STR

Special Theory of Relativity

 Special Theory of Relativity
• For over 200 years Newton’s Law of Motion
were thought to describe nature correctly. The
first time an error was found in Newton’s
Laws, the correction was also found. Both the
error and correction were found by Einstein in
1905.
 Newton’s Second

Law
 p
F
t

 ( mv )

t

 (v )
m
t

 ma
Was stated with the assumption that mass, m is constant! In Einstein's corrected
Formula m has the form (and is a function of time (velocity in m/s):

m0
m m0 is the mass at rest (rest mass)
2
v v is the velocity of the mass
1 2 c is the speed of light (3 x 108 m/s)
c
The End
 STR (more details)
• Relativity just adds a correction factor to
Newton’s Laws of motion.

• There are two Einstein Theories of Relativity

• 1) 1905 Special Theory ( corrects Newton’s Second Law)
• 2) 1915 General Theory (corrects Newton’s Law of
Gravitation)
 STR
• The Special Theory of Relativity is based on two
postulates (big ideas)

1) The laws of physics are the same in all inertial

reference frames (obey Newton’s First Law)

2) The speed of light in a vacuum is c = 3 x 108

m/s in all inertial reference frames.
 Postulate # 1

Principle of Relativity
Is it true that all experiments performed inside a
moving system that the Laws of Physics will be
the same as if the system was standing still?
An event occurs at point P(x,y,t) in an
inertial (zero acceleration) reference
frame S
S-frame
y

P(x,y,t)

O
x
• We can use a Galilean Transformation to
transform the S coordinates to another inertial
reference frame (zero acceleration) that is
moving with uniform relative velocity v with
respect to the S-frame.

S’-frame
y’

P(x’,y’,t’)
v

O
X’
Note : v has no prime because it measured from the S-frame
So together, assume at t = t’=0 the
frames S & S’ coincided
S-frame
S’-frame
y
y’

x P( )

vt x’

O
x
X’

x'  x  vt
y'  y
t '  t (assumed to be the same in both frames)
 t=t’
Within the frame of mechanics clocks are
universal so that the time of an event for an
observer in S-frame is the same as the time
fro the same event in S’-frame. The time
interval between two successive events
should be the same for both observers. This
assumption turns out to be false when v  c.
Galilean Transformation of Velocities
(Old School)
x'  x  vt
x'  x  vt
x' x
 v (t  t ' )
t t
x x'
 v
t t '
Galilean Transformation of Velocities
(Old School)
S’
v’= 5 m/s [E]

v= 5 m/s [E]

S
The ball travels 5 m/s [E]+ 5 m/s [E] = 10 m/s [E]!!!!
Galilean Transformation of Velocities
(Old School)
S’
x'
v' 
t

S x x'
 v
t t '
 v'v
 Maxwell’s Equations

• In Maxwell’s theory the speed of light, in

terms of the permeability and permittivity of
free space, was given by

• Thus the velocity of light between moving

systems must be a constant.
Galilean Transformation of Velocities
and Maxwell’s Equations.
S’
v'  c

vc

S x
 c  c  2c
t
YIKES!!!!!!
 One or Two Things must be
happening!!!
(1) Galilean Transformations are incorrect

and/or

(2) Maxwell’s Equations are incorrect (the speed

of light is not constant and does require a
medium to travel)
 An Absolute Reference System

• Ether was proposed as an absolute reference

system in which the speed of light was
Maxwell’s constant and from which other
measurements could be made.
• The Michelson-Morley experiment was an
attempt to show the existence of ether.

18
 The Michelson-Morley Experiment

• Albert Michelson (1852–1931) was the first

U.S. citizen to receive the Nobel Prize for
Physics (1907), and built an extremely precise
device called an interferometer to measure
the minute phase difference between two
light waves traveling in mutually orthogonal
directions.

19
The Michelson Interferometer

20
Typical interferometer fringe pattern expected
when the system is rotated by 90°

21
 Michelson’s Conclusion
• Michelson noted that he should be able to detect a
phase shift of light due to the time difference
between path lengths but found none.
• After several repeats and refinements with
assistance from Edward Morley (1893-1923), again a
null result.
• Thus, ether does not seem to exist!

22
 Einstein Resolved the Problem with
the STR
• In other words , anyone who measures the
speed of light with get the same value, c

x
t
cc c WHAT!!!
 The Lorentz Transformation
(New School)
• Attempting to Fix Maxwell’s Equation by using
a Galilean Transformation to satisfy the
principle of relativity. It didn’t work!!! The
correction predicted new electric phenomena
that didn’t exist!
 The Lorentz Transformation
(New School)
x  vt
• Lorentz discovered: x' 
v2
1 2
c
y'  y
vx
t 2
t'  c
v2
1 2
c
which leave Maxwell’s equations unchanged .
Thus Einstein found the mass correction m0
m
for Newton’s Law of motion
v2
1 2
c
 Time Dilation and Length Contraction

• Time Dilation:
Clocks in S’ run slow with respect to stationary
clocks in S.

• Length Contraction:
Lengths in S’ are contracted with respect to
the same lengths stationary in S.

