MARINE PROPELLERS AND PROPULSION OF SHIPS JAN TORNBLADPREFACE A considerable gap appears to exist between scientific literature on ship's propulsion and popular science literature. This paper is intended to bridge at least part of this gap. It is not a textbook in the proper sense, but a compendium aiming at improving the understanding of the function of the propeller and the interaction of engine, propeller and ship's huil. As it covers the entire subject of propulsion, from prime movers through hydrodynamics to propeller-induced noise and vibration, some items have been dealt with cursorily while others have been treated more in detail. Most chapters may be read separately, and the more difficult parts may be skipped without impairing the understanding of the rest. A list of references is provided for those readers who may wish to deepen their knowledge. The author's sincere thanks are due to members of the KaMeWa staff for their support and assistance, especially to the secretary of the Marine Laboratory for her indefatigable care in typing. The ISO and ITTC standards for symbols and the SI system for units have been applied throughout unless otherwise stated. This edition is a translation of the Swedish version “Partygspropellrar och fartygs framdrift" 1985, with additions on the Karman vortex alley, de-rating of diesel engines, and Grim's vane wheel. This material is provided for information purposes only, and KaMeWa AB makes no warranty, representation or guarantee with respect to the information contained herein, or the results of the use of, or reliance on, such information. The contents of this compendium may be quoted provided the source is stated.CONTENTS page 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 The history of the propeller 1-1 1.2 Non-dimensional presentation 1-2 1.3 Simpson's rule 1-3 2, | HYDRODYNAMICS 2-1 2.1 Bernoulli's theorem 2-1 2.2 Flow about plates and profiles 2.3 Circulation 2.4 Centre of pressure 3-5 2.5 Reynold's number 2-6 2.6 Boundary layer, separation, Coanda effect 2-7 2.7 Waves 2-9 2.8 Karman's vortex alley 2-10 DESCRIPTION OF VESSEL 3.1 Hull dimensions 3.2 Displacement, block coefficient, tonnage 3-2 -3 Lines drawing 3-3 -4 Afterbody 3-4 3.5 Vocabulary 3-7 HULL RESISTANCE, PROPULSIVE FACTORS 4-1 4.1 Hull resistance 4-1 4.2 Wake fraction, thrust deduction fraction 4-6 4.3 Efficiencies 4-11 MODEL TESTING OF SHIPS 5-1 5.1 Towing test 5-2 5.2 Self-propulsion test 5-4 5.3 Wake measurement 5-6 5.4 Other tests 5-8PROPELLER, DESCRIPTION AND GEOMETRY 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 Number of blades Diameter Pitch Blade area Blade thickness Blade profile Rake, skew Blade geometry and drawing CAVITATION, VIBRATION, NOISE 72 7.3 Cavitation 7.1.1 Theory, history 7.1.2 Various types of cavitation 7.1.3 The effect of cavitation 7.1.4 Measures against cavitation Vibration 7.2.1 General 7.2.1 Propeller-induced pressure pulses 7.2.3 Variation of thrust and torque Noise MODEL TESTING OF PROPELLERS 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 General Scale laws, propeller coefficients KgKyon-J diagram Diagram for bollard pull General propeller coefficients Cavitation observation Measurement of blade forces PROPELLER DESIGN 9.2 9.2 9.3 9.4 The Wageningen systematic propeller Number of blades Optimum shaft speed Optimum diameter series 7-12 7-12 7-13 7-15 7-16 8-1 8-1 8-3 8-5 8-7 8-10 8-11 8-1410. ll. 9.5 Blade area 9.5.1 Burrill's method 9.5.2 The circulation calculation method 9.6 Blade outline, pitch distribution, profile form 9.6.1 Blade outline 9.6.2 Rake 9.6.3 Pitch distribution 9.6.4 Section profile form 9.7 Blade strength and thickness 9.7.1 Strength 9.7.2 Blade thickness distribution 9.8 Material 9.9 Circulation calculation 9.10 Mass, moment of inertia 9.11 Example of calculation THE FUNCTION OF THE PROPELLER 10.1 Propeller theories 10.2 The propeller law 10.3 Slip 10.4 Conditions of operation 10.4.1 Free running at reduced power 10.4.2 Bollard pull 10.4.3 Acceleration 10.4.4 Windmilling 10.4.5 Stopping manoeuvre 10.4.6 Free running astern 10.4.7 Stopping from astern running 10.4.8 Locked propeller 10.4.9 Break-away torque THE CONTROLLABLE PITCH PROPELLER 11.1 General, history 11.2 Hub design 11.3 Control system 11.4 Blade design 11.4.1 Blade area 11.4.2 Strength, thickness 11.4.3 Pitch distribution page 9-12 9-12 9-13 9-15 9-15 9-17 9-17 9-18 9-21 9-21 9-25 9-26 9-27 9-28 9-30 Ll-1 1-1 11-2 11-4 11-7 11-7 11-8 11-8v=o 12. 13. 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 Spindle torque Design philosophy Special blade forms Conditions of operation 11.8.1 Free running 11.8.2 Bollard pull, towing 11.8.3 Acceleration ‘11.8.4 Windmilling 11.8.5 Stopping manoeuvre 11.8.6 Free running astern 11.8.7 Stopping from astern speed 11.8.8 Locked propeller 11.8.9 Zero pitch PROPELLER TYPES 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 Nozzle propeller Rotatable thrusters Steering propellers The Voith-Schneider propeller Water jet propulsion Counter-rotating propellers Grim's vane wheel PRIME MOVERS 13.1 13.2 Engine types 13.1.1 Steam engine 13.1.2 Steam turbine 13.1.3 Diesel engine 13.1.4 Gas turbine 13.1.5 Electric motor Power transmission 13.2.1 Reduction gears 13.2.2 Mechanical couplings and clutches 13.2.3 Hydraulic transmission 13.2.4 Electric transmission page 11-10 11-13 11-14 11-16 11-16 11-18 11-20 11-21 11-22 11-23 11-24 11-24 11-25 12-1 12-1 12-6 12-7 12-11 12-12 12-14 12-16 13-1 13-2 13-2 13-2 13-3 13-6 13-7 13-7 13-7 13-7 13-8 13-914. 1s. 16. iG 13.3 Engine arrangements 13.3.1 Direct drive 13.3.2 Engine with reduction gear 13.3.3 Twin-engine arrangement 13.3.4 Shaft generator 13.3.5 Double-ended arrangement 13.3.6 Diesel-electric machinery 13.3.7 Combination of diesel engine and gas turbine TRIALS, FULL SCALE MEASUREMENTS 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 Speed measurement Measuring of tow rope pull Steering propeller test Manoeuvring test Other measurements MANOEUVRING 15.1 15.2 15.3 Change of course 15.1.1 Steering with rudder 15.1.2 Steering with the propeller 15.1.3 Steering with steering propellers Sideways motion Dynamic positioning SYMBOLS AND UNITS 16.1 16.2 symbols units REFERENCES, INDEX page 13-9 13-10 13-10 13-10 13-11 13-12 13-12 13-13 14-1 14-1 14-2 14-4 14-6 14-7 1s-1 15-1 15-1 15-5 15-8 15-10 15-12 16-1 16-1 16-8 1-1INTRODUCTION 1.1 THE HISTORY OF THE PROPELLER The word propeller originates from Latin pro, forward, and pello, to drive, and simply means "that which drives forward". The meaning has become restricted to what can be denoted the screw propeller. In several languages the propeller is simply called "screw", besides English: German Schraube and French hélice. In Sweden John Ericsson is the most well-known propeller inventor. He made a considerable contribution to the practical development of the propeller but he was far from being the first to conceive the idea. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) touched upon the propeller problem when he sketched the principles of the helicopter. More than two hundred years later, in 1731, the Frenchman du Quet described a "driver in water" according to the screw principle. Other inventors in Switzerland, France and England brought forward ideas, but they did not lead to practical results until the beginning of the 19th century when the American John Stevens reached 6-7 knots with his boat "Little Juliana", equipped with two four-bladed screw propellers. In 1816 the Englishman Samuel Owen, then living in Sweden, fitted a 1.5 m propeller to his boat "Stockholmshaxan", (the itch of Stockholm"), ‘he Austrian Josef Ressel patented a "screw" in 1827 and tested it on the vessel "Cirvetta" a couple of years later. On 31st May 1836 the Englishman Francis Pettit Smith obtained a patent for a screw propeller, and he demonstrated the efficiency of his propeller by letting the vessel "Infant Royal" tow a forward struggling paddle-steamer astern. Incidentally, on one occasion Smith's propeller hit ground and parts of the blades, each forming an entire thread, were broken off. This made the propeller more like the nowaday propeller, and the efficiency increased. On 13th July the same year John Ericsson applied for a patent for a propeller consisting of "two broad, thin metal bands or short cylinders, carried by spiral arms or spokes, rotating in opposite directions with different speed about a common centre. These bands or cylinders are located entirely under the water surface and furnished with a series of short spiral surfaces or disks, the disks of each series inclining at a certain angle being exactly opposite to that of the disks of the other series and rotating by means of the power from a steam engine". So, John Ericsson's patent was for a pair of counter-rotating propellers. He possibly feared that the torque of a single propeller would make t* essel heel or capsize. In 1839 Ericsson went to the « V States, and his real pioneer work was carried out in thar vuntry.As with most inventions - when time is mature - the propeller concept was developed at the same time in many quarters. Soon, the propeller adopted the general appearance it still has today. But this does not mean that development has been slow or non-existing. Great advances have been made towards better efficiency, better methods of designing, and better material as well as cavitation and vibration properties. The atest advance in fighting vibration is the propeller with highly skewed blades. But nothing is new under the sun ~ this idea appeared already in 1883, but it was not developed for practical use until the nineteen-sixties. The first patent for the controllable pitch propeller was granted in 1840, but the design was not applied to ocean-going vessels with high engine power until the 1950's. The world's largest propeller today (1991) has a diameter of 11 metres. 