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Collaborative governance for low-

carbon tourism: climate change
initiatives by Australian tourism
agencies
a
Heather Zeppel
a
Australian Centre for Sustainable Business and Development ,
University of Southern Queensland , Springfield Campus,
Brisbane , 4300 , Australia
Published online: 07 Oct 2011.
To cite this article: Heather Zeppel (2012) Collaborative governance for low-carbon tourism:
climate change initiatives by Australian tourism agencies, Current Issues in Tourism, 15:7, 603-626,
DOI: 10.1080/13683500.2011.615913
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Vol. 15, No. 7, September 2012, 603 –626
Collaborative governance for low-carbon tourism: climate change

initiatives by Australian tourism agencies
Heather Zeppel∗
Australian Centre for Sustainable Business and Development, University of Southern Queensland,
Springfield Campus, Brisbane 4300, Australia
Downloaded by [University of Auckland Library] at 17:12 13 October 2014
(Received 10 May 2011; final version received 14 August 2011)
The Australian tourism industry is vulnerable to the impacts of climate change on natural
areas and the destination choices of long-haul travellers concerned about carbon
emissions. A National Tourism and Climate Change Taskforce was established in
2007; with a national action plan for Tourism and Climate Change produced in 2008.
Implementing these climate change actions requires new partnerships between tourism
agencies, business programmes, carbon consultants, and offset providers. This paper
assesses collaborative governance of climate change in Australian tourism, with a
focus on low-carbon initiatives promoted to tourism operators by state and territory
government tourism agencies. The paper compares the climate change initiatives of
these tourism agencies based on six key dimensions of governance including:
accountability, transparency, involvement, structure, effectiveness, and power
[Ruhanen, L., Scott, N., Ritchie, B., & Tkaczynski, A. (2010). Governance: A review
and synthesis of the literature. Tourism Review, 65(4), 4 –16]. While most state and
territory tourism agencies provided resources on climate change initiatives for tourism
operators there was little accountability for emissions reduction within the agency.
Collaborative governance of climate change was also more developed in states with
climate change policies, destinations vulnerable to the impacts of climate change (e.g.
Great Barrier Reef, Queensland), or dependent on long-haul travellers. Further research
is needed on the governance and effective delivery of carbon emissions reduction
programmes by tourism agencies.
Keywords: tourism agencies; Australia; climate change; collaborative governance;
low-carbon tourism
Introduction
There is a growing body of knowledge about the impacts of climate change on tourism des-
tinations, but limited research about climate change tourism governance at the local level.
This paper addresses collaborative governance of climate change in Australian tourism by
assessing the climate responses of government tourism agencies and their interactions
with environmental agencies or other key stakeholders. It reviews climate change infor-
mation and programme reports found on the corporate websites of state and territory
tourism agencies. The Australian tourism industry is vulnerable to the impacts of climate
change on natural areas (e.g. coral bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef and reduced snow
∗
Email: heather.zeppel@usq.edu.au
ISSN 1368-3500 print/ISSN 1747-7603 online

# 2012 Taylor & Francis
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604 H. Zeppel
cover in the Australian Alps), and the destination choices of long-haul travellers concerned
about carbon emissions. Economic research has been conducted to determine the carbon
footprint of Australian tourism (Dwyer, Forsyth, Spurr, & Hoque, 2010; Forsyth et al.,
2008). This research found direct greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions due to Australian
tourism are mainly from transport: private vehicle use for travel (39%), international airlines
(27%), domestic air travel (20%), and non-air transport (2%). Other indirect emissions due to
tourism are from electricity use and consumable tourist products. Tourism accommodation in
Australia accounts for 3% of emissions, while overall buildings contribute about 30% of total
GHG emissions. Excluding international aviation, direct GHG emissions from Australian
tourism in 2003– 2004 were 3.9% of emissions from Australian industries (Forsyth et al.,
2008). The World Tourism Organization (Scott et al., 2007; WTO, 2003, 2007, 2009),
World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC, 2009), and United Nations Environment
Program (Simpson, Gossling, Scott, Hall, & Gladin, 2008) have also produced reports out-
lining global tourism responses to climate change. Recent tourism textbooks evaluate the
climate change risks, challenges, actions (i.e. adaptation or mitigation), and opportunities
for the tourism industry (Becken & Hay, 2007; Hall & Higham, 2005; Peeters, 2007;
Schott, 2010). Awareness of tourism and other human impacts on biodiversity, natural
resources, and the atmosphere is thus increasing, along with research interest in environ-
mental, climate, and sustainability governance (Cadman, 2011). Despite this focus, there
has been little research evaluating climate change governance within tourism. This paper
begins by reviewing the notion of governance, research on tourism governance, policy net-
works for sustainable tourism governance, and studies of collaborative tourism governance.
The next section introduces key strategies about climate change and Australian tourism, fol-
lowed by a review of climate change responses by state and territory government tourism
agencies. The paper compares state tourism agencies based on six key dimensions of
climate governance including: accountability, transparency, involvement, structure, effec-
tiveness, and power.
Governance
The notion of governance derives from political sciences and corporate management.
Extending beyond the formal structures of government, the process of governance high-
lights the transition from ‘top-down’ forms of bureaucracy to ‘bottom-up’ inputs into
decision-making. Governance involves the development of new forms of interactions
between the state (i.e. bureaucracy, politicians), civil society, and the corporate sector,
where diverse interest groups and private citizens actively interact with government and
business on key policy and planning issues (Marsh, 2002; O’Flynn & Wanna, 2008). ‘Gov-
ernance involves the establishment and maintenance of new relationships between the state,
civil society and economic interests’ (Dredge & Jenkins, 2007, p. 463) where citizens and
interest groups engage with a more transparent and open government. Key elements in new
modes of governance include: participation and power sharing; multi-level integration;
diversity and decentralism; deliberation; flexibility and revisability, along with experimen-
tation and knowledge creation. Four key governance types include hierarchies, markets,
networks, and communities (Hall, 2011a). Governance structures and processes are
expressed in policy networks based on ‘strategic development of partnerships and alliances
between public and private spheres’ (Dredge & Jenkins, 2007, pp. 54– 55). Studies of gov-
ernance focus on alliances, networks, collaboration, and cooperation between key stake-
holders or interest groups for mutually beneficial outcomes. Governance has also been
examined at different scales (i.e. global, local, regional, rural, urban) and across a range
Current Issues in Tourism 605
of human and environmental sectors (Table 1). Governance has been widely assessed in
both corporate management studies and the political sciences (Griffiths, Haigh, &
Rassias, 2007; Marsh, 2002; Pattberg, 2010). A review of 53 governance studies identified
40 dimensions or key principles of governance, with the six main dimensions of governance
assessed in these studies including: accountability, transparency, involvement, structure,
effectiveness, and power (Ruhanen, Scott, Ritchie & Tkaczynski, 2010). These key dimen-
sions of governance and the role of collaborative partnerships have also been assessed in a
growing range of studies about tourism governance.
Tourism governance
Research on tourism governance has mainly been conducted since 2000, marking a change
in focus from tourism management and marketing to governance structures and processes.
Governance was addressed as a key process in the book, Tourism and transition (Hall,
2004). Earlier studies examined the influence of business interests in tourism governance
(Greenwood, 1993); tourism marketing organisations and urban governance (Bramwell
& Rawding, 1994); and the governance style of marketing groups (Palmer, 1998). More
recent research focuses on case studies of tourism governance (e.g. Europe, Turkey, Philip-
pines, South Africa), destination governance (Baggio, Scott, & Cooper, 2010; Laws,
Richins, Agrusa, & Scott, 2011), sustainable tourism, and protected area governance
(Table 2). Other sector-specific studies of tourism governance address coastal tourism, eco-
tourism, and local tourism, along with tourism marketing and policy studies related to gov-
ernance. The range of governance studies in tourism include alliance governance structures
in airlines (de Man, Roijakkers, & de Graauw, 2010), strata title governance for tourism
accommodation (Cassidy, Guilding, & Warnken, 2008), and governance of an artificial
surf reef in the UK (Fletcher, Bateman, & Emery, 2011). However, most studies of
tourism governance relate to issues of resource conservation and sustainability. The next
section reviews key studies of sustainable tourism governance and collaborative tourism
governance for sustainable development.
Sustainable tourism governance

