that make it difficult for someone to intercept or interfere
with your communications.
There are four things an enemy would like to do with any transmitted information: -
 The enemy wants to know when information is being transmitted--(TRANSEC Concern).
 The enemy wants to intercept the information--(TRANSEC Concern).
 The enemy wants to be able to understand and use the information--(COMSEC Concern).
 If the enemy cannot understand the information, then they would want to stop the
transmission of information--(TRANSEC Concern).
COMSEC: - COMSEC uses scrambling or cryptographic techniques in order to make

information unintelligible to people who do not have a need to know or who should not
know. Historically, sensitive information has been protected by codes. The process involves a
mathematical algorithm, coupled with a key, to translate information from the clear to the
encrypted state. The sender would manually encode the messages before transmission and the
recipient would manually decode the messages upon receipt. Today’s electronic technologies
allow the coding or decoding process to occur automatically.
TRANSEC: - TRANSEC employs a number of techniques to prevent signal detection or
jamming of the transmission path. These techniques include hiding the channel or making it a
moving target. The most commonly used TRANSEC technique is frequency hopping. In this
system, the transmitter frequency changes so rapidly that it is difficult for anyone not
authorized to listen in or to jam the signal. The receiver is synchronized so that it hops from
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frequency to frequency in a predetermined pattern in unison with the transmitter. Frequency

hopping scatters the intelligence over several hundred discrete frequencies.
vii. Maintenance of Security: - The following principles should be strictly observed to
prevent breach of signal security: -
 Use of correct RT procedure.
 Use of code signs.
 Use of standard codes such as code signs.
 Change of frequencies.
 Brevity.
 Authentication to check the identity of a caller.
 Use of secrecy devices.

1. What do you mean by netting and net title?
2. Why preliminary instructions are not passed over the radio?
3. What do you do in order to prevent breaking signal security by enemy?
d) Security Classification
1) Top Secret: -Information requires the highest degree of protection. Unauthorized
disclosure of top secret information could reasonably be expected to cause “exceptionally
grave damage” to the national security.
 Messages that contain information about an enemy intended to cause a grave action
on the country or on its ally.
 About formations, strength, organization, fitness, political and psychological strength
of an enemy.
 Plans to destroy an enemy, tactics and strategies of armed force.
 Orders given to attack an enemy, relief operations, withdrawal from combat.
 About airplanes prepared for combat, weapons and equipment, manpower,
cryptography, communication equipment and net.
2) Secret: -Information requires a substantial degree of protection. Unauthorized disclosure
of secret information could reasonably be expected to cause “serious damage” to the
national security.
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 Types and numbers of weapons in the hands and stores-about Ordinance.

 Learning and training materials for soldiers.
 Report about own and enemy prepared on maps, overlays, etc.
 Orders, instructions, rules and regulations given for soldiers.
3) Confidential: - Information requires protection. Unauthorized disclosure of confidential
information could reasonably be expected to cause damage to national security.
 Reports, novels and papers that need not to see and known by unauthorized persons.
 Security codes, reserve frequencies, topography, reports given about manpower and
equipment, etc.
4) Unclassified: - Information that do not need protection. If information do not contains
activities of soldiers.
Exercise
1. List and describe types of security classification.
e) Types of Precedence Designators
It is an indicators attached to indicating its level of urgency.
1) Flash: - Which has a response and realized in 30 minutes. Use the flash precedence
designator for an extremely urgent messages containing vital information on the
following: -
 Messages or information during battles—initial enemy contact reports or operational
combat messages of extreme urgency.
 Preparation for attack to destroy an enemy.
 Information or messages to resist an enemy at defensive position.
 Natural disasters.
 Request for air support.
Flash messages require instant action by the addressee regardless of the time of day or night.
Flash messages must contain only brief highlights. You must send details in a follow up
message at a lower precedence. Recipient post(s) communications center(s) must
acknowledge receipt of a flash message to the originator, giving the date and time of receipt.
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2) Immediate Precedence: - For the messages relating to the situations gravely affecting
the security of the national force. Messages which has a response and realized in 1-2
hours. It is the marking for outgoing messages that are to be delivered immediately - any
day or night. If you are sending an urgent message by radio that requires the addressee(s)
to take immediate action regardless of day or time, use the immediate precedence.
 For messages containing important matters that require immediate attention or action.
 General preparation for combat.
 Issue time for combat.
 Movement of airplanes.
 Movement of troops.
 Convoy operations.
 Administrational issues that needs short time for response.
3) Priority Precedence: -Used if you have messages traffic whose subject matter requires
quick action and faster delivery than routine. It is the highest precedence designator
normally authorized for most messages requiring expedited delivery for administrative
messages. They are processed or received during normal working hours.
4) Routine Precedence: - Messages concerning normal peace time military operations
which have a response and realized in 24 hours. Most messages fall in this category for
normal delivery without delay. In the Unit, use the "Routine" designator only once in the
precedence field.
 If the subject matter of your messages does not require expedited delivery.
 Mobility of troops from one unit to another.
 Administrational issues like salary, movement of troops, etc.
Exercise
1. List and explain types of precedence designators.
7.3 Communication During Different Combat Operations
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The extent to which radio is used in combat operations depends on the requirements for
secrecy and surprise balanced against the urgency of communications. When surprise is
important, radio operation is limited initially to those units already in contact with the enemy.
In some instances, to increase deception and surprise, the operation of dummy stations may
be directed by higher commanders. When a unit is moving into an area just prior to attack, it
may be directed to maintain listening silence until the attack is launched. When a unit is
already occupying a sector from which it is to launch an attack, and its radio stations are in
operation, it may be directed to maintain normal radio operations without substantial change
in traffic load until the attack is launched. If a unit is moved to another sector or is relieved by
another unit, it may be required to provide dummy radio stations to continue operations until
the attack is fully underway. Once the attack is launched, special restrictions on radio
operations are generally removed.
a) Communications During Force Preparation
The first activities of the leaders at preparation of force are to ensure combat readiness of his
units. But radios are silenced when secrecy and surprise are essential to the success of the
concentration except for warning and reconnaissance forces in contact with the enemy. The
following activities done by the leaders: -
 Check all necessary materials and equipment are fulfilled by signal group.
 Approve subordinate communication leader’s plan and make rehearsals up on it.
 Use different communication means to support command and control as much as
possible.
 While giving training to ensure combat readiness of the units, organize the regiment by
considering the situation, manpower and the formation.
 During peacetime, prepare codes, check reliability of communication materials and
equipment and fulfill necessary inputs for communications.
 Signal group check his manpower, communication materials and accessories, and by
identifying the mission given to him prepare codes for communications.
 Identify the units of regiment and supporting units, and connect them by radio
communication as per the prearranged codes for communications.
 The commander should organize up, down and adjacent communications at the same
time, and arrange reserve frequencies for sub-units with the help of signal groups.
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b) Communication During March and Security
During preparation and planning, the commanders consider that at unexpected place and time
an enemy may open fire up on the unit.
 It is preferable if the unit use messengers during March. It may be on foot or by vehicles.
 If the movements between the units are at near distance another means of communication
may be used rather than radio communication.
 Communication should be applied by telephony procedures and prearranged codes
because the movement is towards the battle area.
 Communications during tactical march primarily connect the units with command post of
the units.
 Units do not use radio except the one that allows using during tactical march. If needed
use low transmission power with ciphers and codes, differentiate and use long radio
communication in case when the connections between units are not possible by short
range radio.
 Signal group leader control the communication during tactical march either the units keep
secrecy, reliability and follow radio telephony procedures as pre the plan or not.
 Follow up is needed during rest and at the time of sleeping.
c) Communication During Offensive Battle

The attack in the meeting engagement with enemy demands speed in execution, the widest
possible exercise of initiative by subordinate commanders and leaders, rapid orders, and
prompt action. When the units organized at attack position, the more deliberate process
requiring thorough reconnaissance and a maximum of coordination among all components of
the attacking forces is usually essential.
 All units and supportive units must open the radio when the combat starts without delay.
No one can speak over the radio except those who are in the theatre of battle. Give
response if needed. Establishment of communication is as per approved plan and net of
commander. It is impossible to out from the net except permission given to concerned
body.
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 If necessary, commanding can be conducted by pressing the transmitting and receiving

buttons or by brief encoded communication.
 Communication should be fast, reliable and kept in secured way because of the situation
changed from time to time.
 When too close to an enemy, keep contact by oral command and by symbols.
 Give priority of communication when off-balance forces perform his mission. In
addition, there is another net that connect the commander and off-balance force.
Emphasize should be given while coordinating attacking units with artillery units and
staff.
 The company and platoon leaders should make full use of their radios to issue orders for
the troops and report to higher commander.
 During off-balance stage, there is a line that connects supportive units, adjacent units, and
air force in common. Here the communication should be effective, use prearranged
codes.
 Up on the finishing of off-balance force’s mission, the priority of communication is given
for destroying force.
 When the attack is launched, all restrictions on radio operation normally are removed.
d) Communication in Defensive Battle
 The principles of communications in defense are the same as offensive but there is a
difference during implementation of communication. Maybe other means of
communication applied like telephone and wire system communication. Mainly it
includes receiving and releasing warning signals, guaranteeing the commanding of the
company over observation and firepower.
 Based on the regiment commander’s plan, signal group leader derive his plan, send for
approval and then after give orientation for his group.
 Basically, radio communication may be closed and the platoons should conduct
commanding with various kinds of sample communication means. If necessary,
messengers can be dispatched to transmit orders and report situations.
 Establishment of radio communication should be covered from enemy direct and indirect
observation, use low transmission power and apply cryptographic and radio telephony
procedures for communication security.
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 Use well organized messengers and wire systems if the defense is established on strong
hold.
 Before the enemy conducts firepower assault, commander should strengthen waiting for
signals with radios and order the signal group to strengthen observation.
 On receiving the warning signals, the unit commander should appoint somebody to
transmit them to subordinates quickly with all kinds of communication means.
 When the enemy conducts firepower assault, the commander should order the
communication personnel to take shelters, and the radios to keep contact at any time.
 After the firepower assault, the damage communication equipment or installations should
be repaired without delay so as to make preparations for communication against enemy.
 Use radio relay to connect various units.
 The company commander should strengthen contacts with main directions by radios.
 The signal group should pay attention to observing and recognizing signals at any time,
and report to commanders promptly.
e) Communication During Reorganization
Reorganization is performed to make the forces to have the previous strength. This can be
done by communications as follows: -
 Firstly, give more attention for communications when commanding and administrative
issues are accomplished. For example, to evacuate wounded personnel and prisoner of
war (POW), to fill and organize manpower, to fulfill necessary materials, equipment,
weapons, rations, etc.
 Secondly, give more attention for communications itself to fulfill lost and damaged
communication materials, equipment, and his manpower to give strength and combat
ability for the units during the second mission. In addition, facilitate for the units to send
their reports for the commander about the situation.