1.2 NON-DIMENSIONAL PRESENTATION Within the theory of propulsion and propellers the concept of non-dimensional presentation of quantities is used to a large extent. This method is especially useful for the evaluation and scaling up of model test results, and model tests form the basis of ships' propulsion and propeller design. Now, what is non-dimensional presentation? Let us consider a box, the configuration of which is to be described while the actual size of box is of less interest. The box has the dimensions length L m, breadth B m and height Hm. The length L is chosen as the basic dimension, and we can now express breadth and height as the breadth/length ratio B/L and height/length ratio H/L respectively, both having the dimension m/m, i.e. none. When B/L and H/L are given, the proportions of the box are known. In order to determine the size of box, only information on the magnitude of L is required. For a full-scale box with the length Ls and geometrically similar with a model box with the length ly, B/L and H/L are equal. The typical dimension of a propeller is the diameter D, and the pitch is normally given as the non-dimensional pitch/diameter ratio P/D. Also areas, velocities, forces etc can be expressed in a non-dimensional way. Let us consider the drag resisting the motion of a body through a fluid. The drag D is proportional to the density p of the water, the velocity squared V2, and the cross section area of the body. The coefficient of proportionality is called Cpr and the drag can be expressed as a 2 D=CyeV A C, is the non-dimensional resistance, and 1s expressedand the non-dimensionalness can be checked as follows 2 N = —‘g n/s aa kg/m (m/s) xm? kg/mem?/s"«m™ For a given configuration of the body, Cp is independent of the size of it. In order to calculate the resistance at an arbitrary velocity V and cross-section area A, these are entered in the formula for D, and the resistance is calculated directly. Cp may also be described as the resistance of a body with the cross-section area 1 m2 moving at a velocity of 1 m/s through a fluid with the density of 1 kg/m>. 1.3 SIMPSON'S RULE For calculating the area under a curve which is not a mathematical function one can use a planimeter or count squares on a graph~ paper. A third method is the use of Simpson's first rule which Seems to be uged mainly within the shipbuilding field. This rule is very useful for calculating areas of waterline planes, propeller blade areas etc. In the following the rule and its use is explained. B a c ¥3 ° —_ D E Pig 1.1 Simpson's rule, approximation The area below the curve AB C in fig 1.1 is to be calculated, i.e. the entire area 0 ABC D. The arc AB C can be approximated with a parabola segment. The distance 0 D is divided into two equal parts 0 E and E D, each of the length h. The ordinates of A, B and C are denoted y,, yy and y, respectively. It can now be shown that the entire aréa 0°A.B C D can be approximated by means of the expression h/3(y, + 4¥9 + ¥3) i.e. the sum of the trapezium 0 AC D and 4/3 of the triangle ABC. In fig 1.2 the curve has been divided into 4 intervals, i.e. 2 double intervals, and the area is calculated as aA h/3+(yy + 4¥y + ¥3) + B/3%(y3 + 4¥q + Y5) 4 b/3"(y, + dy, + 2y3 + yg * Ys)Fig 1.2 Application of Simpson's rule The number of intervals must always be even, i.e. the number of ordinates odd. For n intervals, i.e. n+ 1 ordinates and with a "2" broken out of the parenthesis the general expression is A = 2/3rhe (1/2 yy + 2yy + ¥3 + 2vgq + eres + 2¥Q + 1/2 Yuya) The first term in the parenthesis has the coefficient 1/2; the 2nd, 4th, 6th a so the coefficient 2; the 3rd, 5th, 7th aso 1; and the last term 1/2. For a given curve the accuracy increases with increasing number of intervals.2. _HYDRODYNAMICS In order to understand the function of the propeller and the flow around ships' hulls some knowledge on theoretical hydro- dynamics is required. It is a complicated and comprehensive topic, and in this book only the parts concerning marine propellers and ships' propulsion will be treated. Some practical examples, observations and experiments which the reader can do himself are included in order to elucidate some of the laws of hydrodynamics. 2.1 BERNOULLI'S LAW Bernoulli's law concerns the constancy of energy in a fluid flow. Let us consider a length of tube with a constriction, through which a fluid, say water, is flowing at a certain rate, see fig 2.1. A B pressure p velocity V Fig 2.1 Velocity and pressure in a tube with a constriction During each second a certain volume of water passes section A. In the constriction the same volume per second passes section B. As the cross-section area is smaller at. B than at A, the water velocity must be higher, so the velocity energy has increased, which energy must be taken from somewhere. At A the water has a certain pressure, i.e. a certain pressure energy per unit volume of water. As no energy is supplied from outside between A and B, the total energy, the sum of velocity and pressure energy, is constant (disregarding frictional losses). At B the velocity energy has increased, hence the pressure energy must have decreased and the pressure be lower. In short, increased velocity means lower pressure, decreased velocity higher pressure. In fig 2.1 the flow is visualized by means of streamlines, the closer the lines the higher the velocity. In addition, curves showing the variation of velocity and pressure are shown.pernoulli's law is expressed mathematically as follows Py, + 1/2sp+V,+V" = constant, i.e. pressure energy + velocity energy = constant v, is the volume of water considered vy is eliminated by reduction: p + 1/2spev = constant If the velocity of a fluid drops to zero the pressure increase is equal to the so-called stagnation pressure q = 1/2ep-v? This is the principle of the pitot tube, a tube with a hole in one end, facing the flow. The pressure at this hole is the sum of dynamic and static pressure. The static pressure, known from some other source, is subtracted and the velocity can be calculated. A further development of the pitot tube is the prandtl tube, see fig 2.2, by means of which the stagnation pressure is measured directly as the difference between total and static pressure. total pressure static pressure |= stagnation pressure Fig 2.2 Prandtl tube 2.2 FLOW ABOUT PLATES AND PROFILES When a plate encounters a flow of water at an angle, the flow is deflected, see fig 2.3. On the under-side in the figure the water is decelerated and the pressure increases, on the upper side the velocity of the flow increases and the pressure drops. These changes in pressure generate a lifting force L perpendi- cular to the flow and a-drag D in the direction of the flow. The lifting force, or lift, is calculated by means of the expression : L = C, x 1/2epVea ‘b Cy being the lift.coefficient, a” the area of the plate and Vv the velocity of the flowFor small angles of attack a the following formula for C, is valid cy = 0.1097 a (a in radians) ZF aes Fig 2.3 Flow about a flat plate If the plate is given a camber (see fig 2.4) a lifting force is obtained at zero angle of attack. SSS SS ___ eS Fig 2.4 Flow about a cambered plate For practical reasons a thin plate cannot be used. Already at low angles of attack separation occurs on the suction side causing turbulence and loss of lift, see fig 2.5. Fig 2.5 Separation of flow If the plate is given thickness and streamline form an airfoil is obtained, as on an aeroplane wing, see fig 2.6. Fig 2.6 Airfoil (without camber)This airfoil can be given an angle of attack or camber like the plate, but the camber, see fig 2.7, will cause a lower drag D in relation to the lift L, i.e. the ratio e€ = Cy/Cy, will be lower. Be SSS CT PE Fig 2.7 Cambered profile in flow The lift coefficient can be calculated from the formula tye = * Sy fy being the camber, i.e. the maximum distance between the pYofile mean line and the chord line, and k a constant varying for different profiles, normally k = 0.066. 