Government in parliamentary democracies and government formation process

● Origin of Government Formation

○ Theories and or hypotheses of how governments are likely to form
(AJPS).
● How government is formed
○ The party with the greatest representation in the parliament
(legislature) forms the government, its leader becoming prime minister
or chancellor (Britannica).

Hypotheses of how governments are likely to form (American Journal of Political

Science):
1. Potential governments are more likely to form if they control a majority of
legislative seats;
2. Potential governments are more likely to form if they contain the largest
legislative party;
3. Potential governments are more likely to form if they contain the party of the
previous prime minister;

Government in Parliamentary Democracies and Formation

● The party with the greatest representation in the parliament (legislature) forms
the government, its leader becoming prime minister or chancellor (Britannica).
● In parliaments with a monarchy, the monarch asks the prime minister or the
leader of the majority party or seats to form a government in their name.
● In some parliamentary republics and semi-presidential forms of government,
the president appoints the prime minister.

Government Formation Process

● The leader of the single party that holds the majority of seats in the parliament
becomes the prime minister and asks the monarch to form a government, or
the monarch asks the prime minister to form a government in their name.
● In parliamentary republics such as that of India's, the president invites the
leader of the single party that holds the majority seats in the parliament to
prove their majority. Once proven, the president will invite the leader to form
the next government.
● The party with the majority of seats shall decide their leader to become the
prime minister.
● The previous cabinet of the government will be dissolved for the next
government.
● The prime minister then assembles their cabinet of ministers (often from the
members of the parliament as well).
● Swearing-in or oath-taking ceremony for prime minister and council of
ministers or cabinet before taking office.
 ● If a party does not achieve a majority seat in the parliament, it is called a
"hung parliament".
○ Coalition government means that the party with the most seats but is
unable to win the majority of the parliament will seek a coalition with
other parties to have a majority government.
○ Minority government is one that did not form any coalition with other
parties but still formed a government.

Parliamentary, Semi-presidential, Presidential

● In a parliamentary form of government, the prime minister is often the head of
the government or the executive, while the monarch or president is the head
of the state.
● In a semi-presidential form of government, the president is the chief executive
and the prime minister is appointed (mostly to head the upper and or lower
houses but usually comes from the lower house and with their support).
● In a presidential form of government, the president is the chief executive and
appoints his cabinet members (usually not from the legislature).

Types of Government Structures in a Parliamentary Democracy

1. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

- The United Kingdom (UK) has a parliamentary system of government, and it is a

constitutional monarchy. Here's a brief overview of its government structure, how elections
work, and the centralization of power:

**Government Structure:**
1. **The Monarch:** The UK is a constitutional monarchy, which means that the monarch
(currently King Charles III) is the ceremonial head of state. The monarch's powers are
largely symbolic, and their role is to perform ceremonial duties and sign bills into law.

2. **The Parliament:** The UK Parliament is the supreme legislative body and is bicameral,
consisting of two houses:
- **House of Commons:**
Members of Parliament (MPs) are directly elected by the British citizens in general elections.
The party (or coalition) with the majority of seats in the House of Commons forms the
government, and its leader becomes the Prime Minister.
- **House of Lords:** Members of the House of Lords include appointed life peers,
bishops, and hereditary peers. While the House of Lords can review and suggest
amendments to legislation, its powers are limited, and the House of Commons has the final
say.

**Election Process:**
The UK follows a "first-past-the-post" electoral system in general elections for the House of
Commons. Each of the 650 parliamentary constituencies elects one MP, and the party with
the majority of seats typically forms the government. The Prime Minister is the leader of the
majority party.

**Centralization of Power:**
The UK has a centralized system of government, which means that most powers are
concentrated at the national level in Westminster, London. Devolution, however, has led to
some decentralization of powers to Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, each of which
has its own parliament or assembly with varying degrees of legislative authority in areas like
education, healthcare, and transportation.

**Influence on Other Parliamentary Systems:**

The UK's parliamentary system has had a significant influence on the development of
parliamentary systems in many other countries, particularly in the Commonwealth and
former British colonies. Key aspects of the UK's parliamentary system, such as the
separation of powers, the idea of responsible government, and the use of the Westminster
model, have been adopted by numerous nations.

Many countries that were once part of the British Empire, including Canada, Australia, India,
and many African and Caribbean nations, have adopted parliamentary systems based on
the UK's model. These systems often feature a ceremonial head of state (a monarch or
president) and a parliamentary legislature with elected representatives.