Explain activities done by commanders at each of the
following: -
a) During preparation of forces and combat
b) During March and security
c) During Offensive battle
d) During defensive battle
95 e) During Reorganization
Combat Support
7.4. Communication in Different Land Features and

Time
Signal communication is essential for all types of operations but its importance is greatly
increased for those operations where conditions of weather or terrain impose additional
control problems for the command. Most problems can be overcome by prior planning,
preparation and special training of signal and communication procedure.
a) Open Ground Area Communications
 It is suitable for communication but far from dead and broken grounds.
b) Forest Area Communications
Radio communications in forest areas must be carefully planned, because the dense forest
growth significantly reduces the range of radio transmission.
Capabilities
 It is suitable for cover and concealment.
Limitations
Limitations on radio communications in forest areas stem from the climate and the density of
forest growth.
 It is difficult to control combat in forest because of the dense vegetation that reduces
visibility, hinders movement, and impairs the effectiveness of signal communication. All
signal equipment is adversely affected by climate conditions. Visual communication is
limited by the obstructing vegetation. Messenger service is affected by the scarcity of
good roads and trails.
 The hot and humid climate increases the maintenance problems of keeping equipment
operable.
 Effective radio range is significantly reduced. Thick forest growth acts as a vertically
polarized absorbing screen for RF energy that, in effect, reduces transmission range. It is
very difficult for short range radio communication.
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Therefore, increased emphasis on maintenance and antenna sitting is a must when operating
in forest areas. Understand the behavior of the forest and select the place that suitable for
radio relay. In addition, use high frequency radios, high grounds and trees to overcome the
obstacles and earth’s conductivity.
c) Build-up Area Communications
Radio communications in urbanized terrain pose special problems. Some problems are
similar to those encountered in mountainous areas. There are problems of obstacles blocking
transmission paths. For instance, power generators and transformers, plants/industries,
buildings, etc. They have the ability to block and/or weaken the ground waves.
Limitation
 Combat operations conducted in urban are difficult to coordinate and control, and the
effectiveness of signal communication is significantly reduced.
 Visual communication has limited in use because of the obstructed field of vision.
 Radio communication is often seriously affected by any barriers in the town. There is the
problem of poor electrical conductivity due to pavement surfaces. There is also the
problem of commercial power lines interference.
 VHF radios are not as effective in urbanized terrain as they are in some other areas. The
power output and operating frequencies of these sets require a line of sight between
antennas. Line of sight at street level is not always possible in built-up areas. HF radios
do not require or rely on line of sight as much as VHF radios. This is true because
operating frequencies are lower and power output is greater.
Here are some steps that should be taken in to considerations within urbanized terrain:
 Park radio-equipped vehicles inside buildings for cover and concealment.
 Establish the communication on the top of the building but use cover and concealment
from observations to keep line of sight.
 If possible do not use radio between high buildings.
 Dismount radio equipment and install it inside buildings (in basement, if available).
 Far from power generators, industries and train lines/trails. Place generators against
buildings or under sheds to decrease noise and provide concealment (adequate ventilation
must be provided to prevent heat buildup and subsequent failure of generator).
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 The communication system employed must be sufficiently flexible to meet any

emergency.
d) Mountain Area Communications
Operation of radios in mountainous areas has many of the same problems as in cold weather
areas. Also, the mountainous terrain makes the selection of transmission sites a critical task.
In addition, the terrain restrictions encountered frequently make radio relay stations necessary
for good communications.
Limitations
 Mountain climates require flexible maintenance planning.
 The communication facilities are difficult to install and maintain.
 Very cold weather makes the winterizing of communication equipment imperative.
 Dead ground and terrain obstacles are interfering with radio reception.
 Terrain restrictions often make relay stations necessary for good communications.
 Terrain obstacles often make LOS transmission necessary.
 Dirt and soil in mountainous environments usually do not conduct electricity well.
Therefore, do the following measures to minimize the limitations.
 Use line of sight for short range radio communications.
 Use materials that capable of cold weather condition.
 If the units use the place for long time messengers and wire system may be used.
e) Desert Area Communications
Radio is usually the primary means of communications in the desert. It can be employed
effectively in desert climate and terrain to provide the highly mobile means of
communications demanded by widely dispersed forces.
Military operations in the desert are characterized by wide dispersion and rapid mobility.
Signal plans must provide mobility for all signal forces as well as radio equipments that are
capable of communicating over great distances. Because of windy weather conditions install
antennas properly.
Limitation
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 Desert terrain provides poor electrical ground and counterpoises are needed to improve
operation.
 During planning take in to consideration the fact that signal equipment will be exposed to
intensive heat, dust and sand, and greater maintenance will be required.
f) Night Communications
The movement, control, and coordination of an attack during darkness are extremely difficult
because of limited visibility. For this reason, a night operation must be planned in great
detail, reconnaissance of the area must be made during daylight and an adequate and reliable
communication system must be provided to coordinate and control the attack.
Limitations
 Communication means are more difficult to install and maintain.
 All means of communication are not provided for night operations. Some signals are
ineffective to communicate. Messenger may have trouble in finding their way.
Here are some steps to be taken as measurement:
 Use medium or short range radios with appropriate antennas.
 Perform communications activities during daytime.
Exercise
1. Explain communication at each combat execution
7.5. Electronic Warfare Overview
Dear Cadets, before we see the meaning of Electronic Warfare let you discuss the following
activities.
The following activities are designed to help you to express your experience
to share. Do it carefully.
1. Define Electronic Warfare by your own word.

2. Discuss similarities and difference between warfare and electronic
warfare.
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The radio communications has a vital role in every operation in a unit. In addition, actions by
the operator can either greatly aid or seriously hamper the accomplishment of the unit's
missions. Any person, regardless of rank, who operates a radio, must know what the
consequences of his actions might be. If a radio is used properly, the unit will more easily
accomplish its mission and its personnel will enjoy greater safety. If a radio is used
improperly, the consequence may be the destruction of the unit.
Warfare today is not limited to just bombs and bullets. An important part of the commander's
combat assets is the electronic warfare (EW) equipment that he can use to aid him and hinder
the enemy.
Electronic Warfare (EW) is one of the key elements of the modern battle scenario, protecting
one’s own forces from attack, denying information to the enemy, and intercepting and
disturbing his own voice communication and data links. Within the information operations
construct, EW is an element of information warfare; more specifically, it is an element of
offensive and defensive counter information.
It is any military action involving the use of the EM spectrum (radio frequency waves) to
include directed energy (DE) to control the EM spectrum or to attack an enemy. This is not
limited to radio or radar frequencies but includes IR, visible, ultraviolet, and other less used
portions of the EM spectrum. This includes self-protection, standoff, and escort jamming, and
anti-radiation attacks. EW is a specialized tool that enhances many air and space functions at
multiple levels of conflict.
Classifications of Electronic Warfare

Electronic warfare is defined as military action involving the use of electromagnetic and
directed energy to control the electromagnetic spectrum or to attack the enemy. It consists of
three divisions: electronic attack, electronic protection, and electronic warfare support.
a. Electronic Attack
Electronic attack is a division of electronic warfare involving the use of electromagnetic
energy, directed energy, or anti-radiation weapons to attack personnel, facilities, or
equipment with the intent of degrading, neutralizing, or destroying enemy combat capability
and is considered a form of fires. It is an action taken to prevent or reduce an enemy’s
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effective use of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as jamming and electromagnetic

deception. It employs weapons that use either electromagnetic or directed energy as their
primary destructive mechanism (lasers, radio frequency weapons, particle beams).
b. Electronic Protection
Electronic protection is a division of electronic warfare involving actions taken to protect
personnel, facilities, and equipment from any effects of friendly or enemy use of the
electromagnetic spectrum that degrade, neutralize, or destroy friendly combat capability. For
example, frequency agility in a radio. Electronic protection ensures friendly effective use of
frequencies, despite the enemy’s use of EW. It provides defensive measures used to protect
friendly systems from enemy EW activities, such as—
 Careful sitting of radio equipment.
 Employment of directional antennas.
 Operations using lowest power required.
 Using a random schedule.
 Using good radio techniques and continued operation.
The development and acquisition of communications and electronic systems includes
electronic protection requirements to clarify performance parameters. Army forces design
their equipment to limit inherent vulnerabilities. If electronic attack vulnerabilities are
detected, then units must review these programs.
c. Electronic Warfare Support
Electronic warfare support is a division of electronic warfare involving actions tasked by, or
under the direct control of, an operational commander to search for, intercept, identify, and
locate or localize sources of intentional and unintentional radiated electromagnetic energy for
the purpose of immediate threat recognition, targeting, planning, and conduct of future
operations. Electronic warfare support systems are a source of information for immediate
decisions involving electronic attack, electronic protection, avoidance, targeting, and other
tactical employments of forces. It produces signals intelligence, communications intelligence,
and electronic intelligence.