2.3 CIRCULATION the flow around a profile may be considered. to be a combination of a parallel flow and a circulating flow: Fig 2.8 Circulation about profile It is seen that the circulation increases the velocity of flow on the suction (upper) side and decreases it on the pressure (lower) side in the same way as in fig 2.7. Increasing camber will increase the circulation and consequently the lift. Expressed mathematically: the circulation T (gamma) is equal to the product of velocity V and distance AS, summed along a closed curve, T= I V AS, see fig 2.9. The lift force -per unit span of a profile is obtained from the formula L=pevrFig 2.9 Definition of circulation A practical experiment showing the lift produced by circulation can easily be made. A piece of string is wound several turns around a cardboard tube, and the tube is placed on a table as shown in fig 2.10. The string is pulled hard downwards, and the Fig 2.10 Aerodynamic transverse force tube will move sideways at the same time rotating swiftly. By rotating, the tube causes a rotation of the air due to the friction between tube and air. This circulation, combined with the sideways movement, creates a lifting force, and in spite of the string force acting horizontally on the tube, the latter will rise as shown. The phenomenon is known as the Magnus effect. 2.4 CENTRE OF PRESSURE The lifting force on a profile can be considered to act ina certain point, the centre of pressure. If the lift is produced by angle of attack only, the centre of pressure will be located at the quarter chord point closest to the leading edge. When produced by camber only the centre of pressure will be at the midchord point. A lifting force produced by a combination ofangle of attack and camber will have its centre of pressure somewhere between the midchord and quarter chord points. A practical example: Let a piece of paper or thin cardboard fall freely, and it will start falling with one edge leading. The air resistance will have its centre of pressure close to this edge, the paper is acted upon by a froment tilting it and the other edge will become leading, the centre moves towards this edge, and so on, see fig 2.11. A falling leaf moves in this way. Lo a a ae == = _- ~ ee Fig 2.11 Falling plate 2.5 REYNOLDS NUMBER The Reynolds number, R,, is a concept of great importance to the flow of fluids and thelr friction along surfaces. It is defined as = t¥ Ra 2 being the length of the path of the flow, V the velocity of the flow and Vv the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. The "thicker" the fluid, the higher the viscosity. Oil, for instance, has a higher viscosity than water. At low Reynolds numbers a flow is laminar, i.e. the different layers of fluid move in parallel and do not mix. When the velocity or the length of path increase, Reynolds number increases, and at a certain value the flow becomes turbulent. For a certain velocity the frictional drag is higher at turbulent than at laminar flow. An everyday example: Place a lighted cigarette on an ash tray in a room where the air is absolutely calm. The column Of smoke will be thin and straight in its lower, part, the flow is laminar. At a certain point, some 100 to 200 mm above the cigarette, the flow suddenly turns unstable and starts eddying, ft becomes turbulent. On its way upwards the length of the path of the flow increases, so does R,, and at a certain value of the transition from laminar té turbulent flow occurs, see fig 2.12.turbu+ lent } SSREL lami- nar Fig 2.12 Transition from laminar to turbulent flow The coefficient of friction, i.e, the non-dimensional friction drag of a flow along a surface, Cp, is a function of R, 2.6 BOUNDARY LAYER, SEPARATION, COANDA EFFECT Potential flow is the kind of flow that would occur in a non- viscous, i.e. friction free, fluid. Such a fluid does not exist in reality, of course, but the concept of non-viscous flow is practical for a theoretical mathematical treatment of flow phenomena. For instance, a sphere submerged in a flow of a non- viscous fluid would have no drag, as the pressure distribution would be symmetric about a plane through the centre of the sphere perpendicular to the direction of the flow. In a viscous fluid the flow is influenced by the friction. when a fluid flows along a surface a boundary layer is formed. Immediately at the surface the velocity is zero, and at the outer limit of the boundary layer the flow is unaffected. The thickness of the boundary layer increases along the surface in the direction of the flow, the thickness being a function of Reynolds number and the distance covered. The same state of things applies to the case when the surface moves through a fluid, e.g. the hull plating of the vessel, only with the difference that the water close to the surface now has the highest velocity, and the outer limit of the boundary layer is the ambient, undisturbed water. A number of formulas for the thickness of the boundary layer exist; one is the following: 9.154 Vn 2% being the distance covered by the flow along the surface. bakSeparation is a phenomenon that occurs when a flow is not able to follow the curvature of a surface. An example is the flow in a pipe widening at an angle exceeding 8 degrees, see fig 2.13. Fig 2.13 Separation of flow in a tube The risk of separation in a flow depends on the energy content of the fluid. High energy, i.e. high velocity, decreases the tendency for separation - the lower the velocity, the higher the risk. If a flow is on the verge of separation any disturbance in the surface, e.g. a sharp edge, may initiate the separation. on a ship's hull separation occurs where the afterbody starts narrowing. The opposite to separation is the Coanda effect, named after the Rumanian flying pioneer Henri Coanda, who was the first to discover this phenomenon. It implies that a flow of air or water tends to follow a curved surface. The effect is well-known to anyone who has tried to pour water out of a jug with a rounded edge. The water tends to follow the curvature of the edge and run down the side of the jug, see fig 2.14. aN Fig 2.14 Coanda effect2-9 This effect is of great importance on e.g. drilling platforms, supply vessels and other vessels equipped with rotatable thrusters. Due to the coanda effect the slipstream of a thruster may be deflected around the bilge of a pontoon or hull. A deflection implies that the water is acted upon by a force. According to the law of action and reaction the hull must be acted upon by a force of the same magnitude but opposite direction. The resultant of this force and the thrust of the rotatable thruster may deviate 8-10 degrees from the direction of the thrust - and be 15-20 per cent lower. 2.7 WAVES Waves in water may be divided in four groups, pressure waves, capillary waves, gravity waves, and shallow-water waves. The pressure waves occur under the water and are not visible. They are simply sound waves propagating at a velocity of 1440 m/s. Capillary waves are the small ripples that disappear as soon as the wind dies down. They are influenced by the surface tension of the water and they are peculiar in having a decreasing velocity of propagation at increasing wave length. They are of no interest in connection with ships’ propulsion. Gravity waves are the usual kind of waves in a seaway or in the wake of a vessel. As the name implies they are influenced by the gravitation of the earth. Each particle of water moves in a circular path, forward in the wave crest, backwards in the trough, see fig 2.15. Thus, there is no general transport of water in the direction of the wave motion. The boy trying to Fig 2.15 Wave motion recover his drifting toy boat by throwing stones into the water beyond it will not succeed, the boat will only move to and fro in the wavelets. For gravity waves there is a simple connection between the wave length \ and the velocity 1.25By re-arranging this formula the wave length can be expressed ay a function of the wave period, the time in seconds between two wave passages: a= 1.56 ¢? the wave height, measured vertically from trough to crest, is not equal for all waves in a wave system. One distinguishes between the average height, the significant height being the average of the highest third of all waves, and the outsize Gave — the highest one of 1000 waves. When observing a wave system one notices that the waves appear in groups. These groups propagate at half the wave velocity, which means that @ particular wave will grow when catching up a group and After having passed the group decrease in height again, gradually transferring its height to the following wave. The following expressions are valid for the wave height: Average wave he 4B Significant wave he & outsize wave ned The wave length depends on the wind force, the fetch (distance covered by the wave) and the time the wind has blown. In the Baltic Sea, the typical wave length for a wind Velocity of 12-15 m/s (6-7 Beaufort) is about 45 m. A typical Rtlantie wave has a length of about 120 m and a period of 9 seconds. he wave motion extends to a level under the surface of about one wave length. In case the water depth is less than that the wave is retarded, the wave velocity and wave length Geerease, and the sea becomes choppy. When the depth is small Sn comparison to the wave length the waves turn into shallow- water or channel waves in which all water particles from the farface to the bottom propagate at the same velocity. Tidal waves and tsunamis, earth quake waves, belong to this type. The wave length may be several hundreds of kilometres, and the wave height is so small that the wave is not noticed in the open sea. In narrow and shallow waters a single shallow- water wave may appear in front of a vessel. 