26
 Time Dilation
To understand time dilation the idea of proper
time must be understood:

• The term proper time,T0, is the time

difference between two events occurring at
the same position in a system as measured by
a clock at that position.

Same location
27
 Time Dilation

Not Proper Time

Beginning and ending of the event occur at

different positions

28
 Time Dilation - Simultaneity

• Two events that are simultaneous in one

reference frame are in general not
simultaneous in a second reference frame
moving with respect to the first. Simultaneity
in not an absolute concept but depends upon
the state of motion of the observer. (It take
time for light to travel)

29
Time Dilation

30
Time Dilatation means that clocks keep time
at different rates when they are moving

Imagine you are on a moving train (S’-frame)

You send a beam of light on a roundtrip from the floor of h
the train to the ceiling and back. If the height h then
the time of the roundtrip is 2h/c.

Watching from the ground (S-frame). The light

travels on a longer triangular path.
h
Since S-frame measures the light to travel at
speed c it follows that S-frame concludes that the vt
time for the roundtrip is longer 2
than 2h/c.
 h

vt
2 Pythagoras
vt 2
Hypoteneuse of triangle is of length h  ( ) 2

2
where t is the time of the roundtrip, but
vt 2
2 h ( )
2
time = distance / speed
t 2
c
Re-arranging this gives
2h 2
t 1 v 2
c2  1 1 v
c c2
 t  t '
t’ is the proper time (measured at rest with the clock)

The period of a pendulum is found to be 3.0 s. What is the period of the pendulum
when measured by an observer moving at a speed of 0.95 c with respect to the pendulum?

1
t  t '  (3.0s)  9.6s
(0.95) 2
1
1
The person moving observes the pendulum oscillate slower.
 Length Contraction

To understand length contraction the idea of

proper length must be understood:

• Let an observer in each system S and S’ have a

meter stick at rest in their own system such
that each measure the same length at rest.
• The length as measured at rest is called the
proper length.

34
 Length Contraction

Length contraction takes place along the

direction of motion

2
v
L  L' 1  2
c
L’ :The length as measured at rest is called the
proper length

35
 Experimental Verification
Time Dilation and Muon Decay

Figure 2.18: The number of muons detected with speeds near 0.98c is much different (a) on
top of a mountain than (b) at sea level, because of the muon’s decay. The experimental
result agrees with our time dilation equation.

36
 Relativistic Addition of Velocities
S-frame S’-frame S’’-frame
y y’ y’’

v u or u’

O O O
x x’ x’’

The primes ‘ tell you what frame is measuring the speed of another frame

v is the speed of S’ measured in S

u’ is the speed of S’’ measured in S’
u is the speed of S’’ measured in S
 Relativistic Addition of Velocities
S-frame S’-frame S’’-frame
y y’ y’’

v u or u’

O O O
x x’ x’’

Einstein showed that length & time are different in different frames, so we cannot use
the Galilean transformation u=u’+v but we have to use the corrected formula

v  u'
u
vu
1 2
c
 A person on a rocket travelling 0.5c (with respect to Earth) sees a meteor
pass her at speed of 0.5c. How fast is the meteor moving with respect to the
earth?
S-frame S’-frame S’’-frame
y y’ y’’

v=0.5c u’=0.5c

O O O
x x’ x’’

v  u' 0.5c  0.5c 1c

u    0.8c
vu (0.5c)(0.5c) 1  0.25
1 2 1
c c2
The meteor travels 0.8 c w.r.t. the earth
 Problem: c + c = c (1+1=1)
S-frame S’-frame S’’-frame
y y’ y’’

v=c u’=c

O O O
x x’ x’’

v  u' cc 2c
u   c
vu (c)(c) 1  1
1 2 1 2
c c
The speed of light is the same for all frames! No matter how fast they are travelling
 Relativistic Mass & Energy
m0
m   m0
v2
1 2
c
Finding the Rest Energy of an Electron.

ET  mc 2
m0
ET  c2
v2
1 2
c
 Relativistic Mass & Energy
If v = 0
ERe st  m0 c 2
 (9.110 31 kg)(3 108 m / s)
 8.19 10 14 J

Convert to electron Volts (eV) by dividing by the charge of an electron

8.19 10 14 J

ERe st  19 J
 0.511 MeV
1.6 10
eV
 Relativistic Mass & Energy
If the electron is travelling with a speed of 0.8 c then

1  Erest 
  1.667  m   m0  1.667 2   1.667(0.511 MeV 2 )
0.6  c  c
MeV
m  0.852 2  E  mc2  0.852 MeV
c
• Einstein Proposed two things
1) Rest mass is a form of energy
2) there maybe forces that can
can convert matter to energy.

For STR mass and energy are conserved together

giving: The law of Conservation of Mass-
Energy
Relativistic Kinetic Energy

ET  Erest  Ek
Ek  ET  Erest
  m0 c  m0 c
2 2

 (  1)m0 c 2
 Momentum
   m0 v
p  mv   m0 v 
2
v
1 2
c
• This means that (unlike Newtonian Mechanics) a
constant force acting on a particle will produce a
decreasing acceleration so that the speed of the
particle never reaches the speed of light. (see your lab)