1. What do you mean by Electronic Attack?
101 Combat Support

2. Define Electronic protection.

3. Explain Electronic Warfare Support.
7.6. Radio Direction Finding (RDF)
Interception is only one of the many dangers that the radio operator will face. After the
enemy knows that you are in the area, he will try to locate your position by using radio
direction finding (RDF). A radio direction finder consists of a radio receiver, a directional
antenna, and some other specialized equipment. With RDF equipment, the approximate
azimuth (bearing) to a transmitting radio can be determined. One azimuth gives a general
indication of direction. The intersection of two azimuths by different RDF stations is called a
cut and gives a general indication of distance. The intersection of three or more bearings is
called a fix and gives a general location. The ideal fix is the exact intersection of three or
more bearings. However, exact intersection is seldom achieved.
RDF ability to intercept electronics equipment emissions and determine a bearing depends on
the power output of the targeting transmitter and its antenna radiation patterns.
7.7. Radio Communication Jamming
Reliable communications are needed to achieve the skillful use of resources, target
acquisition, and strike capability. The lack of communications can affect the outcome of any
battle. To do this, a timely and responsive working relationship must exist between the
respective combat forces.
Jamming is the action taken to reduce or deny the enemy’s effective use of his combat forces
by reducing the effectiveness of his communications. It degrades communications by
reducing or denying the enemy's ability to pass key information at critical times and can
cause enemy operators to become irritated, confused, or misled during battle operations.
When applied successfully, jamming can contribute to the failure of those actions which
depend on communications using the electromagnetic spectrum. Proper jamming can force
the net to change frequencies, reestablish communications, increase power output, or switch
to a less reliable means of communications.
Jammers support combat actions by: -
 Disrupting key command and control nets, thus slowing or disorganizing the enemy in
critical situations.
 Denying enemy the ability to react to changes on the battlefield.
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 Reducing the effectiveness of enemy fire support and air control nets.
Jamming is an effective way to disrupt control of the battle. All it takes is a transmitter, tuned
to your frequency, with the same type of modulation and with enough power output to
override the signal at the receiver. Jammers operate against receivers--not transmitters.
Exercise
1. Why enemies implement radio communication jamming in operation?
7.8. Radio Reconnaissance and Signal Intelligence

Radio reconnaissance allows finding of the radio emission sources and performs the
following activities.
 Capable of scanning the frequency spectrum of interest to detect radio transmission.
 Able to carry out detailed signal analysis of received radio signals to detect all
parameters.
 Able to detect the frequency hopping signals.
 Able to carry out direction finding.
 Enables the generation of appropriate signal interference for forming jamming signals
based on target radio signal parameters.
 Amplification and transmission of jamming signals using directional antenna.
Signals intelligence is intelligence information derived from the interception, processing, and
analysis of foreign communications, non-communications electronic emissions, and
instrumentation signals. Signals intelligence may provide insight into the enemy’s current
status and activities. It conducts collections of threat signals and search, then reporting to
signals support teams. But enemy may transmit signals that can be exploited and then
intercepting own force signals.
Exercise
1. How radio reconnaissance and signal intelligence can be performed?
103 Combat Support

7.9. Basic Methods of Anti-Reconnaissance and Anti-

Jamming in Radio Communication
a) Methods of Anti-Reconnaissance in Radio Communication
 Strengthen secrecy in radio communication.
 Control radio transmission.
 Apply camouflage to radio communication.
 Employ encoded communication equipment.
 Adopt radio feints and deception.
b) Methods of Anti-Jamming in Radio Communication
 Set a concealed radio network, and use anti-jamming liaison documents.
 Organize compound radio network.
 Organize service radio network.
 Conduct radio transmission shifting.
 Increase transmitting power and shorten the communication distance.
 Employ antennas with fine effects of directions, and utilize the terrains reasonably.
Describe basic methods of anti-reconnaissance and anti-jamming in radio

communication.
Summary
Radio communication plays a major role in the C2 of mission operations. Radios transmit a
variety of media (voice, data, fax), and units increasingly use radios for communication
between each other, HQs and adjacent units. Cryptography is the study of methods of
converting readable messages into guised unreadable information, unless one knows of the
methods of decryption. This military communications method ensured that the messages
reached the correct hands and eyes or ears.
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Communications protection is the application of communications security (COMSEC)

measures to communications systems in order to deny unauthorized access to sensitive
unclassified information of value, prevent disruption of communications services, or ensure
the authenticity of information handled by communications systems. COMSEC uses
cryptography or scrambling to make information unintelligible to people who do not have a
need to know. The security level of a COMSEC system depends on the mathematical
soundness of the algorithms and the number of variables in the key. Protecting the key is vital
to securing the transmitted information. TRANSEC protects the transmitted signal itself, to
prevent signal detection or jamming of the transmission path.
EW contributes to the success of information operations (IO) by using offensive and
defensive tactics and techniques in a variety of combinations to shape, disrupt, and exploit
adversarial use of the EM spectrum while protecting friendly freedom of action in that
spectrum.
1. Any phrase spoken in ordinary conversation has a natural rhythm which helps to make it
intelligible.
A) Rhythm C) Speed
B) Volume D) Pitch
2. Select the correct instruction that you should not pass it over the radio.
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A) Selected frequencies. C) Code words

B) Link signs. D) All.
3. One of the following precedence has a response and realized in 1-2 hours.
A) Routine Precedence. C) Priority Precedence
B) Immediate Precedence. D) Flash Precedence.
4. Actions taken to prevent or reduce an enemy’s effective use of the electromagnetic spectrum
such as jamming and electromagnetic deception is known as ____________.
A) Electronic warfare support. C) Electronic attack.
B) Electronic protection. D) Electronic Warfare.
1. Explain communications at different battle area operations and combat executions.

2. Describe briefly responsibilities of commanders in communication during battle field.
3. What commanders consider during planning communication?
4. Discuss capabilities and limitations of radio and wire system for the users.
5. By what mechanism enemy can get own force information?
6. What is relaying messages or radio relay?
7. List principles of radio telephony procedures?
8. Explain basic methods of anti-reconnaissance and anti-jamming in radio communication.
CHAPTER EIGHT
FUNDAMENTALS OF INTELLIGENCE
Content page
Introduction 106
8.1 Definition of intelligence 107
8.2 Types of intelligence 108
8.3 Level of intelligence 112
8.4 Principle of intelligence 114
8.5 Intelligence cycle 116
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8.6 The role of intelligence during conventional war 118

8.7 The role of intelligence during insurgency and counter insurgency 118
Summary 119
Introduction
Dear officer cadet, Military intelligence is begun with history of war and to plan for war, In
order to master of war and the character of enemy forces should be knew and studied. So
intelligence Provides real information concerning the disposition of enemy forces, type of
weapon that enemy is equipped with Combat formation, battle field area, and weather
condition Socio-political and economical condition of the society. In this chapter we will
discuss about the definition of intelligence, type of intelligence, principle of intelligence,
level of intelligence, intelligence cycle and the role of intelligence during combat. This point
leads you to acquire vital knowledge and skill regarding intelligence. It is also includes
questions and cheek points that help you to evaluate yourself in the topic.
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will able to:
 Explain the definition of intelligence.
 Elaborate the principle of intelligence.
 Discuss the importance of intelligence in different combat.
 Use intelligence in different combat situations.
Dear officer cadet, before you are going to discuss directly about the definition, type of
intelligence, level of intelligence, principle of intelligence, intelligence cycle and the
importance of intelligence in different combat situation please try the following activities
with practical experience. This activity will help you clearly understand what intelligence
means.
Activities Allow 10 minutes

1. From your past experience, what does that mean intelligence?
2. What do you know about military intelligence?
3. Can you describe the difference between intelligence and information?
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8.1 Definition of intelligence

Different countries and scholars give the meaning of intelligence based on their point of view.
a. International Definition of intelligence
Intelligence is the product resulting from the collecting and processing of information
concerning actual and potential situations and conditions relating to domestic and foreign
activities.
b. According to Ethiopian context (our definition)
Intelligence is the field of study that investigate new or existing issues using verity of tool
kit systems and man power basing the nature, system, scope and level of development of
the matter need in demand.
The difference between information and intelligence
 Information is unprocessed material of every description that can be used to produce
intelligence. It is row data or fact. It needs to process.
 Intelligence is the products that result from processing raw data or information’s.
! All Intelligence is information but all information is not intelligence.
Why we study intelligence? We study intelligence to:-