2.7 KARMAN'S VORTEX ALLEY Karman's vortex alley is a row of vortices behind a fixed Gbject ina fluid flow. Let us consider a cylinder in a fluid flowing at right angles to the axis of the cylinder. On both siges of the cylinder separation will occur. At a point of Separation vortices will be shed, and each time a vortex is formed an opposite circulation around the cylinder will start. In connection with the parallel flow this circulation will cause2-11 a transverse force due to the Magnus effect. The shedding of vortices alternates between the two separation points, and the vortex alley is formed, see fig 2.16. The circulation around the Oo — Cee Fig 2.16 Karman's vortex alley cylinder alternates as well, so does the transverse force. The humming of telephone wires in the wind is due to this effect as the alternating force causes the wire to vibrate.3. DESCRIPTION OF VESSEL In this chapter dimensions and concepts of importance to the propulsion of a vessel are described, i.e. mainly the part of the hull below the waterline. 3.1 HULL DIMENSIONS ‘The total length of the vessel is denoted Lo,, length overall. From a hydrodynamic point of view it is of minor interest. When speaking of the length of a vessel one generally refers to: The length between the perpendiculars, Lpp. This is the distance between the forward perpendicular, a vertical line through the intersection point of the bow and the design waterline,, and the after perpendicular which normally coincides with the rudder stock, i.e. the rudder shaft. See fig 3.1. U L ee eee] Lon Fig 3.1 Hull dimensions The waterline length, Lyp, is the significant length for the propulsive resistance of a vessel. It is the length at the design waterline. Normally, Ly, does not differ very much from Lops The breadth of the hull at the waterline is denoted Byr,. The symbol B indicates the moulded breadth, the largest breadth measured to the outside of the frames, the plating not included. Normally the difference between B and B,, is small. The draught is denoted T and is defined as the vertical distance between the waterline and the lowest point of the hull. In most cases the draught fore, Ty, and the draught aft, T,, are equal, and the ship is said to be on even keel. In case T, is larger than Tp the vessel has aft trim, or in the opposite case, fore trim. Do not confuse the draught and the depth D of a vessel, the latter being the vertical distance between main deck and keel. he lateral plane is the side projection of the entire hull including the superstructure. It is divided in the over-water and under-water lateral plane.3.2 DISPLACEMENT, BLOCK COEFFICIENT, TONNAGE The displacement of a vessel is the volume of the amount of water, measured in cubic metres, displaced by the immersed part of the ship's hull. This volume is denoted V. The value of V for a vessel with a certain mass varies, of course, inversely with the density of the water, the vessel floating deeper in fresh water than in salt water. The mass of the displaced water is equal to the mass of the vessel and is called the mass displacement A. The unit is normally tonnes (note the difference between metric tonnes and British long tons, 1 long ton = 2240 lbs = 1.016 tonnes). The underwater hull may have more or less full lines. A measure of the fullness is the block coefficient, Cp, defined as the ratio of the immersed volume of a ship to the product of waterline length Ly,, waterline breadth By, and (average) draught T: See fig 3.2 Fig 3.2 Definition of block coefficient Some examples of block coefficients: Type of vessel cy Pleasure craft abt 0.38 tugs, trawlers 0.45 - 0.55 Ferries 0.50 - 0.60 Fast cargo liners, ro-ro vessels 0.55 - 0.65 cargo vessels, coasters 0.65 - 0.75 Bulk carriers, tankers 0.80 - 0.85 Barges abt 0.903-3 The deadweight capacity or deadweight tonnage of a vessel is its load capacity in tonnes including bunker oil and stores. It is normally abbreviated TDW. The deadweight of a small ferry is some hundred tonnes, of a large tanker some 90 per cent of the full load displacement. The description "a 250000 ton tanker" always refers to the deadweight capacity. Gross and net register tonnage, GRT and NRT, are measures of volume not directly connected with Y or TDW. One register ton is equal to 100 British cubic feet = 2.83 m3. 3.3 LINES DRAWING The form of a hull is described by means of a lines drawing, see fig 3.3. The lines drawing consists of three plans:. an elevation known as the sheer plan or profile; a plan showing the form of the hull at several waterlines called half breadth plan; a plan showing the sectional form of the hull at the square stations or cross sections, called body plan. MY \ \ i | \ | load oF i ~ NF design waterline 1 \ > if H \\ base line Fig 3.3 Lines drawingOn all drawings of vessels, lines drawings, general arrangements etc the starboard (right hand) side is always shown, that is with the stern to the left and the bow to the right. This habit is a remnant from old times when ships were fitted with a steering car instead of a rudder. This oar was always placed on the star~ board side, and this side was shown on the drawings in order to show the location of the oar. 3.4 APTERBODY The lines of the afterbody are important to the flow into the propeller and the function of it. In the first place the con- figuration of the afterbody is determined by the number of propellers, normally one or two. On single screw vessels the propeller is located in the propeller well or aperture defined by the body or propeller post forward, the rudder post behind, the arch above and the sole piece, if any, below, the latter acting as a support for the rudder and protecting the propeller. On older vessels the entire stern frame was cast in one piece (fig 3.4). Nowadays the sole piece is omitted and the rudder is suspended in the rudder horn (fig 3.5). The forward part of the aperture may be arranged to provide a better flow of water into the propeller, the most extreme configuration being the Hogner stern aiming at reducing the wake peak immediately behind the stern post. A special type is the skeg afterbody having a flat hull plating and a separate skeg, see fig 3.6. In case the propeller diameter is very large in comparison with the draught, the afterbody may be shaped as a half-tunnel around the propeller with a very small clearance between the propeller blade tips and the hull plating, 4-6 per cent of the propeller @iameter, reducing the risk of air drawing, see fig 3.7. The tunnel sides may be extended to form two skegs carrying one rudder each. The propeller may be enclosed in a short cylindrical shroud, a nozzle, more or less integrated with the hull, see further in section 12.1, Nozzle Propellers. With conventional twin screw arrangements the propeller shafts pass through the hull plating at some distance in front of the propellers. The shaft may be open, carried by one or two dihedral brackets (V-brackets), fig 3.8, or it may be enclosed in a bossing, fig 3.9. A special arrangement is the so-called "Grimsche Welle" at which the propeller shaft has a longer overhang than normal. The shaft runs at'a super-critical speed regarding so-called whirling and may be given a smaller diameter than with conventional bearing arrangements. . Lately a number of vessels have been designed with a twin skeg afterbody, like two single screw afterbodies, see fig 3.10.TR Fig 3.4 Propeller aperture, Fig 3.5 Propeller aperture, older type modern type Fig 3.6 Single screw afterbody with skeg Pig 3.7 Half tunnel and quarter tunnel afterbody on single screw vesselome Fig 3.8 Twin propeller arrangement, open shaft with struts Fig 3.9 Twin propeller arrangement with bossing | Fig 3.10 Twin propeller, twin skeg arrangementTwin screw vessels may have one or two rudders, the latter arrangement giving better manoeuvrability as the rudders are located in the slipstream of the propellers, and an increased rudder force is obtained at low ship's speeds. 