A range of studies address policy networks and practices for sustainable tourism governance.
Beaumont and Dredge (2010) examined the structure and operation of three different local
tourism governance networks for their effectiveness and impact on sustainable tourism
Table 1. Research about governance topics.

Area British, European, global, international, local, regional, rural, urban
Issues Capacity, challenges, indexes, failure, matters, mechanisms, practices, principles,
ratings, responses, strategies, structures, style, systems, quality
Process Adaptive, alliance, collaborative, cooperative, communicative, democratic, dual,
effective, good, interorganisational, new, modern/modernising, multi-level,
network, self-governance
Sector Bank, corporate, clinical, cultural, destination, electricity, event, health, indigenous,
(human) institutional, migration, public, risk, strata title, tourism
Sector Carbon, climate, coastal, environmental, fisheries, forest, green, landscape, marine,
(nature) ocean, protected area, resource, surf, sustainability, water/shed
Source: Governance articles in ‘Science Direct’ database that refer to governance in the title, abstract, keywords,
text, or citations.
606 H. Zeppel
Table 2. Research on tourism governance.

Tourism sector Tourism research
Coastal Tourism Governance Caffyn and Jobbins (2003), Fletcher, Bateman, and Emery
(2011), Larsen, Calgaro, and Thomalla (2011), Wesley and
Pforr (2010)
Climate Change Governance Becken and Hay (2007), Zeppel and Beaumont (2011a)
Destination Governance About Tourism (2010), Baggio et al. (2010), Beritelli, Bieger, and
Laesser (2007), Conti and Perelli (2007), d’Angella, De Carlo,
and Sainaghi (2010), Gill and Williams (2010), Jamal and Watt
(2011), Laws et al. (2011), Nordin and Svennson (2005, 2007),
Pechlaner and Raich (2005), Pechlaner, Raich, and Beritelli
(2010), Svennson, Nordin, and Flagestad (2005, 2006), Viken
(2011), World Tourism Organization (2010)

Ecotourism Governance Fennell and Dowling (2003), Hall (2006a) , Higgins-Desbiolles
(2011)
Local Tourism Governance Beaumont and Dredge (2010), Dredge (2003)
Protected Area Governance Buteau-Duitschaever, McCutcheon, Eagles, Havitz, and Glover
(2010), Cater and Cater (2007), Clark and Clarke (2011),
Dearden, Bennett, and Johnston (2005), Eagles (2008, 2009),
Hannah (2006), Hind, Hiponia, and Gray (2010), Lockwood
(2010), Moreno-Sanchez and Maldonado (2010), Schliep and
Stoll-Kleeman (2010), Su, Wall, and Eagles (2007)
Sustainable Tourism/ Beaumont and Dredge (2010), Bramwell (2010, 2011), Bramwell
Sustainability Governance and Lane (2011), Chancellor, Norman, Farmer, and Coe
(2011), Clark and Clarke (2011), Dinica (2008, 2009), Erkus-
Ozturk and Eraydin (2010), Gill & Williams (2011), Hall
(2011b), Kerimoglu and Ciraci (2008), Moore and Rodger
(2010), Paskaleva-Shapira (2001), Pavlovich (2001), Pforr
(2004), Robertson (2009), Vernon, Essex, Pinder, and Curry
(2005)
Tourism Governance Cornelissen (2005), de Man et al. (2010), Dredge and Whitford
(2011), Galvani (2008), Goymen (2000), Greenwood (1993),
Hall (2004, 2006b, 2011a), Mordue (2008), Northcote, Lee,
Wegner, and Chok (2009), Ruhanen et al. (2010), Trousdale
(1999), Yuksel, Bramwell, and Yuksel (2005), Zahra (2011)
Tourism Marketing Bramwell and Rawding (1994), Halpern and Pagliari (2007),
Palmer (1998), Van der Borg (2008), Wang and Xiang (2007)
Tourism Policy Dredge and Pforr (2008), Hall (2011b), Krutwaysho and
Bramwell (2010), McLeod and Airey (2007), Pforr (2004,
2007), Vernon, Essex, Pinder, and Curry (2005), Wray (2009)
management. These included a council-led, participant-led, and local tourism organisation

(LTO)-led tourism network operating in the Redlands City Council area of southeast Queens-
land (Beaumont & Dredge, 2010). They reviewed how the operation of these three local gov-
ernment tourism networks influenced sustainable tourism policy initiatives. To achieve
sustainability, the council-led network focused on economic development and marketing
of tourism rather than environmental or social sustainability. The participant-led network
developed actions to improve the environmental and social outcomes of tourism on North
Stradbroke Island, while the LTO-led network obtained funding for a sustainable tourism
committee and supported environmental accreditation. Underlying these approaches was a
sustainable tourism vision for North Stradbroke Island (Sustainable Tourism Services,
2002), whereby the three networks collaborated on environmental and community aspects
of sustainable tourism at different levels. Hence, ‘there is a need to further explore the multi-
network governance structures wherein different networks focus on different versions of sus-
tainable tourism policy’ (Beaumont & Dredge, 2010, p. 26). Other studies highlight the role
of collaboration for sustainable tourism through on-ground conservation activities by the
Waitomo Caves Landcare Group in New Zealand (Pavlovich, 2001), and cooperation
between tourism organisations and land trusts in the USA based on mutual conservation
goals and preservation of scenic natural areas (Chancellor et al., 2011).
Other sustainable tourism research focuses on policy networks and collaborative govern-
ance. Pforr (2004) assessed how regional policy networks influenced the structure and
actions of tourism governance for sustainable development, while Bramwell (2010) outlined
a community-based framework for participative planning and sustainable tourism govern-
ance. Dinica (2008, 2009) reviewed key issues for sustainable tourism governance in the
Netherlands, comparing international and Dutch ideas for achieving sustainable tourism.
Robertson (2009) assessed collaborative governance in a Brazilian network for sustainable
tourism, ReDeTuris in Rio de Janeiro. In Turkey, studies of collaborative tourism networks
investigated environmental governance processes in the Antalya region (Erkus-Ozturk &
Eraydin, 2010), and a governance model of sustainable tourism for the Frig Valley (Kerimo-
glu & Ciraci, 2008). Moore and Rodger (2010) assessed the enabling conditions for sustain-
ability governance of wildlife tourism as a common pool resource while Clark and Clarke
(2011) reviewed the role of adaptive governance for sustainability initiatives in English
national parks. In contrast, Hall (2011b) critically addresses policy learning and failure in sus-
tainable tourism governance seen as a third-order tourism objective. Beyond sustainability
issues, there has been little tourism research on climate governance.
Climate change tourism governance