 Improving intelligence assessment.
 Reducing intelligence surprise.
 Predicting intelligence future challenges.
8.2 Types of Intelligence
For solider and states man there are different kinds of intelligence depending on the use to
which use as in put. These are:
A. Economic Intelligence.
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B. Social Intelligence.
C. Political Intelligence.
D. Topographic Intelligence.
E. Scientific Intelligence.
F. Military Intelligence.
A. Economic Intelligence
This is the field of study deals about Natural resource, Minerals, industry, Trade, Foreign
currency, Land, Sea and air transport income and expense of the state. All economic issues
studied under this economic intelligence about adversary and potential adversary.
B. Social Intelligence
It is a kind of intelligence deals about number of population by sex and age, nation nationality
and people of the country, religion, ethnic groups, the relationship between government and
the society, health, education, number of employed and unemployed people and other
necessary point collect under social intelligence.
C. Political Intelligence
It is a kind of intelligence deals about government structure or administration, internal and

external opponent, Supporter of government, policy, and foreign policy. Generally political
intelligence focused on political issue of the country.
D. Topographic Intelligence
It is kind of intelligence deals about ground, internal resource like mineral, geographical
feature of the ground and traffic ability of the ground.
E. Scientific Intelligence
These kinds of intelligence mainly focused on scientific investigation of adversary which

means, the product of industry, the future plan of scientific investigation, the level of
investigation etc.
F. Military Intelligence
Military intelligence is a military discipline that focuses on the gathering, analysis, protection,
and dissemination of information about the enemy, terrain, and weather in an area of
operations or area of interest. Intelligence activities are conducted at all levels from tactical to
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strategic, during peace and in wartime. And it used for preparing polices and plans connected
with the ground. The importance of military intelligence is established by pre-warning and
always ensures combat readiness. In order to accomplish mission successfully, military
intelligence is divided in to two parts:
I. Counter (defense) intelligence and

II. Attack intelligence
I. Counter/defense/ intelligence: is conducted to protect enemy agents from gaining own
forces information. Counter intelligence protects
 military camp (barracks)
 military depot, movements
 key governmental persons (VIP)
Exercise
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1) List and explain type’s intelligence.

2) What do you understand from term counter intelligence?
3) How do you evaluate the importance of military intelligence?
In general, counter intelligence keeps military documents /securities/ from enemy intelligence
groups or any other enemy elements. Counter intelligence on the other hand, aim’s at denying
such information about ourselves to the enemy. Counter intelligence consists of measures
designed to conceal ourselves from the enemy activates and probable course of action, and to
neutralize or destroy the effectiveness of enemy intelligence activities, to include prevention
of espionage, sabotage and subversion, and to detect possible sedition and treason.
Types of counterintelligence measures
Counterintelligence measure is accomplished for the general purposes. That is to denial,
detection and deception .Frequently the measures applied to accomplish one of the purpose to
contribute the accomplishment of one or both of the other two purposes. Types of counter
intelligence measure are:
A. Denial measure.
B. Detection measure.
C. Deception measure.
A. Denial measures: - mean an action to hinder or deny the enemy the use of space, personnel,
or facilities. It may include destruction, removal, contamination, or erection of obstructions.
They are applied to prevent the enemy from obtaining information. Such measures include
signal communication security, document security, censorship, counter reconnaissance, and
the physical security of installation.
B. Detection measures:-are used to expose and neutralize the enemy intelligence effort.
lower tactical unites accomplish their responsibility for detection by means of collecting and
reporting information concerning enemy activity ,by establishing check points to control the
movement of personnel, vehicles with in or their areas of operations .
C. Deception measures are employed to mislead the enemy as to the true status or purpose
of friendly activity, personnel and weapons, strength, disposition, and logistical buildup. Such
measures include feints, ruse, demonstration, and leaking of false information.
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Exercise
1. What do you mean counterintelligence? And explain its function.
2. How do you evaluate the counter intelligence measure?
II. Attack intelligence: - it is concerned with information gathering bodies (parts). This
attack intelligence body contains different information gathering element. These
elements conduct all round control enemy activities. One of the elements which is
concerning in collecting information is reconnaissance.
8.3 Level of Intelligence
There are three level of intelligence:-

A. Strategic.
B. Operational.
C. Tactical.
A. Strategic Intelligence
It is produced for the strategic decision makers, the senior military leaders, and combatant
commands. It is used to create national strategy and policy, monitor the international
situation, prepare military plans, determine major weapon system and force structure
requirements and conduct strategic operation. Global and regional issues are reported to
senior official and uses to measures during peace and war time.
Intelligence sources at strategic levels are:-
 Human source intelligence (HUMINT)
 Imagery intelligence (IMINT)
 Open source intelligence.( OSINT )
 Signal intelligence. (SIGINT)
 Measurement and signature intelligence (MASINT)
B. Operational Intelligence
It is primarily used by combatant and subordinate commanders and their component
commanders. Operational intelligence focuses on the military capabilities and intentions of
adversaries and potential adversaries. It keeps commanders abreast (side by side) of events
with in their areas of responsibility and determines when, where, and in what strength the
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adversary will phase and conduct campaigns and major operation .It concerns the natures and
characteristics of battle field. Operational Intelligence collects information about adversary
by the following sources:-
Intelligence sources at Operational level are
 Human source intelligence (HUMINT)
 Imagery intelligence (IMINT)
 Open source intelligence.( OSINT )
 Signal intelligence. (SIGINT)
 Measurement and signature intelligence (MASINT
C. Tactical Intelligence
It used by tactical level commanders for planning and conducting battles and engagement.
Tactical intelligence locates the adversary’s forces and weapon systems, enhancing the
tactical commander’s ability to shape the battle space with maneuver, fires, and obstacles.
Accurate, timely intelligence allows tactical units to achieve positional advantage over their
adversary. At the tactical level, information collected by the following method:-
 Tactical Reconnaissance (observation).
 P.O.W (prisoner of war).
 Ambush
 Raid
 Hijack and kidnapping
Most of the time tactical intelligence collects information about:
 Enemy.
 Ground.
 Weather Condition.
 Population.
Exercise
1. Describe the difference between strategic, operational and tactical intelligence.
2. Why tactical intelligence focus on the enemy, ground weather condition and
population?
8.4 Principles (Tenets) of Intelligence
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The principle of intelligence is the fundamental standards against which performance of

intelligence personnel and organizations must be judged. A failure to achieve any one of
these fundamental attributes may contribute to a failure of operations. The bottom line is
whether the commander’s priority information requirements (PIR) are being satisfied.
Intelligence like other discipline it has own principles in order to make sound decision. So we
must follow the principle of intelligence. The principles are:-
1. Central Co-ordination.
2. Continuity.
3. Co-operation.
4. Accuracy (Integrity).
5. Logical Reasoning.
6. Timeliness intelligence (timely).
7. Protection of source.
8. The need to know.
9. Must be passed through intelligence channel.
1. Central Co-ordination
All intelligence agencies must be centrally directed and co-ordinate. Central directions at the
highest level ensure that there is no dissipation or duplication of effort no any danger of false
confirmation.
2. Continuity
The flow of information must be continuous to enable intelligence staff to form a
progressively complete picture of the enemy situation. Not blind gap in the supply of
information.
3. Co-operation
Troops in contact with the enemy are the main collectors of information in war. So
Intelligence needs co-operation.
4. Accuracy (Integrity)
Intelligence must be honest:
 Reporting must be objective.
 Fact as seen must reported.
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 Reports must not be tailored the originate in an attempt to seek agreeable and
acceptance by the recipient. Reports not garnished or exaggerated.
5. Logical Reasoning
Facts must be presented as they are and they should speak for themselves. Deduction made
should be logical and based on entirely on facts co-operative facts collected before reaching a
firm collection.
6. Timeliness
Intelligence must be available when the commander requires it. Late intelligence is as useless
as no intelligence. Timely intelligence enables the commander to anticipate events in the
operational area. This enables the commander to time operations for maximum effectiveness
and to avoid being surprised. However good the intelligence may be it is no value unless if it
has been produced in time for the recipient to act on it.
7. Protection of sources
Educates precaution must be taken to protect certain sources. For example civilian source in
to enemy or occupied territory or they may be compromised and their value last.
8. The Need to Know
This is essentially a security principle. It demands that information may not be passed to
those who really need to know it for the performance of their duties. No one need by given
classified information until the need to know has been established.
9. Intelligence Must be passed Through Intelligence Channel

Intelligence staff has all the available information at their disposal and are therefore, in the
best position to assess the merits of specific items. Therefore that information must be
passing through intelligence channels in order to avoid distorted view being presents by these
who only have a part of information.
Exercise
1. List and explain principle of intelligence?
2. What do you understand from the principles of the need to know terms?
8.5 Intelligence Cycle
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Intelligence cycle is the process by which information is converted into intelligence and
made available to users. Defense users include the Secretary of Defense, Chiefs of Staff,
combatant commanders and all other commanders and forces.
The intelligence cycle has the following five steps:-
1. Planning and direction
2. Collection
3. Processing
4. Analysis
5. Dissemination
The intelligence cycle is highly simplified model of intelligence operation in terms of
processes. As a model, it is important to note that intelligence action do not always follow
sequentially through the cycle. It is important to recognize the clear and critical distinction
between information and intelligence. Information is a data that have been collected but not
further developed through analysis, interpretation, or correlation with other data into
intelligence.
PLANNING &DIRECTION
2. COLLECTION
5. DISSEMINATION
MISSION
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1. Planning and direction Phase: Intelligence gap as stated earlier, after receiving the
mission the first important step for the commander and his staff is to decide the
intelligence gap. The intelligence gap is worded in question form to cover a tactical
situation we use words like “when” “where” and “in what strength” either singly or
combination. The plan should be related to own commanders mission.
2. Collection Phase: During the collection phase, those intelligence sources collect
information about the adversary. The collected information is provided to processing and
exploitation elements. Intelligence sources are means or systems used to observe sense
and record or convey information of conditions, situations and events. Cover and overt
form of collecting raw information.
3. Processing: During this phase, raw information is converted to forms that can be readily
used by intelligence analysts in the production phase. Processing action include initial
interpretation, data conversion and correlation document translation and decryption.
4. Analysis Phase: This is the most critical phase of the intelligence cycle. During analysis
phase all available processed information is integrated, analyzed, evaluated and interpreted
to create products that will satisfy the commanders. Intelligence products can be presented
in many forms. They may be oral presentations, hard copy publications or electronic
media.
5. Dissemination Phase: During this phase, intelligence is delivered to and used by the
consumer or policy maker. Dissemination can be by a variety of means. This means must
be determined by the needs of the user:
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 Briefings
 Video Teleconference
 Telephone Calles
 Fax transmission e.t.c.
Exercise
1. What do you think the importance of intelligence cycle? Please explain it.
2. Could you brief the dissemination means?
8.6 The role of military intelligence during conventional war