3.5 VOCABULARY Bilge or more correctly turn of bilge, the turn from the flat of the hull bottom to the upward rise of the hull sides. Bulbous Bow, a more or less cylindrical protruding bulge on the bow, under the waterline. It creates a local reduction of pressure reducing the bow wave and hence the wave resistance. Bulk Carrier, a vessel for carrying cargoes in bulk such as grain, coal or ore. Bulkhead, wall in any compartment of a ship. Bunker, a compartment for storing engine fuel - bunker coal, bunker oil - under deck. Container Vessel, a cargo vessel for carrying containers, boxes Of standard size with a length of 20 or 40 feet. Corvette, a warship for patrol and convoy service, displacement 500-1100 tonnes, speed 20-30 knots. Deadrise, or rise of bottom, the transverse slope of the hull bottom, measured in millimetres or metres at the hull side. Double-Ended Ferry, a ferry being symmetric about the midship plane, intended for short passages (less than one hour). The power may be distributed on both propellers, one at each end, or absorbed entirely by the propeller working as aft propeller, @ bow propeller being feathered. Duck tail, an extension of the hull aft at the waterline, in order to increase the waterline length, thus decreasing, at a given ship's speed, the Froude number and the resistance of the hull. Floor Plate, a transverse vertical plate which extends between the tank top and bottom plating. Frame, one of the transverse girders forming the ribs of the hull and extending from the keel to the highest continuous deck. Freeboard, the vertical distance between the load waterline and the upper side of the uppermost complete deck. Frigate, a warship intended for submarine chasing etc, displace- ment 1100-3000 tonnes, speed 25-40 knots. Gunboat, a light attack vessel, armed mainly with guns, speed over 25 knots.Hovercraft, a vessel carried entirely by air under pressure, rapped between the side walls and bottom of the vessel and the water surface. Lash Vessel, lighter aboard ship, a vessel for carrying lighters. Lateral Plane, the transverse projection of the hull. ING Vessel, a gas tanker for liquid natural gas. Lo-lo Vessel, a vessel on which the load is lifted on and Titted off. LPG Vessel, a gas tanker for liquid petrol gas. Reefer, refrigerated cargo vessel. Ro-ro Vessel, a vessel on which the cargo is rolled on and rolled off. Rudderstock, the vertical shaft carrying the rudder. Semi-submersible, a floating oil drilling or hotel platform having a low draught at the transit mode and a deep draught when on station, the pontoons being deeply submerged in order to keep the motions low in a seaway. Single Buoy Mooring, the mooring of a tanker to a single buoy at sea for loading crude oil through a hose. Sponson, a longitudinal bulge on the hull side in the water Tine for the purpose of increasing the vessel's stability. supply Vessel, a vessel which transports supplies to platforms and assists with towing and anchor handling. wank Top, plating forming the top part of a double bottom, also the flooring in a cargo hold. TEU, twenty foot equivalent units, the number of 20' containers that can be stowed in the cargo holds of a container vessel. pucc, ultra large crude carrier, a tanker with a deadweight capacity exceeding 300000 tonnes. yLCC, very large crude carrier, a tanker with a deadweight capacity between 200000 and 300000 tonnes.HULL RESISTANCE, PROPULSIVE FACTORS 4.1 HULL RESISTANCE When a vessel proceeds through the water it is opposed by a resistance R. The resistance mainly depends on the vessel's displacement, the block coefficient, the length in the water- line and, of course, the speed. The hull configuration plays an important part as well. The resistance can be divided into two components, the frictional resistance and the wave resistance or residual resistance. The frictional resistance is roughly proportional to the speed squared. The wave resistance increases at low speeds proportional to the speed squared, at higher speeds according to a steeper curve, proportional to speed to the 3rd or 4th power. Short, high-powered vessel as for instance tugs may have a resistance curve corresponding to a 10th degree parabola in the upper speed range. This means that the vessel so to speak runs into a water barrier - any power increase will result in a negligible speed increase. Fig 4.1 shows a typical resistance curve for medium speed cargo vessel. For a given hull form and v Fig 4.1 Hull resistance as a function of ship's speed block coefficient there exists a certain value of the Froude number (a non-dimensional speed) (v in m/s)beyond which a vessel should not be driven in order to avoid excessive resistance and inferior economy of operation. The lower the block coefficient, the higher is the Froude number for economical running. In fig 4.2 is shown the non-dimensional resistance as a function of the Froude number for different blgck coefficients. Along the horizontal parg of the curves R+L/A-V? is constant, i.e. for a given ship R/V? is constant. The diagram originates from Todd's "60-series" [2]. 0.14 pa av? 0.12 o.6p 0.20 | 0.08 = —e 0.06 1 o.1 0.2 0° Fy 0.3 Fig 4.2 Non-dimensional resistance curves for different block coefficients By means of Alexander's formula V = 3.6+(1.05 - Cy)/E55 knots the economic speed for a vessel may be estimated. The reasonable top speed at the trials is about 6 per cent higher. This is, of course, valid for commercial vessels only. For warships other factors than economy determine the top speed. It should be mentioned that for a given displacement and speed the resistance will decrease with increasing waterline length, ive. the displacement is distributed over a greater length. The Froude number decreases - the water barrier at a certain Froude number has now shifted to a higher speed. But the scantlings mustbe increased with increasing length in order to withstand the stresses on the hull in a seaway, adding to the building cost of the ship. In case one insists on passing through the water barrier the hull form must be adapted to the higher speed. In practice, this is the case only for small craft as patrol vessels, gunboats, xescue vessels and pleasure craft. A motor boat with a round bottom and a pointed stern cannot be pushed beyond a Froude number of about 0.50. Any attempt to do so will only result in increased wave making and excessive trim by the stern, see fig 4.3. For a boat of this kind with a waterline length of 7 m the maximum speed is about 8 knots. Fig 4.3 Displacement craft In case a higher speed is desirable, the afterbody should be made wider and designed with a transom, the underwater longi- tudinal lines being straight. In addition to the buoyancy due to the displacement of water, the hull will be carried by the hydrodynamical lift due to the angle of attack of the bottom. The craft is said to be of the semi-planing type, see fig 4.4. —| === > ae Fig 4.4 Semi-planing craft For the speed range exceeding the Froude number F,, = 0.95, about 15 knots for a craft with a waterline length of 7 m, the round bottom should be exchanged for the hard chine vee- bottom. The bow wave is then thrown outwards and the wetted surface and hence the frictional resistance decrease. The planing is said to be fully developed when the major part of the weight of the craft is carried by the hydrodynamic lift. In fig 4.6 is shown the resistance per ton of displacement as a function of the Froude number for the three above mentioned hull forms.Fig 4,5 Planing vee-bottom craft xound bottom, transom Dis xound bottom, pointed stern 7 vee-bottom, hard chine 0 0.5 100) OB, Fig 4.6 Influence of hull configuration on resistanceA large tanker is driven at a very low Froude number in comparison with a small craft. For Ly, =.250 m and V = 16 knots the Froude number is p = 6X 0-5144 2 9 166 no V9.81 x 250 A simplified form of the Froude number, the speed-length ratio V/V= (V in knots, L in feet) has been and is still used, but it is not non-dimensional and does not agree with the SI system. It is converted to Fy by the formula Fy = 0.297 (vV/VT). In the table below some examples of waterline lengths, speeds, Froude numbers and speed-length ratios are give! Type of vessel Lp ® Vknots F wee VE, VEeet supertanker 250 1s 0.17 0.56 Coastal tanker 80 12 0.22 0.74 cargo liner 