Global climate governance is addressed in the book, Adapting to climate change (Adger,
Lorenzoni, & O’Brien, 2009). Becken and Hay (2007) reviewed international climate
change policies along with adaptation and mitigation practices for tourism in their book,
Tourism and climate change: Risks and opportunities. Zeppel and Beaumont (2011a)
assessed the climate change policies, plans, and programmes of Australian government
tourism agencies. This study found that state tourism agencies varied in their integration
of climate change issues into sustainable tourism planning and management. There has
been little research on climate change tourism governance at the local level. Previous
studies address tourism governance structures and processes, and local policy networks
and practices for sustainable tourism governance. However, these studies do not address
climate change impacts and issues such as emissions reduction. The current paper addresses
climate change governance within Australian tourism.
Collaborative tourism governance

Collaborative governance for planning and policy-making ‘refers to cooperation, support
and mutual assistance between actors and agencies in the pursuit of common interests’
(Dredge & Jenkins, 2007, p. 461). For example, collaboration between tourism organis-
ations and land trusts in the USA is based on mutual conservation goals and preservation
of scenic natural areas (Chancellor et al., 2011). Collaboration theory has also been
applied to community tourism planning by Jamal and Getz (1995), who outlined guidelines
for achieving collaboration, while Johnston and Tyrell (2005) and Vernon et al. (2005) note
that tourism agencies benefit from collaboration with community groups on local
608 H. Zeppel
sustainability projects. Examples include collaboration for sustainable tourism through on-
ground conservation activities by the Waitomo Caves Landcare Group in New Zealand
(Pavlovich, 2001) and by land trusts in the USA (Chancellor et al., 2011). Other studies
assess collaborative governance in a Brazilian network for sustainable tourism (Robertson,
2009), and collaborative networks for environmental governance in the Antalya tourism
region of Turkey (Erkus-Ozturk & Eraydin, 2010). The Scenic Rim Regional Tourism Strat-
egy in southeast Queensland, Australia, also defined good tourism governance as building
‘collaborative structures and processes of governance that support strong leadership and
provide opportunities for constructive dialogue, information sharing, communication and
shared decision-making about common issues and interests’ (Dredge & Ford, 2010,
p. 2). This paper assesses the collaborative governance of climate change in Australian
tourism, focusing on the carbon reduction initiatives promoted by state and territory
tourism agencies.
Climate change and Australian tourism

Climate change impacts will particularly affect iconic Australian tourism destinations such
as the Great Barrier Reef, Kakadu wetlands, wine regions, and coastal areas (STCRC,
2009). The Australian tourism industry is thus vulnerable to the impacts of climate
change on natural areas and the destination choices of long-haul travellers concerned
about carbon emissions (Donnelly & Mercer, 2008; Frew & Winter, 2010; Prideaux,
Coghlan, & McKercher, 2009; STCRC, 2009; Turton, Hadwen, & Wilson, 2009). Physical
impact of extreme weather events such as flooding, cyclones, coastal erosion, bushfires, and
heatwaves on tourism facilities and forward bookings is also a concern. Climate change
impacts on Australian alpine areas (Bicknell & Mcmanus, 2006) and carbon offsetting of
air travel (Becken, 2004; Mair, 2011) are two key research areas. Tourism to and within
Australia also contributes to GHG emissions while other indirect emissions due to
tourism are from electricity use, construction of infrastructure (e.g. airports, roads), and
the transport of other consumable tourist products.
Climate change adaptation and mitigation are thus emerging issues in the Australian
tourism industry. Research on climate change and Australian tourism has increased since
2006 in response to government strategies and research programmes addressing the bio-
physical and economic impacts on tourism as a key industry (Zeppel & Beaumont,
2011a, b). The federal government recognised tourism’s vulnerability to the impacts of
climate change in Australia and established a National Tourism and Climate Change Task-
force in 2007. In 2008 a national plan entitled Tourism and climate change – a framework
for action outlined five areas of action designed to achieve the following outcomes: (1)
improved understanding of tourism’s vulnerability to the physical and economic impacts
of climate change; (2) a tourism industry prepared for future constraints on carbon but
still able to contribute economically; (3) repositioned marketing strategies that address
the challenges and opportunities of climate change; (4) an industry informed by effective
outreach and communication; and (5) ‘a cooperative approach to implementation’ (Depart-
ment of Resources, Energy and Tourism [DRET], 2008, p. 5). One of the outcomes of the
second action area was the Climate change guide: Mitigation and adaptation measures for
Australian tourism operators, which explained the issue of climate change, and provided
details for implementing mitigation and adaptation measures (DRET, 2009). Climate
change tourism workshops were conducted throughout Australia in 2009. The 2011 –
2012 priorities for the National Long-Term Tourism Strategy focus on building industry
resilience to the economic impacts of climate change while increasing small business
adoption of climate change mitigation initiatives (DRET, 2011). A recent report highlighted
the economic impact of a proposed carbon tax on the Australian tourism industry, particu-
larly domestic aviation and tourist accommodation, and the need to reduce emissions to
protect natural assets and improve long-term competitiveness (Tourism and Transport
Forum [TTF], 2011). Mitigation actions by tourism were also the focus of a previous
report, Responding to climate change (TTF, 2008).
The Sustainable Tourism CRC also researched the impacts of climate change on five
tourism destinations: Kakadu, Tropical North Queensland, Blue Mountains, Barossa
Valley, and Victorian Alps (Sustainable Tourism CRC [STCRC], 2009; Turton et al.,
2009). The reports that emanated from this research analysed the biophysical, social, and
economic impacts of climate change on these destinations and outlined various adaptation
strategies that could be led by governments, businesses, industry, and communities. Govern-
ment and industry agencies in Australia have identified various issues related to climate
change, instigated research on the impacts and implications for tourism of climate change,
and outlined desirable strategies and actions for key tourism stakeholders in response to
these climate change impacts. However, government-led strategies did not specify the
level of government or the individual department or agency responsible, and focused on a
range of climate change issues, for example, conducting risk assessments of natural assets,
integrating planning across various land use sectors, and providing funding for low-
carbon emission infrastructure development. The governance aspects of climate change
responses by tourism agencies were not addressed, and this paper fills this research gap.
Methodology
This paper evaluates climate change governance by state and territory tourism agencies.
Information on climate change, sustainability, and green business practices was drawn
from the corporate websites (n ¼ 9), annual reports (n ¼ 15), tourism plans (n ¼ 10),
carbon programme reports (n ¼ 5), fact sheets (n ¼ 14), and case studies (n ¼ 88, Queens-
land; n ¼ 5, Victoria; n ¼ 3, Northern Territory; n ¼ 4, Western Australia; n ¼ 3, Tasma-
nia) produced by Australian state or territory tourism agencies from 2007 to 2010. This
covered the key period since Australia established a National Tourism and Climate
Change Taskforce in 2007 and the 2008 national plan on Tourism and climate change –
a framework for action. These website resources and reports about climate change were
analysed for key themes and topics such as carbon emissions, carbon footprint, carbon
neutral, carbon offset, and sustainability. These carbon themes were assessed according
to their frequency (e.g. keyword search and number of website pages) and depth of cover-
age of mitigation measures. This analysis focuses on the governance of climate change
responses by state and territory tourism agencies, in particular the carbon reduction initiat-
ives promoted by tourism operators. Specific tourism agency programmes to implement
low-carbon tourism, such as Outback Offsets (Northern Territory), Carbon Footprint
Pilot Study (Western Australia), the Sustainable Regions Program and Tourism Environ-
mental Indicators Benchmark (Queensland) are reviewed in more detail, in particular the
governance partnerships with environmental agencies and carbon consultants. The six
main dimensions of climate governance assessed in this tourism study include: accountabil-
ity, transparency, involvement, structure, effectiveness, and power (Ruhanen et al., 2010).
Accountability refers to reporting requirements for carbon emissions and transparency
refers to public disclosure of climate mitigation efforts by tourism agencies and operators.
The paper compares state tourism agencies based on these key dimensions of climate
governance.
610 H. Zeppel
Results: climate change responses by Australian government tourism agencies