Military intelligence is used in conventional war, insurgency and counter insurgency.
The importance of intelligence during conventional war:
 It uses for early warning.
 To ensure combat readiness.
 It uses for as a base of training.
 Uses to plane and conduct the combat
 Support national and regional crisis management.
 Protect secrets, both their own sources and activities, and those of other state
agencies.
 provide long term expertise
8.7 The importance(role) of intelligence during counter insurgency operation
A. It uses to know the base of insurgents.
B. To separate the insurgents from the society and destroy them.
C. To identify the neighboring country’s border that can be the base of the insurgency.
Exercise
1. How do you evaluate the importance of intelligence during conventional war,
insurgency and counter insurgency? Explain it.
Summary
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Intelligence is the product resulting from the collecting and processing of information
concerning actual and potential situations and conditions relating to domestic and foreign
activities. Intelligence play in full –dimensional operation cannot be overstated. Intelligence
is very vital during convictional and non-convictional operation. So as it needs highly
attention
Assessment questions
1. Briefly explain the following types of intelligence.
 Economic intelligence.
 Military intelligence.
 Topographic intelligence.
2. Describe the difference between counter intelligence and attack intelligence.
3. list and explain the level of intelligence.
4. Describe the principles of intelligence.
CHAPTER NINE
FUNDAMENTALS OF RECONNAISSANCE
Content page
Introduction 119
9.1 Definition of Reconnaissance 120
9.2 Significance of Reconnaissance 121
9.3 Objective/Aim/ Of Reconnaissance 121
9.4 Mission of Reconnaissance 122
9.5 Level of Reconnaissance 123
9.6 Types of Reconnaissance 124
9.7 Principles of Reconnaissance 130
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9.8 The Behaviors which are Expected by Reconnaissance Soldier 132

9.9 The Strength of Reconnaissance Forces and Weapons 132
Summary 133
Introduction
Dear officer cadet, Military intelligence is created with history of war and to plan for war. In
order to master war, the character of enemy forces should be known and studied. One of the
elements which is concerning in collecting information is reconnaissance. So, reconnaissance
provides information concerning the disposition of enemy forces. This chapter covers
meaning and significance of reconnaissance, objective of reconnaissance, mission of
reconnaissance type of reconnaissance, principle of reconnaissance and other essential points
for this level. The chapter also contain question and check points that leads you understand
each sub topic in the chapter.
Objectives
After completing this course, you will able to:
 Understand the fundamental concepts of reconnaissance.
 Implement the mission and principles of reconnaissance.
 Select professional members during organization of reconnaissance.
 Execute reconnaissance mission indifferent land features and weather condition.
Dear officer cadet, before you are going to discuss directly about the Definition and type of
reconnaissance, principle of reconnaissance, the importance of reconnaissance in different
combat situation, let us do the following activities with practical experience. Doing this
activity will help you clearly understand what reconnaissance, mean.
Activities Allow 10 minutes

1. What do you know about reconnaissance?
2. What do you think the significance of reconnaissance?
3. What are the objectives of reconnaissance unites?
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9.1 Definition of reconnaissance

Reconnaissance is an examination or survey of ground or specific locations in order to plan
an operation. One of the Reconnaissance fundamentals is to orient (establish) exact location
of an object. Reconnaissance is one of the branches of intelligence which conducts
reconnaissance using different equipment on the ground, in space and at sea (ocean).
Reconnaissance reconnoiters
 Potential and probable enemy.
 Terrain and weather condition.
 Civil societies.
9.2 Significance of reconnaissance
a. For planning and leading an operation:
This means, reconnaissance units filtrate information those which are no filtered and needs to
be filtered then gives information to friendly forces, to protect friendly troops from enemy
surprising. This means reconnaissance groups save friendly troops from surprising enemy
attack and continues follow up enemy action and activities.
b. Infiltrate in to enemy rear to destroy key enemy infrastructures
This means, reconnaissance group infiltrates into enemy rear position launches an assault to
 Key economy (supply) points.
 Communications lines such as, bridges, telecommunication and hydropower points.
In order to harass the enemy, reconnaissance conducts sabotage behind enemy position.
Exercise
1. Explain the significance of reconnaissance.
9.3 The reconnaissance Objective (aim)
Reconnaissance objectives are objectives that needs to be given due considerations (priority)
by friendly forces to be attacked in order to loss enemy capabilities. Objectives of
reconnaissance are the following:
 Point target
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 Concentrated or area targets

 Linear targets
Point target
Point target is a unique target among others. Such kind of target is to be selected/preferable/
for sabotage and jamming. For example
I. PKM machine gun crew.
II. Observation post.
III. Outpost (guard).
IV. Regiment and company supply and crew weapon dispositions.
V. Transportation and communication lines such as rail ways,
hydroelectric powers, telecommunication etc…
Concentrated or area targets
This kind of target is found at specific area. Such targets are suitable to destroy using surprise
air strike and heavy weapons. Example Tank units, Artillery batteries, Logistics point,
Reserve force, Command posts and military bases
Linear targets
These types of target include all targets which the enemy occupies at his area of operation.
Linear targets are analyzed when we need to take offensive action .For example first echelon,
conveys, minefields and obstacles, key military terrain.
Exercise
1. Why we select the above three pointes as reconnaissance objective?
9.4 Mission of reconnaissance
Mission of reconnaissance is determined by combat character and situation. Based on this, the
reconnaissance group should accomplish the following missions.-Identifying the enemy’s
center of gravity, Avenues of approach, main attack direction and others. Therefore,
reconnaissance provides accurate and reliable information to the commander. The following
are some of the main mission of reconnaissance:
9.4.1 Mission of reconnaissance at conventional combat(war)
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 Collect information about general situation of enemy forces, terrain, civil

society and other current issues
 Conduct sabotage activities: destroy or demolish enemy key infrastructures,
raid and kidnap enemy commanders, important information, harass the enemy
in depth
 Conduct security guard: keep and protect important infrastructure
/organizations/, safeguard leader’s /VIP/, governmental persons
9.4.2 Reconnaissance mission in counter insurgency combat
First identify and analysis the initial place, insurgent bases either inland or at border.
 Study the objective, intent and organization of the insurgents
 Keep and control the areas expected to be sabotaged by insurgents
 Destroy the insurgents at the lowest level.
Exercise
1. What is the mission of reconnaissance during conventional war?
2. Is that possible to accomplish our mission without reconnaissance?
9.5 level of reconnaissance
Reconnaissance units can be categorized into three levels
 Strategic level of reconnaissance.
 Operational level of reconnaissance.
 Tactical level of reconnaissance.
A. Strategic level of reconnaissance: are organized at national level and supports the
strategic leaders. They are well equipped, skillful and well trained. They are professional
on their field of study. These units conduct reconnaissance on the ground, in the space
and on the sea.
B. Operational level of reconnaissance: this is concerned with operational level of
reconnaissance. They collect vital information and support corps and division
commanders.
C. Tactical level of reconnaissance: similar to the operational level, they are engaged in
collecting information and support company and regiment level commanders.
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Exercise
1. Can you mention types of reconnaissance? What are they?
9.6 Types of reconnaissance:
The types of reconnaissance are varied according to the nature of reconnaissance, type of
equipment /devices/ and organization. In general, reconnaissance can be classified into ten.
1. Ground reconnaissance.
2. Artillery reconnaissance.
3. Radio and electronic reconnaissance.
4. Engineer reconnaissance.
5. NBC (nuclear, biological and chemical) reconnaissance.
6. Marine/Sea/ reconnaissance.
7. Air reconnaissance.
8. Satellite reconnaissance.
9. Special reconnaissance.
10. Rader reconnaissance.
1. Ground reconnaissance: Ground reconnaissance is most conducted by using vehicles and on

foot. These types of reconnaissance accomplished all activities using different
reconnaissance materials and equipment and are organized under armed forces.
Pic 2.1 Ground reconnaissance
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There are two parts of ground reconnaissance, these are:

 Infantry reconnaissance: is organized under infantry units to accomplish
reconnaissance tasks by using different methods especially enemy situation,
weather and civil societies.
 Vehicles reconnaissance: it is part of reconnaissance units which are engaged in
collected information by using military vehicles.
2. Artillery reconnaissance:-Artillery reconnaissance is conducted by artillery units assigning
their OP (Observation Post) in controlling enemy activities and corrected fire/shells/ in order
to destroy enemy targets.
Pic.2.2 Artillery reconnaissance
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3. Radio reconnaissance: This is a broad task of reconnaissance and high sensitive work of
operations because radio and radio electronic reconnaissance is conducted using radio and
radio electronic devices. It helps to control all enemy activities, messages which transmit
from top to bottom, especially using RDF (radio direction finder) which is an important
device for this purpose.
Pic 2.3 Radio reconnaissance