The UK's influence on parliamentary systems can also be seen in the principles of
parliamentary democracy, including regular elections, the rule of law, and the protection of
individual rights, which have become core elements of democratic governance in countries
around the world.

2. State of Israel

Israel is a parliamentary democracy with a unique governmental structure due to its

complex geopolitical situation and diverse population. Here's a brief overview of its
government, electoral system, and power distribution:

Government Structure:

The President: Israel's head of state is the President, a mostly ceremonial role. The
President is elected by the Knesset (the Israeli parliament) and serves a seven-year
term. The President's duties include representing the state at official events and
signing bills into law.

The Knesset: The Knesset is Israel's unicameral (single-chamber) legislature.

Members of the Knesset (MKs) are elected by Israeli citizens through a proportional
representation system. The Knesset is the primary legislative body and holds
significant powers, including the ability to form and dismiss governments.
The Prime Minister: The Prime Minister is the head of government and is usually the
leader of the political party or coalition that commands a majority in the Knesset. The
Prime Minister is responsible for forming a government, appointing ministers, and
implementing policies.

Election Process:

Israel uses a proportional representation electoral system for its Knesset elections.
Citizens vote for political parties rather than individual candidates. Seats in the
Knesset are allocated to parties based on the percentage of the vote each party
receives, with a threshold for parties to qualify for representation.
Power Distribution:
Israel's power distribution is centralized at the national level, primarily within the
Knesset and the executive branch led by the Prime Minister. However, the country
does not have a federal system. Instead, Israel has a unitary system of government
where authority is vested in the central government, and local governance is
administered through municipalities and regional councils.

Israel's unique political landscape includes multiple parties with varying ideologies,
which often necessitates coalition governments. In this system, smaller parties play a
significant role in forming governments, as no single party usually wins an outright
majority in the Knesset. The process of coalition-building can lead to complex and
shifting political alliances.

Countries with Similar Systems:

Israel's governmental structure, as a parliamentary democracy with a President and
a proportional representation electoral system, is shared with several other countries.
However, the unique aspects of Israel's geopolitical situation and its political diversity
set it apart. Countries with similar systems include:

Italy: Italy has a parliamentary republic with a President as the head of state, a
bicameral legislature, and a proportional representation electoral system.

Germany: Germany is a federal parliamentary republic with a President as the head

of state, a Bundestag (lower house), and a Bundesrat (upper house). It also uses a
mixed-member proportional representation system.

South Africa: South Africa operates as a parliamentary republic with a President as

the head of state and a National Assembly as the primary legislative body. It also has
a proportional representation electoral system.

Finland: Finland follows a parliamentary system with a President as the head of

state, a unicameral parliament (Eduskunta), and a proportional representation
electoral system.

While these countries share similarities in their governmental structures, each has its
own unique political and cultural context that shapes its political landscape and
policies.
3. Federal Republic of Germany