150 20 0.27 0.90 car ferry 120 20 0.30 1.01 supply vessel 60 15 0.32 1.07 trawler 50 14 0.33 1.09 rug 26 13.5 0.43 1.46 Motor boat 7 8 0.50 1.67 Prigate 95 35 0.59 1.98 Gunboat 40 40 1.04 3.49 Planing motor boat 7 25 1.55 5.22 the resistance of a vessel cannot be calculated purely theoretically. It is determined by means of tests with 6-8 m long models being towed in long towing tanks - see chapter 5. Guldhammer and Harvald [1] have presented a fairly simple method for calculating ships’ resistance approximately, based on a large number of model tests. However, knowledge of a vessel's resistance is not sufficient for calculating the engine power yequired at a certain speed. The so-called effective power, Py, is the power required to tow the vessel. It is equal to the resistance R times the speed V: Pp = R x V. The propeller power required to drive the ship at this speed is considerably higher, due to the propeller efficiency and the hull efficiency. This is treated more in detail in section 4.3. We have now considered the influence of the hull form and size on the resistance. But there are other, environmental, factors of great importance. - The hull surface is fouled by marine growth such as seaweed and barnacles, especially if the vessel has been stationary for some time in tropical waters. A certain vessel having been moored for a few months in a tropical harbour was unable to exceed a speed of 6 knots, the speed with a clean hull being15 knots. This corresponds to a nearly tenfold increase of the resistance. The marine growth is removed at each docking and the hull is repainted. However, the hull surface: does not: regain its original smoothness and the resistance will never be as low again as at the trials. Wind and seaway also play an important role. A head wind may cause a high wind resistance, and, for instance, in a seaway corresponding to 6 Beaufort (abt 13 m/s) the resistance increase may amount to 80 per cent. Due consideration is not always paid to the influence of shallow water. When a vessel moves forward a distance equal to its own length, a volume of water equal to the displacement of the vessel flows aft to "fill the hole" behind it. The water flows along the hull sides and bottom. In shallow water the velocity of the flow under the bottom increases, the vessel generates a counter current, and the reduced pressure under the bottom results in a squat, an increase of draught. leading. to, increased resistance. The resistance augmentation may be considerable. The Finnish car ferry "Finnjet" has a top speed of 30 knots in deep water. When the depth is reduced to 20 m, the speed at full power is only 20 knots. The influence of shallow water depends on the size, block coefficient and draught of the vessel. As a rule of thumb the shallow water influence can be considered to be negligible at water depths exceeding 10 times the draught. At running astern the resistance is greater than at running ahead. This condition, however, has not been investigated to any extent as vessels seldom run astern over longer distances. During manoeuvring in harbours sideways movement of a vessel may - occur, and the resistance is several times that at forward motion. In addition, the resistance may increase due to shallow water, see section 15.2 4.2 WAKE FRACTION, THRUST DEDUCTION FRACTION A vessel making headway acts upon the surrounding water by friction, and a certain amount of water is entrained. The thick- ness of the entrained layer of water, the so-called boundary layer, increases with the distance from the bow and it is a function of Reynolds number. Next to the hull surface the velocity of the water is equal to the speed of the ship, it decreases with increasing distance from the hull and becomes zero at the outer limit of the boundary layer. On a 120m vessel running at 20 knots the thickness of the boundary layer is about 1m at the stern. The potential flow causes a backward flow along the hull sides and a stagnation at the ends of the hull. Due to the stagnation pressure waves are developed at bow and stern. -- In the wave crests the water particles move forward, in the troughs backward, and the motion extends to a certain depth. (Wave motion has been treated in detail in section 2.9.)4-7 The combined effect of these three types of flow, frictional, potential and wave flow, results in the so-called wake. This means that the relative inflow velocity of the water into the propeller, Va, is lower than the ship's speed V. Thus, the wake is equal to V- v,. v-y, The ratio w = —~—* is called the wake fraction. Va is denoted the speed of advance and is the velocity to be used at the propeller calculation. V, = V - w= (1=w)«V. An example: Ship's speed Vv = 10 knots Wake Vv - V, = 2 knots Speed of advance va = 8 knots Wake fraction w= 0.2 The wake fraction of a given vessel can be determined in two ways: By measuring the velocity with a pilot tube on a ship model in a number of points in the propeller plane - with no propeller fitted - and calculating the mean value of w over the propeller disk, i.e. the circular area swept by the propeller. The w obtained in this way is called the nominal wake fraction. By combining a self propulsion test with a ship model test and an open water test with a model propeller. At the self propulsion test the propeller acts as an integrator and the value of the wake fraction for the working propeller is obtained. This is called the effective wake fraction. Normally it does not differ much from the nominal wake but divergences do occur. For propeller calculation the effective wake fraction is used - if it is known. The above is valid for model conditions. The Reynolds numbers for model and full-scale are different, so the thickness of the boundary layer does not follow the scale ratio. The boundary layer is relatively thinner in full-scale than in model, so the full-scale wake fraction, wg, is lower than that in model scale, Wy. A number of methods for calculating wg from wy exist but none of these is reliable. For single scréw vessels the following rule of thumb may be use 0.8 Wy A direct estimate may be made by means of Taylor's formula: w= 0.5 Cy ~ 0.05 On twin screw vessels with conventional stern (i.e. not twin skeg or tunnel), the propeller is normally situated outside the boundary layer, so the wake fraction is normally not affectedby it, and w is lower than for single screw vessels. Taylor's formula for twin screw vessels is w = 0.55 Cy ~ 0.20 There are other methods’for estimating the wake fraction, taking into consideration - in addition to Cg - the ratio of the propeller diameter to the draught, the breadth-length ratio of the hull, and the frame form at the stern, see Harvald: "Wake of Merchant Ships" 14]. v, is the mean velocity through the propeller disk. From point +8 point over the propeller disk there may be considerable variations in local wake fraction and hence water velocity, the propeller works in a so-called wake field. If points of equal wake fraction are connected,a set of curves illustrating the wake field is obtained, see fig 4.7. This is a typical wake field for a single screw vessel with the highest values of the local ~ wake right behind the stern, decreasing. downward -.outward. Fig 4.8 shows a wake pattern for a twin screw vessel. The propeller is normally outside the boundary layer, and the wake peak is caused by shaft bossing, brackets and propeller shaft. The variation of the wake over the propeller disk plays an important role for the function of the propeller, see further in chapter 7. The water flow is normally not perpendicular to the propeller disk, it has a transverse component Viy. The transverse wake fraction is defined as Ver ee tr WV The difference from the definition of the previous described axial wake fraction should be noted, wz, being a velocity ratio, and w(axial) unity minus a velocity rati v, wei- In fig 4.9 is shown a transverse wake field for a twin screw vessel. The magnitude as well as the direction of the wake are indicated. The hull affects the propeller through the wake, and, in return, the propeller acts on the hull. The water is accelerated through the propeller, and a low pressure field is created in front of it producing & suction on the afterbody. In order to propel the ship at a given speed the propeller thrust T therefore. must exceed the hull resistance R, T - R is called the thrust deduction and it may be expressed as t«T, t being the thrust deduction fraction. T-R T-R=teT or t=Fig 4.7 Wake pattern, single screw vessel Fig 4.8 Wake pattern, twin screw vessel (port side, looking ahead)Fig 4.9 Transverse wake field, twin screw vessel (port side) Example? Propeller thrust 100 kN Thrust deduction fraction 0.2 Thrust deduction Resistance T = 0.2 x 100 = 20 KN T(1-t) = 100 x (1-0.2) = 80 kN wt rd wx The determination of the thrust deduction fraction is based on model tests with a ship model. The resistance R is Getermined at the towing test and the propeller thrust T at the self propulsion test. As for w, diagrams exist [4] by means of which t may be estimated in case model test results are not available. There is no direct connection between the values of t and w, but the following formulas may be used for a rough estimate: Single screw vessels t= 0.67 twin screw vessels t = 1.25 No scale correction is applied to t, the value is considered to be the same in model and full-scale. qhe above rules of thumb are valid for running ahead. At pollard pull w is not defined, and the thrust deduction fraction is t = abt 0.03. Thus, the tow rope force is Fog = TUl-t). * ‘At running astern w is lower than at running ahead, as the wake is not influenced by the hull friction. On the other hand the value of the thrust deduction fraction t is higher as the4-11 slipstream of the propeller impinges directly on the hull causing a force on the hull in the opposite direction of the propeller thrust. At bollard pull astern the value of the thrust deduction fraction is about t = 0.17 - 0.20. 