4. Engineering reconnaissance: Engineering reconnaissance units collect information on how
the terrain affects the movement of enemy and friendly forces. It also deals with the tactical
characteristics, strength, and weakness of man-made and natural obstacles, the pass ability
of terrain, the ability of roads to carry and bridges to pass, the amount, quality and the place
where stream water is found, the movement and effect of enemy engineering reconnaissance
units.
2.4 Engineering reconnaissance
5. NBC (nuclear, biological and chemical) reconnaissance: The NBC teams can determine the
presence and absence of nuclear, biological and radiological contamination and the extent
that contamination before they harm friendly forces. They wear NBC suit and use NBC
reconnaissance equipment’s to determine these chemicals on the ground and on the
environmental air.
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Pic2.5 NBC reconnaissance
6. Air reconnaissance: Air reconnaissance is conducted by air craft’s and airplane using their
optics, videos, photo images, and communication capabilities to detect the movement `and
effect of enemy forces on friendly forces.
 Air reconnaissance is also conducted using scout and attack helicopters and they can
destroy enemy targets. They have especial photo camera attached and can provide
direct air photograph about the disposition and movement of enemy forces. .
7. Marine reconnaissance: This type of reconnaissance is conducted in seas, oceans and other
water bodies using very fast boats, submarines, air craft carrier ships and torpedo to gain
information about enemy marine force and effects of enemy marine reconnaissance.
Pic2.6Marine reconnaissance
8. Special reconnaissance: This is conducted by special reconnaissance units which have taken
a special training indifferent aspects collecting information. These reconnaissance unit
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members are physically fit, skillful hand by hand fighting, who can sustain without food by
eating available leaves and whatever, have expert knowledge in demining, are special
commando as well as airborne.
2.7 Special reconnaissance:
9. Satellite reconnaissance: The continuous development of science and technology makes the
military worked use new invented weapons and this in turn, enables the modern war to
develop rapidly and momentary. Developed nations are using very speedy vehicles, ships,
air craft’s instead of moving on foot. This enables them to control and to arrive extremely
far distance in a very short period of time. Satellite reconnaissance is one that can survey the
world to collect information of the world. It can provide information of the ground, space,
and the sea.
Pic2.8Satellite reconnaissance
10. Radar reconnaissance: This type of reconnaissance enables us to know and control key
enemy targets. It can show us enemy targets on the ground, space (air) and in the sea.
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Radar reconnaissance can be divided in to three:
 Air target indicators radar reconnaissance: this type of radar is designed to

indicate air craft’s. This type of radar is available in air force, air defender, and
antiaircraft units to indicate air targets, the direction, distance and altitude in which
the target is found, indicates the speed of flight and type of target.
 Ground target indicator radar reconnaissance:- this type of radar reconnaissance
is conducted using light radar station and can indicate fixed and movable targets.
 Artillery, mortars, and launcher weapons, enemy radio technique equipment
indicator: This type of reconnaissance is found in artillery units.
2.9 radar reconnaissance
Exercise
1. Discus types of radar reconnaissance and its function.
2. Based on the first question, list the advantage of it.
9.7 Principle of reconnaissance:

The following are the principles of reconnaissance.
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a. Selective troops (professionals).

b. Continuity.
c. Commitment.
d. Up to date (current) information.
e. Secret.
f. Reliability.
g. Security.
h. Economy of forces.
i. Selection of aim (objective).
A. Selective personnel (professionals): Those who are engaged in reconnaissance mission
should be selected. The way selection depends up on the mission, the distance where the
mission is conducted, the ability and tactical capability of enemy forces, the ground and
weather condition.
B. Continuity: The task of reconnaissance is conducted during anytime and anywhere unless
otherwise the enemy is dismissed our friendly force. It is a continuous task which can be
performed in all weather conditions, in any type’s terrain and in types of battle fields.
C. Commitment: Individual who are engaged in reconnaissance mission are evaluated their
degree commitments. The mission of reconnaissance demands the scarification of life.
D. Up to date (recent): All information collected about enemy forces should be reported to the
concerned body recently. If relevant information is found, it should be reported on time
because in modern war, things are changed in every second if not, it will be useless.
E. Secret (stealthy): The mission of reconnaissance is successful only when they are kept
secret. As we need to gain enemy information, the enemy in turn, attempt to collect
information about us.
F. Reliable (trustworthy): This is one of the most important principles of reconnaissance.
Unreliable and undependable information leads own force in to failure because a unit
commander cannot make a decision without reliable information.
G. Security: Reconnaissance members are must be protected from any enemy attack and not to
fall in under enemy forces. So a special unit should be tasked to protect the group.
130 Combat Support

H. Economy forces: There should be an economy of reconnaissance forces. The unit

commander should bear in mind during giving the order of reconnaissance that not all
reconnaissance members are to be sent. At least one-third should keep with him on.
I. Selection of aim (objective): Since the selection of aim/objective/ is one of the principles
that can determine the execution of reconnaissance, the reconnaissance groups should
know the approach route, the reference points which are found near the objective, the
direction, man-made and natural obstacles, the route in and route out to the objective
during the collection of information about the ground, enemy situation and other things.
Exercise
1. Explain what mean economy of force from your point of view?
2. Justify what that means up -to date reconnaissance based of principle of
reconnaissance.
9.8 The behaviors which are expected from reconnaissance soldier.
A reconnaissance soldier is one who is trained in the execution of reconnaissance, skillful in
using reconnaissance equipment’s, able to use the ground for the execution of military
mission, has a good ability of using his sense and reports to the concerned body what he
observes.
The reconnaissance soldier should know his mission carefully that is why he is assigned to
collect information about the strength of enemy troops, their battle formation, equipment and
weapon, and should be certain in these information. While they are selected, the criteria
should be good discipline and good academic performance, good creativity, initiative, honest
and intelligent. The following are some of the points that should fulfill by reconnaissance
soldier:-
1. Physical fitness.
2. Efficient under stress.
3. Healthy sense organs (can hear and see very well).
4. Skillful in hand to hand fighting.
5. Able to command have courage.
6. Self-confidence.
131 Combat Support

9.9 The strength of reconnaissance forces and weapons:-

The strength of reconnaissance forces in different units is determined by the decision of
those units. The reconnaissance in regiment/battalion/ and above are organized to collect
information, to launch a sabotage action if necessary and to conduct guard duty. These forces
should be trained in reconnaissance, prepared for that mission and should be equipped with
reconnaissance equipment’s, binoculars, special reconnaissance vision aid, compass, radio
communication, map, vehicle, hand grenades and sniper weapons.
Exercise
1. Can you explain the behaviors which are expected from one reconnaissance solider?
2. Why the soldier who select for reconnaissance needs to fulfill healthy sense organ.
9.10 Method of reconnaissance:-

The methods of reconnaissance are the ways or art of collecting information. Methods of
reconnaissance mean the system the agent of information uses to collect information. There
are two method of reconnaissance.
1. Collecting information without enemy contact ( combat)
 By observation and listening.
 By asking people.
 By search , radio and telephone jamming
 By capturing.
2. Collecting information with enemy contact/combat
 By ambush.
 By raid.
 By fighting reconnaissance.
Exercise
1. When we are out of enemy contact what method of reconnaissance should apply
to gather information.
132 Combat Support
2. Why we need to conducted reconnaissance?

3. What do you think about the effectiveness of method of reconnaissance?
Summary
Reconnaissance is an examination or survey of ground or specific locations in order to plan
an operation. One of the Reconnaissance fundamentals is to orient (establish) exact location
of an object. Type of weapons the enemy is equipped with Combat formation, battle field
area, and weather condition Sociopolitical and economical condition of the society.
Reconnaissance is one of the branches of intelligence which conducts reconnaissance using
different equipment on the ground, in space and sea. Reconnaissance reconnoiters potential
and probable enemy, terrain and weather condition and civil societies.
1. List the objective of reconnaissance
2. Explain the behaviors which are expected from reconnaissance soldiers.
3. A part of reconnaissance units which are engage in collected information by using
military vehicles called -------------------------------------------.
133 Combat Support

CHAPTER TEN
SECURITY
Contents page
Introduction 134
10.1 Definition of Security
136
10.2 Subversive Espionage and Sabotage
136
10.3 Breaches of Security Regulation 138
10.4 Parts of Military Security 138
Introduction
Dear officer cadet, this section outlines that threat to own security and suggests principal
security measure which should be taken among the armed force as well as some of those
required to be enforced among the civil population in an operation area. In this chapter
covered parts of military security, security of information, security of material, security of
personnel and breaches of security regulation. Those pointes are very essential for military
operation. The chapter includes questions and check pointes that leads to you gain essential
knowledge from each sub topic.
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will able to:-
 Elaborate the definition of security
 Explain the importance of security
 Maintain military security
 Describe the difference between subversive espionage and sabotage.
134 Combat Support

Dear officer cadet, before you are going to discuss directly about the Definition of
security, parts of military security, information security, security of material ,security of
personnel and breaches of security regulation ,let us do the following activities with
practical experience. Doing the following activity will help you clearly understand what
security means.
Activities Allow 10 minutes.

