SIGNAL TRANSMISSION USING OPTICAL FIBRE CABLE EQUIPMENTS

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION
Fiber optics (optical fibres) are long, thin strands of very pure glass about the size of a
human hair. They are arranged in bundles called optical cables and used to transmit signals
over long distances. Fiber optic data transmission systems send information over fibre by
turning electronic signals into light. Fiber optics (optical fibres) are long, thin strands of very
pure glass about the size of a human hair. They are arranged in bundles called optical cables
and used to transmit signals over long distances. Fiber optic data transmission systems send
information over fibre by turning electronic signals into light.
Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one place to
another by sending pulses of infrared light through an optical fibre. The light is a form of
carrier wave that is modulated to carry information. Fiber is preferred over electrical cabling
when high bandwidth, long distance, or immunity to electromagnetic interference is required.
This type of communication can transmit voice, video, and telemetry through local area
networks or across long distances.
Optical fibre is used by many telecommunications companies to transmit telephone
signals, internet communication, and cable television signals. Researchers at Bell Labs have
reached a record bandwidth–distance product of over 100 petabit × kilometres per second
using fibre-optic communication.

1.1 WHAT IS COMMUNICATION

The term communication may be defined as the transfer of information from one point
(source) to another point (destination). For the information to be transferred over a distance, a
communication system is usually required within a communication system, the information is
transferred made possible by modulating or superimposing the information onto an
electromagnetic wave which acts as a carrier for the information signal. This modulated
carrier is then transmitted to the required destination where it is received and the original
information signal is obtained by demodulation. Electromagnetic waves operating at radio
frequencies, as well as microwave frequencies are being used for communication. However, it
was also discovered that communication may also be made possible using an electromagnetic
wave that is selected from an optical range of frequencies

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1.1 Optical Fiber Communication System

A communication system that uses light as the carrier of information from a source to
a destination through a guided fibre cable (glass or plastic) is called an optical fibre
communication system. The information-carrying capacity of a communication system is
directly proportional to its bandwidth, i.e., the wider the bandwidth, the greater is its
information-carrying capacity. Light frequencies used in fibre optical systems are between 10 4
and 4 x 1014 Hz ( 10000 to 400,000 GHz)as a result they have higher information-carrying
capacity.In addition to the capability of carrying a tremendous amount o information, fibers
have an extremely low loss of about 0.2dB/km i.e., 0.5% of power loss over a distance of 1
km. Because of high information-carrying capacity and low attenuation, nowadays fibers are
finding a wide application in telecommunication, local area networks, sensors, computer
networks, etc.

1.2 Construction Of Optical Fiber Cable

There are many different cable designs available today. Depending on the
configuration, the cable may include a core, a cladding, a protective tube, a polyurethane
compound, and one or more protective jackets.

Fig:1.1 Optical fibre construction

The fibre cable consists of a core at the centre and a cladding outside a core. The core
is generally a cylindrical dielectric glass with a refractive index n1, and the cladding is the
second’s sheath or cover made of glass with a lower refractive index n2 than the core
refractive index.
The cladding in turn is covered by a buffer jacket, This buffer jacket provides protection
for the fibre from external mechanical influences that could cause fibre breakage or excessive

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optical attenuation. Surrounding the puffer jacket there is a layer of strength members called
Kevlar which increases the tensile strength of the cable. When light propagates through the
fibre, the light is transmitted within the core. The cladding keeps the light waves within the
core because the refractive index of the cladding material is less than the of the core. The type
of cable construction used depends on the performance requirement of the system and bot the
economic and environmental constraints

1.3 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

The transmission of light in an optical fibre involves the phenomena of total internal
reflections at the interface between the core and cladding. Let us consider it in detail. When
light enters one end of a glass fibre under the right conditions, most of the light will propagate
or move down the length of the fibre and exit from the far end. A small part of the light will
escape through the sidewalls of the fibre, and some will also be lost due to internal
absorptions. But, a portion of the light will be contained and guided to the far end. Such fibre
is called a
“light pipe” or “light guide”. Total internal reflection within the fibre wall can occur only if
two conditions are satisfied. The refractive index n1 of the core must always be greater than
the refractive index n2 of the cladding. The light must approach the wall with an angle of the
incident \phiϕ that is greater than the critical angle \phi_{c}ϕc given by, sinϕc=n1n2When \
phi
= \phi_{c}ϕ=ϕc, then by snell’s law n_1\sin \phi_{c}= n_2\sin90^{\circ}n1sinϕc=n2sin90