The government tourism agencies varied significantly in their extent and coverage of climate
change issues. A keyword search of climate change words on the corporate websites of gov-
ernment tourism agencies indicated Tourism Queensland (TQ) had the most in-depth cover-
age of climate change issues and carbon-related tourism topics, followed by Western
Australia, Northern Territory, and Victoria. The total number of main tourism website
pages (excluding plans, strategies, and annual reports) that mentioned climate change or
carbon-related words (i.e. carbon credit, carbon emissions, carbon footprint, carbon
neutral, carbon offset) varied from 1 page (New South Wales, South Australia) to 69 pages
(TQ, 2010a). TQ (2010a), Tourism Tasmania (2010), and Tourism Western Australia
(2010) had a specific section of their websites dedicated to climate change issues
(Table 3). Tourism Victoria (2009) planned to add a climate change section to its corporate
website, with climate change information currently found on their allied ‘Tourism
Excellence’ (n.d.) website in the training module about sustainability in tourism. Northern
Territory climate change information was included in a ‘Going Green’ section of its corpor-
ate website (Tourism Northern Territory, 2010) and in an allied website for the Northern
Territory Outback Offsets (n.d.) pilot project implemented in 2008/2009. The climate
change and going green sections of five corporate tourism websites discussed climate
change impacts and greening tourism businesses by reducing emissions, supported by
industry examples/case studies, tools, resources, consultants (Western Australia, Tasma-
nia), and other climate change links. One key driver for the climate responses by TQ is
because ‘consumers are starting to think about climate change and the impact of carbon
on the environment’ (Philips, 2009). Other climate actions by state tourism agencies
were in response to the National Action Plan on Tourism and Climate Change and other
state-based climate action plans or policies (Table 3). Key drivers for selected tourism
operators are emissions auditing requirements in the ecoBiz or Greenhouse Challenge
Plus programme, Climate Action certification, and the Australian government’s National
Greenhouse and Energy Reporting System requiring larger enterprises to report their
annual emissions.
Two agencies (Northern Territory, Queensland) had fact sheets about climate change
and tourism, and on carbon offsetting (Tourism Northern Territory, 2009a, 2009b; TQ,
2009a, 2009b). TQ had also developed a Climate Futures scenario toolkit for coastal
tourism operators to assess and address climate risks (TQ & CSIRO, 2009). Tourism
Western Australia (2010) listed the Climate Change Guide for operators on the sustainable
tourism section of their website. The South Australia tourism agency website had one page
titled ‘Green SA’ that mentioned the Climate Action certification programme and the
WOMADelaide festival offsetting carbon emissions. The Tourism NSW website had one
brief ‘Go Green’ page that mentioned climate change, the NSW Greenhouse Gas Reduction
Scheme, and carbon credits. The Australian Capital Tourism website had no pages about
climate change or sustainability policies and practices.
Climate change in Australian tourism strategies

The Australian National Long-Term Tourism Strategy noted that clean green tourism pro-
ducts and environmental sustainability initiatives were increasingly required to attract
major tourism markets concerned about climate change (DRET, 2009). Five state govern-
ment agencies also included climate change in their strategic tourism plans (Northern Ter-
ritory, Tasmania, Queensland, and South Australia). The Queensland Tourism Strategy
focused on ‘dealing with climate change’ in terms of adapting to negative impacts, coral
Table 3. Carbon mitigation initiatives by Australian government tourism agencies.
Climate change programmes Key drivers Carbon agencies

TQ, www.tq.com.au ‘Sustainability & Climate Change’ website, Impacts of CC; CPRS, National Carbon Offset Carbon Reduction Institute, Climate Action
Sustainable Regions Program, Tourism Standard; Queensland Climate Smart Adaptation certification, Department of Climate Change
Environmental Indicators Benchmark 2010, Action Plan; National Action Plan on Tourism Earthcheck, EC3 Global, ecoBiz, GHG
Understanding Climate Change & Offsetting Your and Climate Change; TQ Tourism Action Plan to Protocol, NABERS
Carbon Footprint fact sheets (and nine other 2012
related fact sheets)
Tourism Northern ‘Going Green’ website; ‘Outback Offsets’ (2008/ CPRS, Consumers & CC Impacts, Five Year Alice Solar City, Climate Action certification,
Territory, www. 2009); www.outbackoffsets.com; ‘Tourism – Tourism Strategic Plan 2008– 2012, NT Climate Earthcheck, ecoBiz NT, Greenhouse
tourismnt.com.au Make the Switch’ (2008/2009) (renewable Change Policy & Coordination Unit, National Challenge Plus, NABERS Hotel, PE
energy), CC Overview, How Will CC Impact Action Plan on Tourism and Climate Change International (Outback Offsets)
Tourism? and Carbon Offsetting fact sheets; report
agency emissions
Tourism Western ‘Climate Change’ website, Carbon Footprint Pilot Consumers & CC Impacts, WA Office of Climate Carbon Neutral, Department of Climate
Australia, www. Study (2009) Change, National Action Plan on Tourism and Change, DEWHA, GHG Protocol, ISO
tourism.wa.gov.au Climate Change, National Climate Change Standard, Sustainable Infrastructure
Adaptation Framework, Climate Change Guide Australia, WA Small Business Development
Corporation
Tourism Victoria, www. ‘Tourism Excellence’ website, www. Consumers & CC Impacts, National Climate CarbonDown, Carbon Innovators Network,
tourism.vic.gov.au tourismexcellence.com.au, tourism destination Change Adaptation Framework, National Action Climate Action certification, Greenhouse
carbon footprint study (planned), audit own Plan on Tourism and Climate Change, CPRS, Challenge Plus, Grow Me The Money,