1. What is security? From your experience
2. What do you thing if security is performing in proper manner? If
not?
3. Do you know the terms subversion, espionage and sabotage?
Explain them
10.1 . Definition of Security

The state of being protected or safe from harm.
Security is measures taken by a military unit, activity, or installation to protect itself
against all acts designed to, or which may, impair its effectiveness.
National security is a part of national defense. A nation has to defend itself against sabotage
espionage and sub version. Complete security should, therefore include military security
basically focuses the following:-
Counter Intelligence
It is that aspect of intelligence covering all measures taken to prevent, detect and neutralize
hostile activities directed towards information, personnel, material and thus ensuring the
security of the state and its armed forces.
Information security
135 Combat Support

The protection and defense of information and information systems against unauthorized
access or modification of information, whether in storage, processing, or transit, and against
the denial of service to authorized users. Information security includes those measures:-
 Necessary to detect.
 Document and counter such threats.
 Ways of information is exploited.
10.2 Definition of Subversion, Espionage and Sabotage

The threat to security can be considered less than three headings, subversion, espionage and
sabotage.
Subversion: is the act or attempt act of diverting a person’s loyalty in the interest of a
foreign power or dissident organization.
In peace and war the intention behind subversive activity is to weaken the will of the people
including its armed forces and their confidence in the government. This is attempted through
agitation, propaganda and information. Enemy agents and sympathizers and members of
extremist political parties, are employed to conduct various subversive activities. Such
activities Include infiltration in to civil and military organization to spread subversive
influences, dissemination of subversive literature , delivering subversive speeches and broad
casts, spreading of ramous and sponsoring agitation.
Espionage: is the covert clandestine means by which countries, organization, or individual
acquire or attempt to acquire information affecting the national interest, to which they are
not entitled.
Exercise
1. What do you mean subversion?
The places where information be exploited
Places where information is easily and mostly be exposed for enemy spies are:-
 Mass population
136 Combat Support

 Hospitals
 Market places
 Transportation means
 Sport fields and other entertainment areas
Sabotage: Sabotage is a covert act (falling short of military operation) which is intended to
cause physical damage and to further the interests of a foreign power or a subversive
political organization.
Enemy’s Intelligence Targets
The enemy’s main intelligence targets are as follows:
 The composition, strength, dispositions, armaments, equipment, sate of

 Training and morale of friendly forces.
 The role and employment of these forces.
 The names, characteristics and intentions of our commanders.
 Details of the organization, administration, signal communications and the sources and
methods of supply and reinforcement of our forces.
 Details of our bases and the state of communications.
 Developments in tactics, armament and equipment.
 Details of our security measures.
 Topographical information about territories under own control.
 Details of our intelligence organization, methods and personnel
Exercise
1. What are the enemy intelligence targets?
10.3 Breaches of security regulation;

The spy, saboteur or person intent on subversion may be assisted by our own breaches of
security regulation. Breaches occur due to a variety of reasons which includes:
137 Combat Support

 Carelessness.
 Vanity.
 Though lessens.
 Insobriety.
 Gossip or negligence.
10.4 Parts of military security
Military security is divided in to three parts
A. Security of information. The defense against espionage.
B. Security of Material. The defense against sabotage.
C. Security of Personal. The defense against subversion.
A. Security of information
The best defense is to keep a guard on ones tongue and adhere strictly to the regulation and
instructions laid down for the protection of classified documents.
Guidance is given in ‘classification and handling of classified documents rules and
regulations of countries.
B. Security of material
Unites are responsible for checking that measures are taken to guard against sabotage of
material on their change. Unit’s security standing orders must be explicit, relevant,
comprehensive and practicable and must be under stood by everyone. They must be
reinforced by good physical security measures which must be inspected frequently and by
one efficient pass system.
C. Securities of personnel
Promote awareness and personal resistance amongst own troops by intensive security
training. This is essentially the duty of unit commander assisted by his security officer.
Inculcate, by education and training, an effective resistance in men to dangerous influences,
such as enemy propaganda spread by rumor, radio leaflets, pamphlets or civilians. It must be
realized that suitable measure against enemy propaganda are of vital importance and most
energetic action is necessary. Undesirable soldiers who are either intentionally or
unwittingly, subversive must be kept under observation. Their cases should be handled
personally between the commanding officer and the intelligence staff.
Counter measures-military security
138 Combat Support

Military security is a combination of the following controls which are complementary one to
another. But no one means is effective on its own.
 Orders and instruction.
 Physical security measure. Eg. Locks, fences, grades
 Checking of service and civilian person, when necessary.
Exercise
1. Explain the difference between security of information, security of material and
security of personnel.
A. Staff
The intelligence staff, General Staff (intelligence), is responsible for the advice on security
policy to the commander and staff officers of a formation.
The senior General Staff officer should supervise and insist on the following:-
 Ensure that security orders issued by the intelligence staff are practical and necessary.
 Ensure that security training takes s place in all military training.
 Seek the cooperation of commanders and insist on compliance of security units.
 Every military establishment is responsible for its own security.
 Commanders must appoint unit security officers who are normally the seconds-in-
command instructions and orders by staff officers and all ranks
The following are the principal duties of unit security officers:

 See that every officer and man is alive to his individual responsibility.
 Draw up the unit security standing orders and ensure their implementation.
 Recommend what physical security measures should be introduced.
 At periodical intervals all unit security officers should be assembled by the senior
intelligence officer for briefing and laying down general guidelines regarding security.
B. Censor ship.
The aim of all censorship is to prevent leakage of information which could be used to the
enemy for his propaganda purposes or of help to him in his operation. This censorship is
applied to all channels of communications through which such leakage could occur.
139 Combat Support

1. Censorship is carried out at two levels. These are:

a. National Censorship: This is an exercise of a government’s right to examine all
communications and publications in the interest of national defense and or public safety, and
to subsequently modify or dispose them off in a manner best suited to further these interests.
b. Military Censorship: This censorship is applied to all agencies through which leakage of
information may occur.
Exercise
1. Explain the difference between national and military censorship.
Summary
Security is every body’s business. It can’t suddenly be imposed. Troops must be trained in it
during peace time. All security measures require time and patient effort to make work, and
immediate results are seldom apparent. Security measures are irksome and unpopular.
However, be based on common sense and troops must be educated in the reason for them.
1. List a place which are information is easily and mostly exposed for enemy spies.
2. The act or attempted act of diverting a person’s loyalty in interest of a foreign
power or dissident organization called ---------------------------------------------.
3. The best defense is to keep a guard ones tongue adhere strictly to the regulation and
instruction laid down for the protection of classified documents are known as------.
140 Combat Support

Glossary
Alternating Current (AC). Current that is continually changing in magnitude and
periodically in direction from a zero reference level.
Amplification: The process of increasing the strength (current, voltage, or power) of a
signal.
Amplifier: A device using an electron tube, transistor, magnetic unit, or other
amplifying component that increases the strength of the input signal.
Antenna: A device used to radiate or receive electromagnetic energy (generally RF).
Audible: Capable of being heard.
Authentication: A security measure designed to protect a communication system
against fraudulent messages.
Azimuth: An angle measured in a horizontal plane from a known reference point.
Band: A range of frequencies between two definite limits.
Call: It identifies the station making the transmission and indicates the station with which
it wants to communicate. For example, Alpha for Bravo.
Call Signs: Call signs are used in radio communications to identify a communications
facility, a command, an authority, or a unit.
Channel: An assigned band of frequencies for a radio or television over which
transmissions can be made from one station to another.
Command Post (CP): The headquarters of a unit or subunit where the commander and
staff perform their functions.
141 Combat Support

Communications Center: A communications agency charged with the responsibility for

receipt, transmission, and delivery of messages. It normally includes a message center, a
crypto-center, transmitting facilities, and receiving facilities.
Communication Security: The protection resulting from all measures designed to deny
to unauthorized persons information of value which might be derived from a study of
communications.
Continuous Waves (CW): Radio waves having constant amplitude and a constant
frequency.
Code: A secret representation of plain language for use in RT or messages.
Code Sign: It is a secret and executive group of three letters designed to conceal the
identity of a formation or unit during transmission. These should be changed daily. For
example, code sign designated to 12 infantry regiment may be ABC; for 14 infantry
Regiment may be DEF etc.
Code Word: A pre-arranged secret single word used to provide security cover to a
particular classified matter. For example, code word for ‘Guns’ may be arranged as
‘Straw’; code word for ‘Grenade’ may be arranged as ‘Potato’ etc.
Control Station: The station which controls the working of the net.
Direct Current (DC): An electrical current that flows in one direction.
Directional Antenna: An antenna designed to transmit and receive RF energy in a
specific direction(s).
Duplex: Duplex (or full duplex) operation refers to communications between two points,
in both directions simultaneously.
Electromagnetic Field: The field of force that an electrical current produces around the
conductor through which it flows.
Electromagnetic Wave: A wave propagating as a periodic disturbance of the
electromagnetic field and having a frequency in the electromagnetic spectrum.
Facsimile: A system of radio or wire communications by which still pictures,
illustrations, maps, or printed pages are transmitted and received.
Feedback: Returning a portion of the output of a circuit to its input. Negative (out-of-
phase) feedback reduces gain and distortion. Positive (in-phase) feedback increases gain
and can produce oscillation, both acoustical and electrical.
142 Combat Support