4,3 EFFICIENCIES The hull resistance times the speed is called the effective power P;, i.e. the power required to tow the hull through the water, PRaRXV The power transferred to the water by the propeller is the propeller thrust times the speed of advance; it is called the thrust power, Pp = TX Vy v In order to produce this power the propeller must receive the "delivered" power P, from the propeller shaft. A propeller working in a homogeneous, parallel flow of water without a disturbing hull in front of it has the efficiency T, Ya Pp the so-called open water efficiency. in the undisturbed flow. 9 is the propeller thrust In a wake field with the same average speed of advance Va the propeller efficiency is called the behind efficiency T Ya T, being the thrust produced by the propeller in the wake field b@hind the hull. The ratio between these two efficiencies is called the relative rotative efficiency 1, ts The total propulsive efficiency, sometimes called the quasi- propulsive efficiency, is the ratio between the effective power and the delivered power,By inserting R= 7, (1-t), we obtain y, m(i-t) lew act is denoted the hull efficiency ng. i-w Further, Ng = Ng * gr and finally ‘0 Mp = Mo * MR * no ranges from abt 0.45 for slow vessels with a high wake faction, i.e. a low V,, to abt 0.75 for fast vessels with a low wake fraction. The value of ng is abt 1.02 - 1.05 for single screw vessels and abt 0.98 for twin screw vessels (with a conventional stern). ny is abt 1.15 - 1.20 for single screw vessels and abt 0.9 for twin screw vessels.5. MODEL TESTING OF SHIPS The resistance of a vessel at different speeds cannot be calculated purely théoretically. In order to determine the resistance and the engine power required to reach a certain speed model tests must be made. Leonardo da Vinci was - of course - the first to perform tests with ship models, about 500 years ago. He tested three models of identical length, beam and draught, but with different form. The experiments were recorded, but the conclusions drawn were not quite correct. Samuel Fortrey (1622-81) made experiments of which there is no detailed record. In 1721, the Swedish natural philosopher Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772) made detailed proposals for the use of ship models describing the equipment, including the falling weight method of driving the models. Another Swede, the Scottish born Vice-Admiral Fredrik af Chapman (1721-1808), at least in Sweden known as the father of naval architecture, also performed model tests. Due to the lack of methods for recalculation of the model test results to full-scale, model testing was, however, long considered to be experiments with toys. Model tests are performed in a so-called towing tank, for instance with the dimensions length 250 m, width 10 m and depth 5 m. The tank is bridged over by a carriage running on rails along the tank. The carriage carries the measuring equip~ ment and tows the ship model or, at the self-propulsion test, just follows and guides the model. 6-8 m long models of wood or wax are used, and they are driven under own power by an electric motor. The model represents the entire hull including the parts above the water line as tests in waves are often made. A complete model test consists of three parts, towing test, self-propulsion test and wake survey. Carriage = awe, Ship model ao (XB \ f , Towing tank Coen q Trt fs + - 2 pq EET Fig 5.1 The towing tank at SSPA, Gothenburg, SwedenThe first towing tank, that of William Froude, was set up in Torquay by the British Admiralty in 1871. It was here that Froude in 1872 made his classic experiments, towing. planks ranging in length between 10 and 50 ft (appr 3 to 15 m) with different surface finishes such as shellac varnish, tinfoil and sand. He also compared model tests with the resistance of a full-scale vessel, and he was able to determine the laws of comparison, based on the earlier theory of Newton. The Torquay tank was superseded in 1886 by the tank at Haslar, and in the following decades a number of tanks of various sizes were built in England. In the USA the first tank was built in 1904 in Ann Arbour, in Europe 1906 in Paris and 1912 in Vienna. Today, there are more than 50 establishments for ship model testing in operation in the world, some of these comprising more than one towing tank. 5.1 TOWING TEST The ship model is towed by the measuring carriage. Sideways motion of the model is prevented, but it is free to move vertically, i.e. to squat or to change trim. A number of runs at different speeds are made, e.g. 11 speeds covering a speed range of 5 knots in steps of 0.5 knots, and the total resistance Ryy is measured at each speed. The model resistance is recalculated to the full-scale as follows: the resistance consists of two components considered to be independent of each other, the frictional resistance and the wave or residual resistance R,. The Reynolds number for the model is calculated (see chapter 2). Based on Reynolds number the non-dimensional frictional resistance coefficient C, for the model scale is calculated. Cyy is defined as follows cate) FM 2 2 Vy Sy Vy being the model speed and Sy the wetted surface of the model. Hence, Rpy is calculated. Rpy is subtracted from the total model resistance, and the residual resistance is calculated, Ray = Rom 7 Rew In non-dimensional form R, Com = 2 P Vy Sy The residual resistance coefficient is equal in model and full~ scale, (Index $ indicating full-scale, "ship")In the same way as in the model scale the frictional resistance coefficient for full-scale, Cpg, is calculated for each speed, based on the full-scale Reynolds number. The total resistance coefficient is Cog = Cpg + Ces + S, ts ~ Crs * Crs * Sa C, is a correction for wind resistance, resistance of bilge keels, hill roughness, increased resistance due to steering losses etc. The size of C, (earlier denoted 4C,) is based on experience. Finally, the total resistance for each speed is calculated, - 2 Rog = 0+5+0:V,7*S.*Cng Model speed and ship's speed are connected by Froude's law, saying that the Froude number must be equal for model and full-scale in order to make the identity Caz = Cpy true, i.e. y, v, [ELy Voelg Ls The geometric scale ratio is } = = Ys Tag thus Vy = = Vx Equal Froude numbers imply that the wave systems produced by model and ship are geometrically similar, i.e. to the same scale as the model. Finally, the effective power is calculated, PRoR* Vv. A short repetition: In model scale: The total resistance Ry, is measured. The Reynolds number Ry, the frictional resistance coefficient Cyy and the frictional resistance Rj are calculated. FM Ht The residual resistance is calculated, Rey = Bey 7 Beye The residual resistance coefficient Cp, is calculated.In full-scale: Cas = Cry Calculate Cg, determine C,. Cog = ¢, ‘rs = Cas * Crs * Sa Rys = Cgg * 1/2 +P Ve Calculate the effective power Pz = Ryg*V- In [1] diagrams are given for the determination of Cp and Cp, and the entire calculation is presented in tabular form. The towing tanks normally supply with their reports a description of the method of testing and evaluation. 