carbon footprint Our Environment, Our Future (Victoria Sustainability Victoria
government strategy), Victoria’s Nature-Based
Tourism Strategy 2008– 2012, Environmentally
Sustainable Tourism Strategic Plan 2009–2012
Tourism Tasmania, ‘Climate Change’ website, Green Tourism (2010/ Consumers & CC, National Tourism & Climate Climate Change Office Tasmania, Climate
www. 2011), www.greentourism.org.au Change Taskforce, Tasmanian Climate Change Managers, Earthcheck, EC3 Global,
tourismtasmania. Strategy, Reducing Tasmania Government’s EcoSmartBiz, Greenhouse Challenge Plus,
com.au Carbon Footprint, CPRS, Tourism 21 Strategic Tony Charters & Associates
Business Plan 2007– 2010
SA Tourism Two website pages – Green SA and Environmentally CPRS & higher costs, promote low-carbon tourism, Climate Action certification
Commission, www. Sound Technology Resources South Australian Tourism Plan 2009–2014
tourism.sa.gov.au
Note: CC, climate change; CPRS, Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme; DEWHA, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage & the Arts; GHG, greenhouse gas; ISO, International
611
Standards Organisation; NABERS, National Australian Built Environment Rating System.
612 H. Zeppel
bleaching, and other industry threats (TQ, 2006). The Queensland Tourism Action Plan to
2012 listed industry actions such as ‘Implement a range of sustainable tourism initiatives to
assist industry deal with climate change, including progress the National Tourism Climate
Change Action Plan’ and scenario planning to ‘minimise the regional effects of major
shocks such as climate change’ (TQ, n.d.). In addition, one key priority in the Tourism
NSW Annual Operating Plan 2009– 2010 was to ‘advise tourism industry on sustainability
including adaptation to climate change’ (Tourism New South Wales, 2009). In contrast, the
section on ‘climate change and sustainability’ in the South Australian Tourism Plan 2009 –
2014 focused on opportunities for the tourism industry in energy and waste efficiency and
in promotional and branding prospects for destinations with low emission tourism (SATC,
2009). The Northern Territory’s Five Year Tourism Strategic Plan (2008 – 2012) has a
section on ‘the environment and climate change’ highlighting the growing concern for
climate change that impacts on travel behaviour among key visitor markets. However,
Tourism Northern Territory also identified a competitive advantage in responding to this
climate change issue with one key action of the Northern Territory’s tourism plan
to ‘Explore opportunities to develop carbon abatement and carbon offset schemes’
(Tourism Northern Territory, 2008b).
In Tasmania, the section on ‘climate change and our environment’ in the Tourism 21
Strategic Business Plan 2007 – 2010 also focused on opportunities for the tourism industry
‘to offer measurable offsets and reassurance to travellers concerned about the carbon foot-
print created by their travel’ (TICT, 2007, p. 9). In regard to branding, Tourism Tasmania
also aimed to develop a climate change strategy that ‘considers mitigation and adaptation
measures of direct relevance to the Tasmanian tourism industry, including innovative
ways to market Tasmania as a climate friendly destination’ (TICT, 2007, p. 12). The Aus-
tralian Capital Tourism Five Year Strategic Plan 2009 –2013 noted that industry response
to sustainability and climate change was increasingly important in travellers’ choice of des-
tinations. A key strategy was encouraging tourism operators to participate in ‘a recognised
certification scheme to measure, reduce and offset carbon and reduce Greenhouse Gas emis-
sions’ (Australian Capital Tourism, 2009, p. 21).
Climate change was an integral part of Tourism Victoria’s plans for environmentally
sustainable tourism and for nature-based tourism (NBT). Victoria’s Nature-Based
Tourism Strategy 2008 – 2012 encouraged the NBT sector and key NBT destinations to
implement carbon reduction initiatives and sustainable practices to help combat climate
change. Sustainable practices included the use of renewable energy (solar and wind),
carbon neutrality, and offsets. Other actions were to increase visitor information and mar-
keting of climate change initiatives by the NBT sector and to identify areas vulnerable to the
impacts of climate change. A section in this strategy on ‘the climate change challenge’
noted the tourism industry needed to ‘prepare and actively engage in efforts to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions’ as ‘visitors are now seeking experiences and destinations that
are actively reducing their impacts on climate change and the size of their carbon footprint’
(Tourism Victoria, 2008, p. 12). Victoria’s Environmentally Sustainable Tourism Strategic
Plan 2009 – 2012 focused on assisting the tourism industry to mitigate the impacts of
climate change. A section on ‘tourism’s carbon footprint’ noted the need to measure and
reduce the carbon footprint of tourism in Victoria, and to audit Tourism Victoria’s own
carbon footprint. Two key performance indicators for this strategic plan were an ‘increase
in number of tourism businesses participating in carbon measurement, reduction and offset
programs’ and the ‘number of businesses actively seeking advice on adaptation to climate
change issues’. Tourism Victoria took on a leadership role in advocating ‘green tourism’
and ‘encouraging recognised carbon offset programmes’ for operators. A section in this
plan on ‘assisting the tourism industry to adapt to climate change’ encouraged tourism
businesses and destinations to anticipate and plan for climate change impacts. Specific
actions in this plan were to develop a carbon footprint toolkit for businesses, prepare
notes for event organisers to measure and reduce their carbon footprint, and provide
advice to tourism organisations on engaging with tourism businesses about climate
change issues (Tourism Victoria, 2009).
Carbon mitigation by Australian tourism agencies

Various carbon mitigation or carbon reduction initiatives were suggested by state govern-
ment tourism agencies on the climate change or going green sections of their websites
(Table 3). This included information for tourism operators about sustainability measures
and emissions reduction initiatives, supported by fact sheets, industry examples, resources,
and other links. Only one agency, Tourism Northern Territory, measured and reported their
own emissions since 2007 in annual reports, with greenhouse gas intensity, energy, and
paper usage for Tourism House Darwin along with GHG emissions by vehicles and
overall fleet composition. Tourism Victoria planned to start auditing their carbon footprint
across the organisation. Other carbon-related programmes implemented by state tourism
agencies were sustainable regions and environmental indicators in Queensland (TQ,
2010b, 2010c, 2010d), Green Tourism (2010) in Tasmania, a carbon footprint study in
Western Australia (2009), and an Outback Offsets programme for the Northern Territory
(2008/2009). The main carbon reduction tools suggested for operators by tourism agencies
were Climate Action certification, ecoBiz, Earthcheck, and Greenhouse Challenge Plus,
along with advice from state government climate change or sustainability departments
and other eco-consultants. The key drivers for carbon initiatives implemented by state
tourism agencies were the National Action Plan on Tourism and Climate Change, state pol-
icies or action plans on climate change, the impacts of climate change on tourism, higher
costs for operators in a proposed Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme, and growing consu-
mer awareness of climate change.
Few state or territory government tourism agencies were offsetting their own carbon
emissions. In 2008, Tourism Western Australia offset emissions from their functions and
events at the Australian Tourism Exchange in Perth through a waste diversion and landfill
methane management programme operated by the Southern Metropolitan Regional Council
(Tourism Western Australia, 2008). In 2008/2009, Tourism Northern Territory purchased
5000 tonnes of carbon credits from LMS Generation, for a landfill methane gas project
in Darwin (Northern Territory), for three tour operators in the Outback Offsets (n.d.) pro-
gramme. In February 2007, Tourism Tasmania paid for carbon credits up to AUD$100
per person to offset emissions from international flights, for Tasmanian holiday packages
sold through Goway Travel (PR Newswire, 2007).
Low-carbon tourism programmes in Australia

