Stages of aggregation

A stage of aggregation is the form in which matter can be found in nature.

SUBLIMATION

FUSION VAPOURISATION

SOLID LIQUID GASEOUS

Constant volume Constant volume Variable volume
Constant shape Variable shape Variable shape

SOLIDIFICATION CONDENSATION

REVERSE SUBLIMATION

A change of state is a variation in the form that matter is presented (same

matter but organised in a different way). Changes of state occur due to
temperature changes.

Vaporisation can happen in 2 ways: evaporation and boling

Differences between evaporation and boiling:
Evaporation only affects the surface of the liquid and can happen at any
temperature. (No bubbles)
Boiling affects the entire liquid and happens at a specific temperature, for
example, water boils at 100 ºC. (Bubbles)

The kinetic theory of matter

The kinetic theory of matter consists of 3 postulates (unproven propositions
that are accepted) that explain the behaviour of the states of aggregation.
1. Matter is made up of very small and indivisible particles. Between the
particles there is empty space.
2. Particles have forces of attraction between them that hold them together.
The space between particles and their forces of attraction are what
determine if something is solid, liquid or gaseous*.
3. Particles move (vibrate) in straight lines until they collide with the
container or another particle.
 *Particles in solids, liquids and gases

SOLID LIQUID GAS

Particles have enough space

Particles don’t have a lot of
space to move and the force
of attraction is very high
Properties:
Have their own shape
Have their own volume
to move, the force of
attraction is lower than
solids and higher than gases
Properties:
Don’t have their own shape
Have their own volume
Particles have a lot of space
to move and the force of
attraction is very low
Properties:
Don’t have their own shape
Don’t have their own volume

Temperature and pressure

Temperature is a measure of the internal energy of a substance. It is related to
the movement of particles.
The higher the temperature, the faster particles move.
The lower the temperature, the slower particles move.

We can measure temperature in Celsius (ºC) or Kelvin (K).

From ºC to K ºC + 273 0 ºC = 273 K
From K to ºC K - 273 0 K = -273 ºC

Pressure is a measure of the number of collisions of particles.

The higher the pressure, the more collisions there are.
The lower the pressure, the less collisions there are.

We can measure pressure in Pascals (Pa) or Atmosphere (atm).

From Pa to atm Pa x 101325
1 atm = 101325 Pa
From atm to Pa atm : 101325

In the SI we use Kelvin (K) to measure tempeature and Pascals (Pa) to measure
pressure.
Gas laws
Gas laws are a set of experimental laws relating pressure, volume and
temperature of a gas at a constant mass.
Each law has a different constant (pressure, volume or temperature).

Boyle - Mariotte’s law:

Constant temperature
Pressure and volume are inversely proportional
If pressure increases, volume decreases
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2 = constant temperature
Remember!!

Charles’s law:
P V
Constant pressure
Volume and temperature are directly proportional
If volume increases, temperature increases T
V1/T1 = V2/T2 = constant pressure

Gay - Lussac’s law:

Constant volume
Pressure and temperature are directly proportional
If pressure increases, temperature increases
P1/T1 = P2/T2 = constant volume

Change of state graphs

A change of state graph
represents the time and
temperature values of a
substance in which we cause
changes of state.
Remember! All matter can move
from one state to another.
Classification of matter
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
Everything around us (even us) is matter.
Properties of matter:
General properties are those common to all matter (they don’t differenciate
between substances).
Specific properties are the characteristics that differenciate one substance
from another.

Physical properties depend only on themselves, they can be observed

without changing the chemical composition of the substance.
Chemical properties depend on their behaviour towards other substances,
they can only be observed by changing the chemical composition of the
suubstance.

PROPERTIES GENERAL SPECIFIC

Mass Color Density
PHYSICAL Volume Odor Melting point
Temperature Flavor Boiling point
Size Solubility

CHEMICAL Toxicity Combustibility Reactivity with

Reactivity Acidity oxygen or water

Pure substances
A pure substance is a system that is made up of only one component. Its
physical and chemical properties are uniform in every state of aggregation.

Mixtures
A mixture is a matiral system in which two or more pure substances have been
combined. Its properties can vary from one part of the material system to
another different one.
 Mixtures
Depending on thesize of the particles of the substances that compose them,
mixtures can be homogeneous, colloidal or heterogeneous.

Heterogeneous:
Mixtures formed by two or more
components that can be easily
distinguished visually.
Their properties and composition can
vary from one part of the sample to
another.
Components can be separated by
mechanical methods: filtration,
decantation…
Homogeneous:
Homogeneous substances are formed
by two or more components that can’t
be distinguished visually.
Their properties and composition are
uniform in any part of the sample.
Components can be separated by
physical methods that involve changes
of state: evaporation, distillation…

Colloidal systems:
Colloidal systems are in the middle between homogeneous and heterogeneous
mixtures.
In this mixtures we can’t appreciate the components with the bare eye*, but we
can if we use a magnifying glass or a microscope.

These mixtures have 2 phases: the

dispersing phase and the dispersion
phase.
Colloids can be separated by dialysis

* A simple vista

Solutions
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more compounds.
When ne substance dissolves in another, the particles of one of the components
separate and disperse in the other.
The component that is in smaller proportion is called the solute (colacao)
The component that is in greater proportion is the solvent (milk)
Types of solutions
Solutions can be different types depending on the physical stste of the
components that form them or the quantities of each of the.

Gas solutions: homogeneous mixtures are achieved quickly because the

particles of gases can move freely.
Liquid solutions: the ost important are those that involve water. Gases
can dissolve in water depending on the pressure given to them.
Solid solutions: the most important are alloys (mixture of melted metals
that then harden).

The amount of solute that can be added to the solution is variable, we can find
different types of solutions depending on theproportions of the components.

Solubility is the maximum amount of solute that can be disolved in a certain

amount of solvent at a given temperature.

There are different types of solutions:

Diluted solutions
Concentrated solutions
Saturated solutions