Frequency: The number of complete cycles repeated in a given period, usually per
second.
Full-Duplex: Telegraph or signaling circuits arranged for transmission in both directions
at the same time
Ground Wave: A radio wave that travels along the Earth's surface rather than through
the upper atmosphere.
Hertz (Hz): The standard term used to state frequency. One hertz is the same as one
cycle per second.
Interference: Any undesired signal that tends to interfere with the desired signal.
Ionosphere: Highly ionized layers of atmosphere existing between the altitudes of
approximately 48 to 402 kilometers.
Jamming: Deliberate interference intended to prevent reception of signals in a specific
frequency band.
Link sign: A secret group of letters or letters and figures that identifies a link and is used
in calling and answering calls. For example, ABC or DEF1 or FGH2A.
Message: Any thought or idea expressed in brief form or in plain or secret language and
prepared in a form suitable for transmission by any means of communication.
Multiple Calls: A calls in which two or more station (but not all) of the radio net are
addressed.
Net: Two or more radio station working on the same frequency.
Net call: A call in which the calling station addresses all the other stations on the net.
Outstation: Any station on the net other than the control station.
Phonetic Alphabet: Special phonetic names given to the letters of the alphabet so as to
make them distinguishable from others during RT.
Propagation: The travel of electromagnetic waves through space or along a transmission
line.
Radio Channel: A band of adjacent frequencies having sufficient width to permit its use
for radio communication.
Radio Frequency (RF): Any frequency of electrical energy capable of propagation into
space. It is usually above 20 kHz.
143 Combat Support

Radio Wave: Electromagnetic waves at a frequency lower than 3000 GHz and
propagated through space without an artificial guide.
Reflection: The turning back of a radio wave from an object or the surface of the Earth.
Refraction: The bending, or change in direction, of a radio wave passing into a layer of
atmosphere or the ionosphere.
Relay: A transmission forwarded through an intermediate station.
Transmitter: A radio transmitter is a piece of equipment that generates and amplifies a
radio frequency signal, adds intelligence to this signal, and then sends it out into the air as
a radio frequency wave.
Wave Propagation: The transmission of RF energy through space.
APPENDICES
Appendix A
Standard Phrases Used in Radio Telephony Procedures (PROWORDS) and
associated meanings
Proword Meaning
(a) Used to identify part of message after a given catch word.
ALL AFTER/ALL (b) When asking for repetitions or verifications.
BEFORE (c) In conjunction with the phrase “WRONG” when correcting
a mistake in a message which has just been read back.
Used in authentication procedure by the challenging station and
CHALLENGE
also by the challenged station in the counterchallenge.
The ‘radio name’ of a person or station. (Usually composed of
CODE SIGN/
letters and numbers, e.g. A21 (pronounced “Alpha Two One”).
CALLSIGN
Actual names of people or organizations are not used.)
CANCEL Used when sender wishes to cancel a message.
Normally used before every figure or group of figures sent by
FIGURES
RT except link sign, grid reference of fire orders.
FOR (MESSAGE Included in the call by an outstation when sending a message to
FOR) another outstation.
144 Combat Support

Used in order to identify part of a message when asking for

FROM….TO
verification or repetition.
GRID
Used before any grid reference is sent in clear.
REFERENCE
I am calling (then insert the call sign of the person or station
HELLO
you are calling)
FOR Used when relaying a message, to indicate the originator.
(a) Reception is satisfactory.
OK
(b) I am ready to receive your message, carry on.
My transmission has ended and I do not expect you to make
OUT
further transmission on this subject. Other station may transmit.
I have finished with you and I am about to call another station.
OUT TO YOU
No reply is expected from you.
My transmission has ended and I expect to hear a further
OVER
transmission from you on this subject.
THIS IS My call sign is…
I SAY AGAIN I am repeating what I have just transmitted
READ BACK Please read back this entire transmission exactly as you heard it
RELAY A station advising an originator the most suitable station
THROUGH through which to relay.
Used by control or any station when instructing another station
RELAY TO
to relay a message.
Used by the receiver to obtain a complete repetition of a
SAY AGAIN
transmission.
Used when spelling a word, an abbreviation, a letter or a series
I SPELL
of letters.
ROGER I understand what you have just said
Give a receipt for what has been sent so far. (Used in
ROGER SO FAR
transmission of a long message).
145 Combat Support

WILCO Message received, understood and will be complied with.

Pass your message to me, I will clear it. May be used by the
THROUGH ME
control when an outstation offers a message to another station.
SEND Please send your message.
OVER This is the end of my transmission and I expect you to reply.
This is the end of my transmission and I do not expect you to
OUT
reply. (“OVER AND OUT” is never used.)
I must pause for a few seconds. Please wait. (Other users
WAIT
should not use the radio channel in the meantime.)
I must pause longer than a few seconds; I will call you back.
WAIT OUT
(Other users can use the radio channel in the meantime.)
CORRECT What you have just transmitted is correct.
WRONG What you have just transmitted is incorrect
What I have just transmitted is incorrect – and the correct
CORRECTION
version is…
This is an emergency and I need to interrupt a radio
BREAK – BREAK
conversation to send my message.
Normally used by control station when calling for report of his
REPRT SIGNALS
signal from other stations or the net.
REPORT SIGNAL Used by control to ascertain the signal strength at which the
STRENGTH outstations hear each other.
STRENGTH FIVE Signals very good, perfectly readable
STRENGTH FOUR Signals good, readable
STRENGTH
Signals fairly good, readable but with little difficulty.
THREE
STRENGTH TWO Signals weak, readable now and then.
Signals very weak, not readable. RT communication
STRENGTH ONE
impassable.
146 Combat Support

Appendix B
List of Phonetic Alphabets
A ALFA
B BRAVO
CHARLI
C
E
D DELTA
E ECHO
FOXTRO
F
T
G GOLF
H HOTEL
I INDIA
J JULIET
K KILO
L LIMA
M MIKE
NOVEM
N
BER
O OSCAR
P PAPPA
Q QUEBEC
R ROMEO
S SIERRA
T TANGO
U UNIFOR
147 Combat Support

M
V VICTOR
W WHISKY
X X-RAY
YANKE
Y
E
Z ZULU
Appendix C
Number pronunciation guide
Numera Spoken Numeral Spoken

l As As
0 ZE RO 5 FIF
E
1 WUN 6 SIX
2 TOO 7 SEV
EN
3 TREE 8 AIT
4 FOW 9 NIN
ER ER
148 Combat Support

Reference
 MoND (1995). Combat Engineering (Amharic edition).A.A: Training Main
Department.
 MoND(1993). Land mines learning material (Amharic version).AA: Department of
combat engineering.
 MoND(1990). Military explosive and demolition (Amharic version) AA: Department of
combat engineering.
 CPLA (1998). Engineering and communication techniques. Shijiazhuang:
Shijiazhuang army Academy.
 MoND (2001 E.C). Regiment Field Manual Amharic Version. Addis Ababa.
 Cpt Chekol G/Kiros (2003 E.C.), Joint Military Staff College, Faculty of Information
and Communication. Mekele.
 MCWP 2-25 (2015). Ground Reconnaissance Operations. Washington DC.
 FM 3-20.98 (2009). Reconnaissance and Scout Platoon. Washington DC.
 FM 3-36 (2009). Electronic Warfare in Operations. Washington DC.
 FM 34-40-7 (1992). Communications Jamming Handbook. Washington DC.
 Combat intelligence may (2006) Defense services staff college: wellington
 Tactical Reconnaissance (2007) Military intelligence: Mekelle
149 Combat Support

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M/G/H/A/M/Academy Tactics Department February 2016

INTRODUCTION TO COMBAT SUPPORT

This course focuses on combat support in the area of combat engineering,

Chapter One: Mission of Combat Engineer and Military Explosive 6

Chapter Two: Fortification and Camouflage 19

Chapter Three: Land Mine 33

Chapter Four: Engineering Reconnaissance and Tactical River Crossing 45

Chapter Six: Introduction to Radio Communication Equipment 74

Chapter Seven: Role of Radio Communication in Different Combat Situation 81

Chapter Two: Fortification and Camouflage 19

1.1 Mission of Combat Engineer

3. Survivability operations: Combat engineering survivability capabilities and activities

 Construction, maintenance and repair of road.

1.2. Military Explosives

We use to construct infrastructure for development purpose for military duties.

a. TNT (Trinitron Toluene)

Characteristics: composition C4 is plastic explosive with a detonating velocity greater than of

Easily shaping Composition c3 Composition c4 packed

d. Cratering Charge (Ammonium nitrate)

1.2.5. Firing equipment

1.2.6. Military Targets

Activity Take about 5 minutes

2.1 Definition of Fortification

2.3. Establishing Defensive position

2.4. Materials for constructing fortification

To make covered block house it needs:

b. Hand materials to prepare fortification

According to their use fortifications are classified in to 7. Those are:-

a. Individual block house.

a. Individual block house

 Time for preparation------------------------------1.20hour.

 Time for preparation---------------------------1:30hour

e. Command and observation fortification

2.6 Definition and Principles of Camouflage

Activity Take about 5 minutes

2.6.1 Definition of camouflage

 Identify types of mine field.

Activity Take about 8 minutes

3.1 Types of Mine Field

A. Anti-Personnel Land Mine

 Total weight 0.099kg.

 Powder charged TNT-----------0.715kg.

 Powder charge----1.62kg tetrytol

C. Special Purpose Mines

 The light covers---------------- 300meter radios.

Activity Take about 8 minutes

4) When----------------------------- time of reconnaissance?

4.7. Importance of Engineer Reconnaissance in Different Combat Situation

 Control on land mines.

4.8. Tactical river crossing

Activity Take about 8 minutes

 At the time of the enemy interference.

4.8.2 Characteristics of tactical crossing

 When the units well organizes.

Combat Engineering reconnaissance is useful to enhance the understanding of theories

After completing part two, you should able to:

5.1 Definition of Communication 59

illustrations. The act of communication is referred to as ‘transmission’. It is the process of

5.1. Definition of Communication

Activity (About 10 minutes)

Communication is a much hyped word in the contemporary world. It encompasses a

transferring particular information or message from an information source to desired, definite

5.2. Electromagnetic Wave Propagation