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CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVEY
Many authors have written various literatures on optical Fiber: telecommunication backbone.
Some of the published papers/articles are as follows: In article [1] the authordescribes that
backbone or backbone network, we can analogize it with the main road, the wider and more
qualified the main road we make, the more vehicles will be able to pass it.
There are various types of Network Backbones in the Datacentres that can be implemented,
ranging from Backbone- based Fiber Optic Cables to Copper Cables such as UTPCables. In
the design and installation of the Data Centre, two types of backbone cables are used, namely
Fiber Optic and Copper cables.
Second, the need to connect connections between local networks is getting higher. Third, the
backbone network will accelerate the data transfer process, especially for data with high
access speeds such as video, graphics and audio. In this article [3] the author describes how
important the backbone is in a business as follows:
If you run a large facility, fibre optic cabling will most likely be suitable for your business. It
is ideal for connecting multiple IDF locations within a space as Fiber cabling can connect
distances that exceed standard cabling, such as Category 5e/6/6a.
Anexampleoffacilitiesthatcould benefit from fiberoptic networks includes schools,warehouse
s, hospitals, offices, restaurants, dealerships, and universities.

Proposed System
This study will discuss Fiber optics has become a key ‘conductor' in telecommunications.
Infrastructure The rapid penetration of the Internet and wireless communications in modern
society has led to an explosivegrowthindemandfor broadband transmission capacity. The
share of the world's populati on with an Internet connection has increased fromless than 1%
in 1995 to around 40% in 2016, with threequarters of all Internet users in 2014 residing in the
top 20countries (internetlivestats.com). As people and businesses are connected, more and
more of their daily lives and workfare online from communicating via email, shopping online
and watching streaming videotoCloudbasedcomputingand business analytics based on 'Big
Data'. In less than twodeca des, the lives of billions of people increasingly depend on fast

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broadband 'connectivity'. To meet this demand, telecommunications providers have turned to

data transmission via fibreoptic cable, first in the core of their network, and then gradually
expanding the fibre-optic area more widely. This steady development has been going on for
about a quarter of a century. As a result, fibre optic assets are now an integral backbone of
today's hybrid communications network infrastructure (i) fixed-line, (ii) mobile and (iii)
datacentres. In this study we will discuss each type of optical Fiber. i. Fixed-line
infrastructure
In leading markets, much of the fixed-line network has already been replaced by fibre-optic
cables to benefit from optical fibres far better performance for broadband services than
twistedcopper networks. For example, fiber-opticcables are being used commercially to carry
data at speeds of about 2 terabits per second (tops; a terabit is 1000 gigabits or1,000,000
megabits).
For comparison, while single-line, voice-grade copper systems longer than a couple of
kilometersrequire inline signal repeaters for satisfactory performance, it is not unusual for
optical systems to cover 100 kilometres no active or passive processing. That said, the cost of
replacing legacy cable networks with Fiber-optic cables increases sharply as this work
approaches end users (homes and business locations). As a result, fiber penetration to end
users varies widely from region to region. In the leading Asian economies, more than 44% of
all homes and buildings are already directly connected to the fibre-optic cable network
(‘Fiber to the Home’ (FTTH) or ‘Fiber to the Building’ (FTTB)); in North America
penetration is 8.4%, in Europe 5.6%. Europe’s low penetration rate has been a cause for
concern for years, because online communication and data traffic are increasingly part and
parcel of modern life and considered to be a prerequisite for future economic. Growth as well
as a country or region’s international competitiveness. It is estimated that it would take
Europe more than a quarter of a century to reach the same fibre-optic penetration rate that
leading Asian economies already have today.

ii. Mobile infrastructure

In mobile telephony and data traffic, radio signals transport voice and data to and from
portable transceivers (mobile phones or other devices). This system relies on a network of
‘cells’, each of which is serve ed by a fixed-location transceiver, such as a Wi-Fi access point,
or a mobile ‘base station’, such as a communication tower. These fixed access points and base
stations are turn connected to a fixed-line cable network. When a mobile device is turned on,