Four tourism agencies had implemented specific programmes addressing climate change
impacts and emissions reductions by tourism operators. These included a Carbon Footprint
Pilot Study (Western Australia), green tourism (Tasmania), a Sustainable Regions Program
and Environmental Tourism Indicators (Queensland), and an Outback Offsets programme
(Northern Territory). These initiatives are reviewed below. While this section reports on
findings from other researchers and consultants about carbon programmes it also reinforces
the current study about climate governance by tourism agencies.
614 H. Zeppel
Carbon Footprint Pilot Study: Western Australia

Tourism Western Australia conducted a Carbon Footprint Pilot Study of four Western Aus-
tralian tourism businesses in 2009. These operators were: large accommodation (.50
rooms); small accommodation (,5 rooms); accommodated tour (.40 people); and a
day tour (20 people). A consultant, Carbon Neutral, measured the carbon footprint of
these four Western Australia tourism businesses. Scope 1 or vehicle fuel was 65– 97% of
emissions for tours, while Scope 2 or electricity was 61– 85% of emissions for accommo-
dation. Other Scope 3 emissions were from consumables and waste disposal plus business
and staff travel. This carbon footprint study recommended that transport operators use
cleaner fuels such as biofuels and energy efficient vehicles, while accommodation operators
should reduce energy use and purchase renewable energy. ‘Reducing energy consumption,
using more renewable energy and purchasing carbon offsets are the key steps towards
becoming low carbon enterprises’ (Tourism Western Australia, 2010). Tourism Victoria
also planned to conduct a tourism destination carbon footprint study and to audit their
carbon footprint as an organisation.
Green tourism: Tasmania

In 2009, Tourism Tasmania supported a Green TEA (Tourism Environmental Audit) of 35
tourism operators in the Huon Valley region. Assisted by EC3 Global, the businesses
reduced their carbon footprint through reduction of energy, waste, and water usage. GHG
emissions saved by operators were equivalent to taking 24 cars off the road for a year. A
larger green tourism project was established in 2010 with a Climate Connect Grant. It involves
85 Tasmanian tourism operators and uses Earthcheck criteria for emissions auditing and
reductions. Key aims of this project were improving the environmental performance of Tasma-
nian tourism enterprises and helping to combat climate change (Green Tourism, 2010).
Sustainable Regions Program: Queensland

TQ implemented a Sustainable Regions Program during 2009 based on improving the environ-
mental performance and emissions reductions of tourism operators. The programme was devel-
oped in partnership with EC3 Global, ecoBiz, Ecotourism Australia, Regional Tourism
Organizations, and local councils. Sustainability initiatives based on ecoBiz involved over 70
tourism operators in six regional areas: Magnetic Island (n ¼ 19); Airlie Beach (n ¼ 16);
Agnes Water and 1770 (n ¼ 16); Stradbroke Island (n ¼ 14); Mackay (n ¼ 5); and Winton
(n ¼ 13). The Winton operators also formed a Climate Smart Cluster Program and received a
grant under ecoBiz guidelines. A report on four regions in the Sustainable Regions Program
(Airlie Beach, Mackay, Stradbroke, and Winton) found that 49 tourism operators planned to
reduce their carbon footprint, 28 operators completed a baseline assessment, 19 businesses com-
pleted a carbon footprint, 14 planned to invest in green technology, and 3 businesses planned to
offset their emissions (EC3 Global, 2009). A related climate change initiative in 2009 was ‘The
Biggest CarbonLoser’ funded by a Queensland government Low Carbon Diet grant that
involved 38 participants in the Scenic Rim region of southeast Queensland. The TQ website
includes sustainability case studies of tourism operators in both of these programmes.
Tourism Environmental Indicators: Queensland

TQ also developed a set of Tourism Environmental Indicators in 2009 with two core indi-
cators including: (1) carbon footprint of the Queensland tourism industry and (5) Response
to climate change by tourism operators (EC3 Global, 2009; TQ, 2010b). The purpose of
Indicator 1 was to support efforts to minimise carbon emissions by the tourism industry
and of Indicator 5 was to demonstrate operator commitment by implementing adaptation
and mitigation measures. An additional indicator included: (10) carbon offsetting, based
on consumer environmental concerns and the number using offsets. A baseline set of indus-
try responses to these indicators was determined with a Tourism Operator Environmental
Indicators Benchmark survey of 986 businesses completed in 2010. The operators were
mainly accommodation (63%), attraction (18%), or tour companies (13%) and 90% were
small or medium enterprises (n ¼ 888). With regard to climate change, 38% strongly
agreed it was important to reduce the carbon footprint of their tourism business while
35% strongly agreed that their business environmental initiatives will positively impact
on climate change. However, only 1 in 10 operators measured their carbon footprint,
mainly in the transport (37%) and tour (17%) sectors, predominantly large (38%) or
medium (25%) businesses, and Brisbane operators (21%). Only 1 in 10 tourism operators
had purchased carbon offsets, mainly large businesses (21%) and those in the Mackay area
(22%), while just 6% of all tourism operators planned to purchase carbon offsets in the next
year (TQ, 2010c).
Outback Offsets: Northern Territory

In the Northern Territory, Outback Offsets (n.d.) was a pilot carbon offset programme
implemented by Tourism Northern Territory in 2008/2009. It involved three tour operators,
Adventure Tours Australia, Wayoutback Safaris, and Connections Safaris, representing
around 40% of touring operations in Central Australia. Two greenhouse gas life cycle assess-
ments for the three tour operators measured their emissions from office electricity, business
travel (car/air), tour vehicles (diesel), LPG, waste water, solid waste, and dry cleaning (PE
International, 2009). The carbon footprint of each tour operator was measured for 2007/
2008 as a benchmark, with total carbon emissions generated for 2008/2009 measured as
3835 t CO2. Tourism Northern Territory supported these three tourism businesses to
become carbon neutral during 2008/2009, paying for carbon credits from LMS Generation,
a Greenhouse Friendly abatement provider approved by the Australian government, for the
Shoal Bay Landfill Gas generation project in Darwin. These carbon credits were provided at
no cost to the consumer, with an assurance statement from PE International (2009) verifying
that Tourism Northern Territory purchased Emission Reduction Units from LMS Generation
to offset the non-reducible emissions of the three tour operators. Two of the tour operators
continued to offset their emissions in 2010/2011, with Intrepid Connections purchasing
credits through Cleaner Climate for renewable energy hydro-projects (India, China) and a
rice husk biomass project (Thailand). Wayoutback Safaris continued their carbon offset pro-
gramme with LMS Generation, marketing this carbon neutrality on their brochure with a
green footprint logo, and the motto ‘offset your carbon emissions for free’.
To test consumer response to the Outback Offsets programme, PE International con-
ducted a survey of 4589 visitors travelling with the three tour operators during 2008/2009.
Seventy per cent of respondents were visitors under 40: 18– 29 years (48%) and 30– 39
years (22%), with 19% 40– 59 years and 8% over 60. The visitors were mainly from
Europe (43%), UK (17%), Australia (16%), other countries (10%), USA (7%), Canada
(4%), and Japan (2%). One-third (31%) were aware their tour had a carbon offset programme,
while 53% were strongly (14%) or somewhat (39%) influenced by the offset programme in
booking a tour. Visitors most influenced by awareness of Outback Offsets were the French
(64%), German (53%), Australian (51%), USA (50%), and UK visitors (41%). One in six
616 H. Zeppel
visitors (16%) had offset carbon emissions on other parts of their holiday activities such as
tours, and on flights. Visitors aged 30– 39 were most aware of Outback Offsets (34%), fol-
lowed by those 40– 59 (31%), 18– 29 (30%), and over 60 (26%). Australians (36%) were
more aware than international visitors (29%): with the USA (40%), France (32%),
Germany (30%), and UK (28%) the most aware (Tourism Northern Territory, 2009c). The
Outback Offset programme featured as part of the Northern Territory’s first global Red
Centre Way marketing campaign in 2008. This offset project aimed to test the influence of
carbon neutrality on travel purchasing and to ‘provide the Northern Territory with an edge
over competing destinations in attracting environmentally aware travellers from long-haul
markets’ (Tourism Northern Territory, 2008a, p. 8). However, another survey of 1500 visitors
in five key international markets found that, while people expressed concern about climate
change, few had paid for an offset but might take this action in future (Tourism Australia, 2009).
State and territory tourism agencies have begun to implement various carbon mitigation
initiatives by providing climate change information or resources. Specific agency
programmes support emissions reductions by selected operators (i.e. Western Australia,
Tasmania, Queensland, and Northern Territory). The next section critically assesses the
governance of climate change issues by state tourism agencies.
Discussion: climate governance by state tourism agencies