5.2 SELF-PROPULSION TEST At a self-propulsion test the ship model is driven by an electric motor and its own propeller or propellers. The speed of the model is kept constant, and the propeller shaft speed n, the propeller torque Q and the propeller thrust T are recorded. The self-propulsion test is run at the same speeds as the towing test. When the model propeller is a true model of the full-scale propeller, then Jy = J. Further, Vy = V,/VA% and Dy = D,/A Hence, it is found that noVA, i.e. the model shaft speed is higher than the full-stale Shaft speed. As at the towing test the ship model is guided by the measuring carriage. The carriage also transfers a certain towing force Fy compensating for the difference in model and full-scale frictional resistance coefficient, = pe Ve 2a! « - Fp = 1/2+0y Vy *Sy [oem (pg + cy) Based on the test result is calculated: The advance number (based on,model speed uncorrected for wake), Vv Vo mp The thrust coefficient of the propeller = a4 TO pen?-D’ The torque coefficient of the propeller -—2 x,=—2- 9 pen v®With this value of Kg, one enters the open water diagram for the propeller and reads off the advance number of the propeller, y, g=4 , see fig 5.2 nD 0 a a Fig 5.2 Propeller diagram The wake fraction is calculated 1-2 a The thrust deduction fraction is obtained as the relative difference between the propeller thrust and the corresponding model resistance, (R - Fh) = This is valid for single screw ships. For twin screw vessels (R= Fy) must be divided by two. From the propeller diagram is obtained a Kp value corresponding to J. The ratio of measured K, to read-off K, is the relative rotative efficiency, i Ky (measured) Ky. (read off) With J and Kp read off in the diagram the shaft speed n and the propeller pofer P, in full-scale are calculated.boo ae vg (1-wg) 's TDS 3 Q = Koren, Pp = 2m-n,+Q, These are so-called tank values, valid for full-scale. To obtain the trial prediction the towing tanks apply empirical corrections according to the type and size of vessel. a r/ain 120 Pp 2 a 200 ao a0 8 %p ‘ 2 ioscan emsss ee see Vxnoee Fig 5.3 Result of self-propulsion test All measured values at tests are subject to a certain inaccuracy. In case the influence of minor hull modifications or different propellers - e.g. stock model and final model - are to be Compared, it is essential to perform the tests within a short period of time and, above all, at the same test facility. In case there is an interval of six months or more between two tests, the hull model form and the calibration of the test equip- ment may have changed slightly. 5.3 WAKE MEASUREMENT At the wake survey test the hull model is towed without the propeller at a certain speed, and the velocity distribution in the propeller plane is measured by means of pitot tubes. The measuring points are distributed over 5-10 concentric circles with an angular spacing of 10-15°. On single screw vessels, onwhich the wake field is symmetric, only the field to one side of the hull centre plane is surveyed, while on twin screw vessels the survey must cover the entire propeller disk. The result is presented in a diagram as fig 5.4. 0 180) Fig 5.4 Result of wake measurement in a towing tank Presenting the wake field in a so-called iso-wake diagram (see figs 4.7 and 4.8) gives a better idea of the distribution of the local wake fraction. The average value of the circumferential wake distribution for each radius may be calculated and presented in a diagram as fig 5.5. This radial wake distribution forms the basis of the calculation of a wake-adapted propeller. By integrating the above distribution volumetrically from hub to blade tip the nominal mean wake fraction is obtained. The formula is (Rk w, de ‘mean In case the transverse wake distribution is to be included in the measurements a 5-hole pitot tube is used. Both velocity and direction of the flow in the propeller plane are obtained, and the axial and transverse components can be calculated. we2ueredr ne(R? = hub Thu )mean ° x/R 1.0 Pig 5.5 Radial wake distribution 5:4 OTHER TESTS ‘A more complete survey of the flow around the afterbody or other parts of the vessel is obtained by means of streamline tests. Drops of a special paint are applied to areas of interest on the model hull surface. The paint is entrained by the water in the direction of the flow. The test is run over a short time, and the length of the paint trails indicates the flow velocity. For direct observation of the flow,air may be blown in through small holes in the hull surface, or tufts of wool may be fitted to the surface or on small pins. For testing the seaworthiness of a hull design a seaway may be produced in a towing tank, regular like swell or irregular like storm waves. Of special interest is the risk of slamming at which the forebody of the vessel emerges from the water and hits the next wave with a hard blow. The model seaway is produced by various kinds of wave machines at the side of the towing tank. Manoeuvring tests may be carried out in two ways. One is performed in special manoeuvring basins in which the model is ¥adio controlled, its course being recorded by means of an accompanying measuring carriage or measuring equipment ashore, taking bearings to lights fitted on the model. The other method is the use of a so-called planar motion device by means of which transverse forces and yawing moments on the model can be measured at various drift angles.6. PROPELLER, DESCRIPTION AND GEOMETRY A propeller consists of a hub with a number of blades. The most important dimension is the diameter, defining the size of the propeller. The blades have a certain pitch, i.e. they are twisted a certain angle, each blade being, in principle, a part of a helical surface. The relative blade width and thickness may, as well as the diameter and pitch, vary within a wide range depending on the power of the engine, the shaft speed and the speed of the vessel. The forward side of a blade is called the suction side or back, and the side facing aft is called the pressure side or face. The blades have a leading edge and a trailing edge and they may have a rake, i.e. lean backward or forward. Dimensions and definitions are shown in fig 6.1 dix. of rotation ——o trailing edge leading edge - \ an | | rake blade tip back blade root Fig 6.1 Propeller dimensions and definitions6.1 NUMBER OF BLADES The number of blades, Z, may vary from 2 to 7. At increasing blade number the diameter and efficiency decrease, and so do the vibration pulses. However, if the same diameter is chosen for two different blade numbers for a given case, the propeller efficiency will remain nearly constant. The connection between blade number, optimum diameter (i.e. the diameter giving the highest efficiency), efficiency and vibration is shown in fig 6.2, with Z = 4 being used as reference. Vibration Ll D/D, 1.0 0.9 La n/n, 10 +4 0.9 | i i 2 3 4 5 6 Fig 6.2 Connection of number of blades, diameter, efficiency and vibration Two blades are normally used on small outboard engines and sailing boats and were earlier common on controllable pitch propellers for fishing boats. Propellers for pleasure craft, small fishing vessels, coasters, patrol vessels and other small craft normally have 3 blades. 4 blades are found on most cargo and passenger vessel propellers. 5, 6 and, in a few cases, 7 blades are used on propellers for high power when there is a xisk of excessive vibration with 4 blades, for instance on container vessels and supertankers.6.2 DIAMETER ‘The diameter is measured in m or mm, on standard propellers for small craft often still in inches. High power and low shaft speed result in a large diameter, and vice versa. At constant power and shaft speed the diameter decreases somewhat with increasing ship's speed, in other words, a propeller designed for towing at 3 knots will have a larger diameter than one designed for 15 knots at the same power and shaft speed. The so-called optimum diameter is the diameter resulting in the highest possible efficiency for a given power, shaft speed and ship's speed. For various reasons a diameter below optimum may be chosen, for instance in case the space available in the propeller aperture sets a limit. The smallest propeller diameter occurring (apart from model boat propellers) is about 150 mm, and the largest 11 m (1991) (a 3-bladed controllable pitch propeller and a 4-bladed fixed pitch propeller). The hub diameter is denoted d. For fixed pitch propellers the hub-diameter ratio is d/D = 0.18-0.20, for controllable pitch propellers 0.23-0.42, as an average about 0.28. 6.3 PITCH A very simple definition of pitch was given in an American diesel engine manufacturer's instruction manual, see fig 6.3. no pitch pitch Fig 6.3 "Definition" of pitch The pitch P is measured like the diameter in m or mm or, on pleasure craft propellers, in inches. It can be compared with the pitch of a screw thread; it cannot, however, be measured Girectly on the propeller, some calculation is required. A nut being screwed one turn on a bolt will proceed a distance equal to the pitch. The pitch of a propeller is equal to the axial distance it would move when screwed one turn into e.g. a block of clay, see fig 6.4.