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it registers with the mobile network and starts ‘listening’ for the strongest signal received
from the surrounding base stations, switching from one site to the next to maintain the signal
as the user of the mobile device moves around the network. As mobile traffic continues to
escalate, the ‘backhaul’ capacitor the cable-based network which supports mobile
communications also has to increase. For example, a cell site carrying only GSM voice would
typically require a backhaul capacity of about 1.3 megabits per second (mbps), 3Grequires
about 21 mbps, and LTE necessitates as much as 80mbps. For many years, operators simply
provided more copper leased lines when they needed more capacity, but this approach will no
longer suffice as they are insufficient to carry the data load entailed by the introduction of the
next generation of mobile technology capacity, 5G. Operators have already
startedusingopticalfiber to connect mobile base stations, but there are still many mobile base
stations thatdependon old technology which needs to be replaced. And where a new
connection is required, optical fibre is installed in view of its superior transmission speed, as
well as its potential to expand transmission speed supporting 5G.Hough teal (2013) note that,
‘as wireless and wireline technologies converge and the dividing lines become less clear, the
common denominator will be optical Fiber. Whether considering fibre-to-the-x (FT Tx),
WiMAX, LTEor 5G, future access networks will include fibre as an essential part of the
network infrastructure’. And German telecommunications industry expert Markus Laqua
says: ‘a deep fibre network is essential for all future access technologies.

iii. Data centres

With the convergence of service delivery to the IP protocol, more traffic is routed via the data
centres using fibre optic technology. At the same time, there is an ongoing shift from local or
corporate-managed applications towards cloud- based solutions, whereby users access the
application via awe interface. As a result of this trend, data traffic between users and host
servers is increasingly manifold. At the same time, new IT concepts (Big Data, Industry 4.0)
are multiplying the volume of internet traffic, thereby driving the need to expand data centre
storage capacity as this has now becomean indispensable part of today’s hybrid
telecommunication ecosystem.

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CHAPTER-3
BLOCK DIAGRAM
BLOCK OF OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Fiber optic communication link is the transmission of information by propagation of optical
signal through optical fibers over a required distance. This involves deriving optical signal
from an electrical signal at the transmission end and conversion of optical signal back to
electrical signal at the receiving end.
The important components of fiber optic communication link are:
• Transmitter
• Fiber optic cable
• Receiver

Fig:3.1 Block of optical fibre communication system

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TRANSMITTER
The transmitter consists of an analog or digital interface, a voltage to current converter, a light
source, and a source to fiber connector or coupler.Fibre Optic Cable The fiber optic cable is
either an ultra-pure glass or plastic cable.

Receiver
The receiver includes a fiber to detector coupler, a light detector, a current to voltage
converter followed by an amplifier, and an analog or digital interface.

3.1 Types of Optical Fiber

The optical fibers can be classified into different types based on:
• Materials of which the fibers are made
• The mode of propagation and
• The refractive index (Index profile)
3.1.1 Types Of Optical Fibers Based on Material
There are three major types of optical fibers based on the material type of make. In all three
types, the core, as well as the cladding, can be made of either glass or plastic. The three types
are:
• Plastic core with plastic cladding.
• Glass core with plastic cladding (Also called PCS fibre, plastic-clad-silica).
• Glass core with Glass cladding (Also called SCS fibre, silica-lead-silica)
1. Plastic Core with Plastic Cladding
This type of fibres is commonly used because in this both the core and the cladding being
made up of the same material simplifies the production process. The advantage of this fibre
are, they are more flexible, easy to install can better withstand stress, are less expensive, and
weigh approximately 60% less than glass fibres. The major disadvantage is that the
attenuation characteristic of these plastic fibres is high. But even then, they are frequently
used for shortdistance computer applications with information capabilities of about 6 Mbps
over a distance of 50-200 meters.
Example:
• A polystyrene core and a methyl methacrylate cladding.
• A polymethyl methacrylate core and a cladding of its co-polymer.