- Germany is a federal parliamentary republic with a government structure that

combines elements of both federalism and parliamentary democracy. Here's a brief
overview of its government, electoral system, and power distribution:
-
- **Government Structure:**
- 1. **The President:** Germany's head of state is the President, a largely ceremonial
role. The President is elected by the Federal Convention (a body composed of
members of the Bundestag, the lower house of parliament, and representatives from
the 16 federal states) and serves a five-year term.
-
- 2. **The Federal Parliament (Bundestag):** The Bundestag is the lower house of the
German federal parliament. Members of the Bundestag (Bundestagsabgeordnete)
are directly elected by the German citizens through a mixed-member proportional
representation system. The Bundestag is the primary legislative body and plays a
crucial role in shaping policy and legislation.
-
- 3. **The Federal Council (Bundesrat):** The Bundesrat is the upper house of the
German federal parliament. It represents the 16 federal states (Länder) of Germany.
Members of the Bundesrat are appointed by the governments of the federal states. It
plays a role in approving federal legislation, especially when it concerns state
interests.
-
- **Election Process:**
- - Members of the Bundestag are elected through a mixed-member proportional
representation system. Voters cast two votes: one for a candidate in their local
constituency and one for a political party. Half of the seats in the Bundestag are filled
through the direct election of candidates in single-member constituencies, and the
other half are allocated to parties based on the second vote, ensuring proportional
representation.
-
- **Power Distribution:**
- Germany's power distribution is federal in nature, meaning that both the federal
government and the 16 federal states have their respective areas of authority and
responsibilities. While the federal government in Berlin deals with national matters
like defense, foreign policy, and certain economic policies, the federal states have
significant autonomy in areas such as education, law enforcement, and cultural
affairs.
-
- The system also ensures a separation of powers between the executive, legislative,
and judicial branches. The Chancellor, who is the head of government, is usually the
leader of the majority party in the Bundestag and is responsible for forming and
leading the government.
-
- **Countries with Similar Systems:**
- Several countries have similar federal parliamentary systems with varying degrees of
influence from the German model. These include:
-
- 1. **Austria:** Austria's political system is similar to Germany's, with a federal
parliamentary republic structure. It also has a President, a National Council (similar to
the Bundestag), and a Federal Council (similar to the Bundesrat).
-
- 2. **Switzerland:** Switzerland has a federal system with a federal council, a
bicameral legislature (National Council and Council of States), and a largely
ceremonial President. It also has a complex system of direct democracy with
referendums and initiatives.
-
- 3. **India:** India's federal parliamentary system has a President as the ceremonial
head of state, a Lok Sabha (House of the People) as the lower house of parliament,
and a Rajya Sabha (Council of States) as the upper house. India is a federal republic
with substantial power devolved to states.
-
- 4. **Australia:** Australia follows a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy
model. It has a Governor-General representing the monarch, a House of
Representatives (similar to the Bundestag), and a Senate (upper house) representing
states and territories.
-
- These countries, like Germany, balance federal and state-level powers while
maintaining a parliamentary democracy, and they often have constitutional provisions
to protect individual rights and freedoms.

4. Kingdom of Belgium

Belgium is a federal parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy. Here's

a brief overview of its government, electoral system, and power distribution:

**Government Structure:**
1. **The Monarch:** Belgium is a constitutional monarchy, with King Philippe as the
current monarch (as of my last knowledge update in September 2021). The role of
the monarch is largely ceremonial, and their powers are limited by the constitution.

2. **The Federal Parliament:** Belgium has a bicameral federal parliament consisting

of two chambers:
- **Chamber of Representatives (Kamer van Volksvertegenwoordigers):** Members
of the Chamber of Representatives, known as Deputies, are directly elected by
Belgian citizens through proportional representation. The Chamber plays a crucial
role in the legislative process, including drafting and passing laws.
- **Senate (Senaat):** The Senate represents the federal entities (regions and
language communities) and serves as a forum for discussions on federal issues.
Senators are partly elected by the community and regional parliaments and partly
appointed.
3. **The Executive:** The executive branch is headed by the Prime Minister, who is
the head of government. The Prime Minister is typically the leader of the largest party
or coalition in the Chamber of Representatives. The Council of Ministers consists of
various ministers responsible for specific government departments.

**Election Process:**
- Belgian citizens participate in both regional and federal elections. Regional
elections are held for the Flemish Community, the French Community, and the
German-speaking Community. These elections determine the composition of the
regional parliaments. Federal elections determine the composition of the Chamber of
Representatives.

- Belgium employs a proportional representation electoral system, which allows for a

diverse representation of political parties in parliament. Citizens cast their votes for
party lists rather than individual candidates.

**Power Distribution:**
Belgium has a highly decentralized federal system, with significant powers devolved
to three main communities (Flemish, French, and German-speaking) and three
regions (Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels-Capital Region). This federal structure is
known as "asymmetrical federalism."

Each community and region has its own parliament and government, responsible for
various policy areas, including education, culture, healthcare, and transportation. The
federal government handles matters related to national defense, foreign affairs, and
social security.

**Countries with Similar Systems:**

Countries with government structures similar to Belgium, featuring federalism, a
constitutional monarchy, and proportional representation, include:

1. **Switzerland:** Switzerland is a federal state with a complex system of cantons. It

uses direct democracy and has a Federal Assembly (comprising the National Council
and Council of States) and a Federal Council (executive).

2. **Canada:** Canada is a federal parliamentary democracy with a constitutional

monarchy. It consists of provinces and territories, each with its own legislature. The
federal parliament has the House of Commons and the Senate.

3. **Germany:** Germany is a federal parliamentary republic with a President as the

head of state, a Bundestag (lower house), and a Bundesrat (upper house). It
employs a mixed-member proportional representation system.

These countries, like Belgium, balance federal and regional powers while maintaining
a democratic framework and constitutional monarchy. They often have unique
arrangements and levels of autonomy for their subnational entities.