This paper has reviewed the key climate change policies, plans, and programmes by state
and territory government tourism agencies in Australia. The next section compares the
climate change governance of state tourism agencies on six key dimensions of governance
(Ruhanen et al., 2010) including accountability, transparency, involvement, structure, effec-
tiveness, and power.
This analysis identifies gaps and provides directions for future research in tourism
governance.
Accountability
State and territory tourism ministers are members of the National Tourism and Climate Change
Taskforce established in 2007. These ministers are responsible for implementing the national
plan on Tourism and climate change – a framework for action with five key areas of action
including a tourism industry prepared for future constraints on carbon (DRET, 2008). State
and territory tourism agencies are accountable to their ministers for their climate change initiat-
ives. Most agencies included a section on climate change in their annual reports. Other state and
territory climate change action plans also established guidelines and goals for emissions
reduction activities across government departments and areas, including tourism. These key
plans included the Climate Smart Adaptation Action Plan (Queensland), Our Environment,
Our Future (Victoria), and the Tasmanian Climate Change Strategy. For tourism operators,
there were emissions auditing requirements in the ecoBiz program, Climate Action certifica-
tion, and the Australian government’s Greenhouse Challenge Plus programme. Further
research on climate change reporting by tourism agencies is needed such as details of
carbon audits and types of mitigation initiatives or offsetting adopted by agencies.
Transparency
State and territory tourism agencies provided details on climate change initiatives for
tourism operators on their corporate website, in their annual reports, and in corporate/
strategic plans. Specific reports, fact sheets, and operator case studies were included for
low-carbon tourism emissions initiatives such as the Carbon Footprint Pilot Study
(Western Australia), Outback Offsets (Northern Territory), Sustainable Regions Program
and Environmental Tourism Indicators (Queensland). However, only one agency,
Tourism Northern Territory, included emissions data in their annual reports since 2007,
with greenhouse gas intensity, energy, and paper usage for Tourism House Darwin along
with GHG emissions by vehicles and overall fleet composition. Tourism Victoria
planned to start auditing their carbon footprint across the organisation. There was only
short-term (1 month to 1year) offsetting of carbon emissions by a few government
tourism agencies for one trade event (Western Australia), one holiday promotion (Tasma-
nia), and three tour operators (Northern Territory). As statutory authorities, most tourism
agencies are not required to report their annual emissions. The reporting of emissions by
tourism agencies and authorities needs further investigation as many are statutory auth-
orities that are not legally required to disclose this carbon information.
Involvement
The level of involvement of state and territory tourism agencies in climate change gov-
ernance varied from minimal green measures (South Australia, New South Wales, Aus-
tralian Capital Territory), integration within strategic tourism plans (Victoria), and
resources on low-carbon initiatives for tourism operators in a climate change (Queens-
land, Western Australia, Tasmania) or going green (Northern Territory) section of the
corporate website. Three tourism agencies provided funding support for a carbon foot-
print audit of operators (Western Australia), purchased offsets for three tour operators
(Northern Territory), and to survey operators on emissions reduction outcomes in a Sus-
tainable Regions Program and for Environmental Indicators (Queensland). These pro-
gramme reports were completed by eco-consultants rather than tourism agency staff.
Research on limits to tourism agency funding and staff support for climate change is
needed as these effect the development and delivery of carbon mitigation programmes
to operators. All divisions within state tourism agencies need to be involved in adopting
low-carbon measures.
Structure
Climate change initiatives by government tourism agencies were addressed within the
environmental or sustainability sections of the organisation. Apart from the Northern
Territory’s Outback Offsets programme, there was no explicit marketing of climate
initiatives to tourists. There were few directives at the corporate level about emissions
reduction goals within tourism agencies. While a few tourism agencies had staff desig-
nated for climate change or sustainability issues the area of climate change was not part
of marketing or management roles in the agency. The low-carbon tourism programmes
supported by tourism agencies (e.g. Outback Offsets, Carbon Footprint Pilot Study, and
Sustainable Regions Program) were delivered or assessed by consultants and involved
collaboration with environmental agencies, businesses, or councils. There was no cross-
border interstate collaboration on any climate change tourism programmes. The struc-
ture of climate change responses within and between agencies needs investigation as
climate change is led by sustainability officers and not well linked to other corporate
areas.
618 H. Zeppel
Effectiveness
Three state tourism agencies provided extensive website resources about climate change,
emissions reduction, or carbon offsetting initiatives for tourism operators (i.e. Queensland,
Northern Territory, Western Australia). These low-carbon tourism initiatives were sup-
ported with agency funding, climate change workshops, and eco-consultants. Reports eval-
uating specific climate programmes highlight their effectiveness in promoting emissions
reduction among targeted tourism operators (Queensland, Western Australia, Tasmania),
and marketing carbon offsets to visitors (Northern Territory). The effective delivery of
these climate initiatives thus depended on new tourism partnerships with eco-consultants
and carbon offset providers. However, the actual or potential effectiveness of these
climate change resources produced by tourism agencies in terms of achieving emissions
reduction by operators has not been assessed. Research on the effective delivery and gov-
ernance of climate change programmes by tourism agencies in collaboration with key part-
ners is also needed. There has been no evaluation of agency effectiveness in reducing their
organisation’s carbon emissions or the most effective form of tourism collaboration with
other environmental agencies.
Power
Climate change tourism governance is driven by ‘top-down’ government strategies and
action plans that focus on national or state/territory goals for emission reduction.
Implementation of climate actions by tourism agencies depends on voluntary involve-
ment by tourism operators, with ‘bottom-up’ input into case studies, programme evalu-
ations, and environmental indicators. Some state tourism agencies give very little
priority to climate change issues (i.e. New South Wales, South Australia, Australian
Capital Territory) indicating the dominance of destination marketing over sustainability
measures. Other state tourism agencies with extensive resources on climate change initiat-
ives (i.e. Queensland, Western Australia, Northern Territory) also focus on tourism oper-
ators rather than emissions reduction within the agency itself. The economic importance
of tourism at key destinations tends to override conservation goals. Government funding
is directed to tourism development, marketing, and events to maintain, revive, or grow
tourism numbers with minor funding for sustainability programmes. A recent report
mainly focuses on the economic impact of a proposed carbon tax on the tourism industry
by reducing emissions to protect natural assets and remain competitive (TTF, 2011). The
2011 – 2012 priorities for the National Long-Term Tourism Strategy focus on building
industry resilience to the economic impacts of climate change while increasing small
business adoption of climate change mitigation initiatives (DRET, 2011). Other govern-
ment departments are responsible for sustainability, conservation, and climate change
programmes. There is conflict between growing tourism while reducing carbon emissions
by operators. Research on interactions between government agencies on climate change
issues is required such as their legal and bureaucratic power to develop and administer
low-carbon programmes.
Collaborative tourism governance on climate change