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2. Glass Core with Plastic Cladding (PCS)

fibers with glass cores exhibit low attenuation characteristics. The PCS fibers are less affected
by radiation and hence more suitable for military applications.

3. Glass Core with Glass Cladding (SCS)

The attenuation characteristics of this SCS fiber are slightly better than PCS fibers. Then
fibers have the best propagation characteristics and can also be easily terminated. SCS Fibers
are least rugged and they are more susceptible to an increase in attenuation in the radiation
area
Example:
• Sio, core, P.O.-Sio, cladding.
• P,0,-SiO, core, Si O, cladding.

3.1.2: Types Of Optical Fibers Based On Mode of Propagation

In fibre optics terminology, the word mode simply means path. That is, it defines the number
of paths being taken by the light to propagate down the cable. There are only two modes of
propagation.
1. Single mode fibre (also known as monomodal or Fundamental fibre)
2. Multimode fibre.

1. Single-mode Fibre
If there is only one path for the light to propagate down the cable, it is called a single-mode
fibre, In order for the light to take a single path the diameter of the core must be very small
(about 7 to 10 µm).Single mode fibres are capable of wide bandwidths (up to 40 GHz) and
are ideally suited for long-haul communication. Low cost and high-capacity circuits for the
transmission of telephone and cable television etc., are the additional features of this fibre.

Fig:3.2 Single-mode fibre

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2. Multimode Fiber
If the light takes more than one path to propagate down the cable it is called a multimode
fiber, Fibers with cores of about 20 to 00 um diameter, support many waveguide modes (i.e.
light can take many paths). These fibres are ideally suited for high bandwidth (a few GHz)
mediumhaul applications. The upper limit of the model is determined by the core diameter
and numerical aperture.

Fig:3.3 Multimode fibre

3.1.3: Types Of Optical Fibers Based On refractive index (Index profile)

In any optical fibre, the whole material of the cladding has a uniform refractive index value
But, the refractive index of the core material may either remain constant or variation in a
particular way. The curve which represents the variation of refractive index (along the vertical
axis) with respect to the radial distance (along the horizontal axis) from the axis of the fibre is
called the refractive index profile. There are two basic types of index profiles:
• Step-index fibre
• Graded-index-fibre
1. Step-Index Fiber
A step-index fiber has a central core with a uniform refractive index. The core is surrounded
by an outside cladding with a uniform refractive index less than that of the central core.
Figure 6.5(a) shows the index profile for a step-index fiber. From the Figure, it is seen that
there is an abrupt change in the refractive index at the core/cladding interface and hence the
refractive index profile takes the shape of a step. Hence, the name step-index fiber.

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2. Graded Index Fibre (GRIN Fibre)

In graded-index fiber, the refractive index of the core is non-uniform, it is highest (maximum)
at the center and decreases gradually with distance towards the outer edge.

Fig:3.4 Step index fibre & graded index fibre

3.2 Working
The message’s origin may take several physical forms. A suitable transducer can be used to
convert a nonelectrical message into an electrical signal.For example, microphones are used
for converting sound waves into currents and video cameras are used for converting images
into currents. In some cases, such as data transfer between computers or parts of a computer
the message is already in electrical form.In any case, the information must be in the electrical
form before transmission for either electronic or optic communication. In a fiber optical
transmitter, the light source can be modulated by a digital or an analog signal. For analog
modulation, the input interface matches impedances and limits the input signal amplitude.

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CHAPTER-4
SOFTWARE FOR OPTICAL COMMUNICATION
There are different types of software requirements:
• Viavi FiberChekPRO
• Opti System
• RSoft OptSim
• cable Scout
VIAVI FIBRECHEKPRO
FiberChekPRO is an automated fibre inspection and analysis software for an optical network.
The performance check ensures preservation of fibre-optic interconnects. The software
performs acquisition of the fibre image and finds defects along with their location relative to
the fibre core. When used with digital microscopes, it identifies and characterises the defects
and contamination, and provides a pass or fail result according to the pre-configured failure
criteria setting. Also, it allows users to import saved data from Viavi devices (like SmartClass
Fiber), archive data, generate reports and obtain optical power measurements. Consolidated
reporting option enables comparison between multiple tests performed on different fibres.
OPTI SYSTEM
Opti System enables planning, testing and hierarchical simulation of optical network designs,
single-mode/multi-mode transmission, etc in both time and frequency domains. Its elaborate
design suite provides global insights into system performance and aids design tolerance
specifications. The cost analysis table of the system can be designed according to the system,
layout or component, and exported to other applications. It is compatible with Windows
7/8/10 (64-bit). The latest version 16.0 comes with many enhancements and fixes such as the
addition of an approximate number of guided modes and Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensor
to perform temperature, stress, strain sensing and so on.