Tourism agencies for Queensland, the Northern Territory, Victoria, Western Australia, and
Tasmania have been the most pro-active in collaborating on climate change issues (Table 3).
Queensland has the most online information for tourism stakeholders about climate change,
sustainability, carbon offsetting, and going green, with emissions reductions initiatives for
tourism businesses part of the Sustainable Regions Program, and Tourism Environmental
Indicators for operators. The Northern Territory also has website information and fact
sheets about climate change, and implemented the Outback Offsets (n.d.) programme in
2008/2009 for three tour operators by purchasing carbon credits from a landfill gas plant
in Darwin. Victoria has integrated climate change issues into nature tourism and environ-
mentally sustainable tourism plans with climate change information to be added to their
website. Both Tasmania and Western Australia have a climate change section on their cor-
porate website, with a green tourism programme implemented for operators in Tasmania
(Tourism Tasmania, 2010), and a Carbon Footprint Pilot Study of selected tourism oper-
ators in Western Australia (Tourism Western Australia, 2010). Collaborative governance
of climate change was more developed in states with climate change policies, destinations
vulnerable to the impacts of climate change (e.g. Great Barrier Reef, Queensland; Zeppel,
2011), or dependent on long-haul travellers (i.e. Queensland, Western Australia, Northern

Territory).
State tourism agencies are collaborating on many of the actions suggested in the Sus-
tainable Tourism CRC study, The impacts of climate change on Australian tourism desti-
nations (STCRC, 2009; Turton et al., 2009). These include providing information to
tourism operators about dealing with climate change, greener business practices, develop-
ing low-carbon tourism and carbon offsets, and marketing clean green products. Overall,
while climate change initiatives are planned, agreed, or encouraged for tourism operators
their implementation by state or territory tourism agencies is still an emerging practice.
The main focus of state agencies is on reducing carbon emissions from accommodation
and local tour operators, with suggestions for offsetting air travel by tourists. Most
tourism GHG emissions are from transport, but travel to destinations, by air, car, or boat,
was not addressed by state or territory tourism agencies. Moreover, few government
tourism agencies are auditing and reporting on their own carbon footprints and mitigation
initiatives. This paper highlights climate change governance in Australian tourism invol-
ving federal and state government agencies, tourism industry groups, and carbon consult-
ants. Climate change mitigation by tourism agencies and operators involves collaborating
with government green business programmes, carbon auditors, and offset providers.
However, the non-market benefits of mitigation action for environmental amenity and con-
servation of natural areas are usually excluded from economic measures of climate change
outputs (Garnaut, 2011).
Conclusions
This study reaffirms the collaborative roles of government tourism agencies in the provision
of climate change information, training, industry outreach, and tourism planning. Collabora-
tive governance of climate change in Australia tourism requires cooperation, support, and
assistance from environmental agencies, sustainable business programmes, eco-consultants,
and carbon offsetting companies. It highlights emerging alliances between state tourism
agencies, green business programmes, and carbon consultants in delivering low-carbon
tourism initiatives. While state and territory tourism agencies provided resources on
climate change initiatives for tourism operators only one agency reported their carbon emis-
sions. Collaborative governance of climate change was also more developed in states with
climate change policies, destinations vulnerable to the impacts of climate change (e.g.
Great Barrier Reef, Queensland), or dependent on long-haul travellers. Key drivers of
tourism agency responses to climate change impacts include government carbon mitigation
goals, protection of natural assets, and consumer concern about travel emissions. The
620 H. Zeppel
planned introduction of a carbon tax in Australia in 2012 will further motivate agencies and
operators to reduce emissions and costs.
This review should assist other government tourism agencies to improve their colla-
borative governance of climate change impacts through policies, strategic plans, carbon
reduction programmes, and other green business advice to reduce emissions of tourism
operators. It would be useful to compare the structure and process of climate change
tourism governance in Australia with the approaches adopted in other countries or
regions to reduce tourism emissions. These comparative studies could also assess the six
key dimensions of governance (Ruhanen et al., 2010) including accountability, transpar-
ency, involvement, structure, effectiveness, and power. Tourism agency climate change pro-
grammes could also be analysed according to the four governance types: hierarchies,
markets, networks, and communities (Hall, 2011a). Future research could also apply collab-
oration theory (Jamal & Getz, 1995) or network analysis (Dredge, 2006) to other areas of
climate governance in tourism. More critical assessment of tourism and climate change
governance is required.
Acknowledgements
This paper evolved from an extended abstract presented at the 2011 Research Symposium: Sustain-
ability, Collaborative Governance and Tourism, 17–18 February 2011, Southern Cross University
School of Tourism & Hospitality Management, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia. The author
thanks the academic referees for their feedback; their comments have improved the final version of
this paper.
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This article was downloaded by: [University of Auckland Library]

On: 13 October 2014, At: 17:12

Current Issues in Tourism

Collaborative governance for low-

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2011.615913

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Collaborative governance for low-carbon tourism: climate change

(Received 10 May 2011; ﬁnal version received 14 August 2011)

ISSN 1368-3500 print/ISSN 1747-7603 online

Sustainable tourism governance

Table 1. Research about governance topics.

Table 2. Research on tourism governance.

(2011), World Tourism Organization (2010)

management. These included a council-led, participant-led, and local tourism organisation

Climate change tourism governance

Collaborative tourism governance

Climate change and Australian tourism

Results: climate change responses by Australian government tourism agencies

Climate change in Australian tourism strategies

Climate change programmes Key drivers Carbon agencies

Current Issues in Tourism

Carbon mitigation by Australian tourism agencies

Low-carbon tourism programmes in Australia

Carbon Footprint Pilot Study: Western Australia

Green tourism: Tasmania

Sustainable Regions Program: Queensland

Tourism Environmental Indicators: Queensland

Outback Offsets: Northern Territory

Discussion: climate governance by state tourism agencies

Collaborative tourism governance on climate change

2011), or dependent on long-haul travellers (i.e. Queensland, Western Australia, Northern

UK. Land Use Policy, 28(2), 395 –401.

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