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Fig:4.1Opti system
RSOFT OPTSIM
RSof OptSim is a software tool for computer-aided design (CAD) and simulation of optical
communication systems at the signal propagation level. Its easy-to-use graphical user
interface (GUI) and lab-like measurement instruments provide usability and accuracy. It
implements both time domain split step and frequency domain split step for simulation of an
optical link architecture. Applications include coherent optical communication systems,
analogue and digital cable TVs, advanced modulation formats and optical interconnects.

Fig:4.2 Rsoft OptSim

CABLE SCOUT
The cable management system cable Scout is a cost-effective, easy-to-use software in a wide
range of industry sectors for documentation and administration of fibre, fibre-to-the-home
(FTTH) and copper networks. It allows data collection and transparent representation of
complex optical fibre, copper, broadband and fibre-to-the-X (FT Tx) structures. The entire
information from throughout the network is stored in a central database providing error-free
and integrated administration of all optical and electrical last-mile technologies. Other
functions include plausibility checks, route finding, capacity and utilisation statistics, work

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orders, different computation methods in the passive optical network (PON) and coax sector,
as well as numerous planning options. It is compatible with Windows, iOS and Android.

Fig:4.3 Cable scout

KITS SOFTWARE
KITS is an Excel-based data acquisition, analysis and reporting software for fibre-optic
power, attenuation and integrated optical return loss. It works with all KI2000 and KI7000
series power meters, loss test sets and two-way +ORL testers to achieve flexible cable
acceptance testing. Full-feature capability includes real-time interactive data acquisition, data
logging, a real-time meter display, file import/export, importing data from instrument
memory and manual information input. The latest version 4.16 comes with additional features
such as an updated user interface from old command bars to office ribbons and an overview
of available functions through demo mode.

Fig:4.4 Display reading of KITS software

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CHAPTER-5 RESULT
The signal transmitted in optical fiber is converted from the electrical signal into light and at
the receiving end, it is converted back into the electrical signal from the light. The data sent
can be in the form of audio, video or telemetry data that is to be sent over long distances or
over Local Area Networks.

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ADVANTAGES AND APPICATIONS

Advantages of optical fibre communication
The primary advantages of optical Fiber communication compared to metallic cable
(electrical) communication are as under: Extremely Wide (Large) Bandwidth
The bandwidth available with single glass fibre is more than 100 GHz. With such a large
bandwidth, it is possible to transmit thousands of voice conversations or dozens of video
signals over the same fibre simultaneously. Whereas, only a very less number (40-50) of
independent signals alone can be sent through metallic cables.
Immunity to Electrostatic Interference
As optical fibers are being made of either glass or plastic (non-conductors or electricity)
external electrical noise and lightning do not affect the energy in a fibre cable. The result is
the noise-free transmission. however, this is not true for metallic cables made of metals, as
they are good conductors of electricity.
Elimination of Cross Talk
Fiber’s systems are immune to cross-talk between cables caused by magnetic induction.
Whereas, in metallic cables, cross-talk results from the electromagnetic coupling between two
adjacent wires.
Lighter Weight and Smaller Size
Fibers are very smaller in size. This size reduction makes fibres the ideal transmission
medium for ships, aircraft, and high-rise buildings where bulky copper cables occupy too
much space.
Reduction in size results in a reduction of weight also.
Lower Cost
The material used in fibres is silica glass or silicon dioxide which is one of the most abundant
materials on earth, resulting in lower cost. Optical-fibre costs are continuing to decline. The
costs of many systems are declining with the use of fibre and that trend is accelerating.
Security
Fiber cables are more secure than metallic cables. Due to its immunity to electromagnetic
coupling and radiation, optical fibre can be used in the most secure environments. Although it
can be intercepted or tapped, it is very difficult to do so because at the receiving user’s end an
alarm would be sounded.

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Greater Safety
In many wired systems, (metallic cables) the potential hazard short circuits require
precautionary designs. Whereas, the dielectric nature of optical fibres eliminates the spark
hazard.

Corrosion
Fiber cables are more resistant to environmental extremes. They operate over large
temperature variations than their metallic counterparts and are less affected by corrosive
liquids and gases.

Longer Life Span and Ease of Maintenance

A longer life span of 20 to 30 years is predicted for the fibre optic cables as compared to 12 to
15 years for the conventional cables. Fiber cables are more secure than metallic cables. Due
to its immunity to electromagnetic coupling and radiation, optical fibre can be used in the
most secure environments. Although it can be intercepted or tapped, it is very difficult to do
so because at the receiving user’s end an alarm would be sounded. Greater Safety
In many wired systems, (metallic cables) the potential hazard short circuits require
precautionary designs. Whereas, the dielectric nature of optical fibres eliminates the spark
hazard.

Corrosion
Fiber cables are more resistant to environmental extremes. They operate over large
temperature variations than their metallic counterparts and are less affected by corrosive
liquids and gases.

Longer Life Span and Ease of Maintenance

A longer life span of 20 to 30 years is predicted for the fibre optic cables as compared to 12 to
15 years for the conventional cables.

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4.2: APPLICATIONS
The application of optical fibres in various fields are given below: Optical
Fibres uses in the medical industry
Because of its extremely thin and flexible nature, it is used in various instruments to view
internal body parts by inserting into hollow spaces in the body. It is used as lasers during
surgeries, endoscopy, microscopy, and biomedical research. Optical Fibres used in
Communication
In the communication system, telecommunication has major uses of optical fiber cables for
transmitting and receiving purposes. It is used in various networking fields and even
increases the speed and accuracy of the transmission data. Compared to copper wires, fiber
optics cables are lighter, more flexible, and carry more data.

Optical Fibres used in Defense Purpose

Fiber optics are used for data transmission in high-level data security fields of military and
aerospace applications. These are used in wirings in aircraft, hydrophones for SONARs, and
Seismics applications.

Optical Fibres are used in Industries

These fibers are used for imaging in hard-to-reach places such as they are used for safety
measures and lighting purposes in automobiles both in the interior and exterior. They transmit
information at lightning speed and are used in airbags and traction control. They are also used
for research and testing purposes in industries.

Optical Fibres used for Broadcasting

These cables are used to transmit high-definition television signals which have greater
bandwidth and speed. Optical Fibre is cheaper compared to the same quantity of copper
wires.
Broadcasting companies use optical fibers for wiring HDTV, CATV, video-on-demand, and
many applications.

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Uses of Optical Fibre for Lightening and Decorations

By now, we got a fair idea of what is optical fibre and it also gives an attractive, economical,
and easy way to illuminate the area and that is why it is widely used in decorations and
Christmas trees.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

CONCLUSION
Industry of optical communications is fast growing and an emerging one, the growth
expansion skilled by the trade has been terribly immense this past decade. There’s yet lot of
analysis and research work to be done to help the necessity for higher information rates,
advanced switch techniques and a lot of architectures that area unit equipped with intelligence
that may mechanically modification in response to traffic patterns and at a similar time the
answer must be price effective. The trend is anticipated to continue within the future yet as
new modifications and results have already earned within the laboratory are going to be
extended to sensible implementation and deployments thereby resulting in a brand-new
generation in fibre optics communications.

FUTURE SCOPE
Fiber optic technology itself continues to develop alongside the increased demand for greater
speed and efficiency. New devices called optical couplers and optical switches support a new
communication trend called AON, or all-optical networks. This technology allows data to be
transmitted without any electrical processing, which in turn can result in farther transmission
distances.Then there’s OAM, or orbital angular momentum. This new technology forces light
waves to twist in a spiral, increasing their ability to transmit information in a highly scalable
manner. Experts at Technology Networks have even speculated that this method of transmission
could increase transmission speeds by 100 times over the next few years.

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