Unit 4 Notes

functions of a plasma membrane
1. hold the cell together

2. control what goes in and out (diffusions, osmosis, active transport)
3. protect the cell
4. allow the cell to recognize and be recognized (cell signaling and immunity)
5. bind to other cells and molecules
6. a site for biochemical reactions (enzymes, areas for reactions)
the phospholipid bilayer

● phospho = phosphates
● lipid = fats
● bi = 2
● layer = layers
● hydrophilic phosphate heads

○ hydro = water
○ philic = attracted
● hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails
○ hydro = water
○ phobic = repelled
● when surrounded by water, phospholipids will automatically form a liposome - an
enclosed
● in this structure, none of the lipid tails are in contact with water
the fluid mosaic model

● fluid = always moving, not solid
● mosaic = collection of things stuck together
● model = representation of real life
● the fluid mosaic model tells us that the structure of the membrane is flexible, adaptable,
and in motion
● it is not solid, or fragile like the skin of a balloon
● the phospholipids have freedom of movement in the “horizontal” plane: they can move
around each other, and can flow with pressure, yet do not allow the membrane to break
● it is actually pretty difficult to “burst” or “tear” a plasma membrane as the fluid properties
of the phospholipid bilayer allow the membrane to reform very easily
● the individual phospholipids are attached to each other by weak attractions, the
cumulative effect of which is a very strong membrane
the phospholipid bilayer is selectively permeable

● selectively = controlled
● permeable = entry/exit of molecules
● some molecules pass through easily (diffusion/passive) or go through a ‘tunnel’
(facilitated diffusion)
● others need energy to get them through (active transport)
● large molecules use their own membrane to get them through (endo-/exo-cytosis)
● polar heads: attracted to other polar (charged molecules)
● non-polar tails: will repel any charged molecule, therefore preventing passage of ions
through the membrane
the mosaic
● what are the names and functions of these parts of the plasma membrane?
● integral proteins
○ enzymes - sites for chemical reactions
○ pump - for active transport of molecules
● glycoproteins
○ combine with carbohydrates to make chemical receptor
● peripheral proteins
○ act as receptors and “recognize” other cells
● cholesterol
○ affects membrane fluidity at different temperatures
● channel proteins
○ carry molecules through the plasma membrane
phospholipids
● fluid
○ consistency is similar to olive oil
● embedded proteins form mosaic
cholesterol
● only found in plasma membrane of animal cells
● located within the lipid bilayer
● allow for effective function over wider range of temps
● helps to increase fluidity at cool temperatures
○ lowers freezing point
○ based on shape
● reduces permeability
● hydrophobic lipid
proteins
● two major types
○ peripheral proteins
○ integral proteins
integral proteins
● embedded in the membrane
● can move back and forth amongst phospholipids
● usually span entire membrane, sometimes only protrude from one side
peripheral proteins
● found on the surface of the membrane
● held in place by cytoskeletal fibers
● help stabilize and shape plasma membrane
proteins give the membrane the mosaic appearance
glycolipids and glycoproteins

● chain of carbohydrates attached to lipid or protein
● asymmetric membrane
○ carbohydrate chain on outside
○ cytoskeleton filaments on the inside
protein functions
● six main functions proteins
1. hormone binding sites
2. enzymatic action
3. cell adhesion
4. cell to cell communication
5. channels for passive transport
6. pumps for active transport
hormone binding sites
● “receptors”
● proteins have specific shapes exposed to the exterior that fit the shape of specific
hormones
● attachments between the two cause change in shape of the protein and results in
cellular response
enzymatic action
● enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions
● carry out enzymatic reactions on exterior and interior
● often grouped into metabolic pathway
cell adhesion molecules (CAMS)
● protein complexes interconnect between neighboring cells
● hook together, either temporary or permanent
● connections are junctions (gap or tight), desmosome
● ex: cells connect to form tissues
cell junction/adhesion proteins
cell to cell communication

● glycoproteins and glycolipids
○ sugar chain patterns provide “fingerprints” that identify each cell to the others
○ fingerprints used by immune system to distinguish between cells
pumps for active transport

● shuttles substances from one side to another by changing shape
● requires energy (ATP)
● ex. carrier proteins
channels for passive transport

● channel proteins
○ channel for insoluble molecules and ions to pass through freely
● move from areas of high concentration to low concentration
● requires no energy
when cell signaling goes wrong

● losing the signal
○ in type 1 diabetes, the pancreatic cells that produce insulin are lost
○ consequently, the insulin signal is also lost
○ as a result, sugar accumulates to toxic levels in the blood
○ without treatment, diabetes can lead to kidney failure, blindness and heart
disease in later life
● signal doesn’t reach the target
○ multiple sclerosis is a disease in which the protective wrappings around nerve
cells in the brain and spinal cord are destroyed
○ the affected nerve cells can no longer transmit signals from one area of the brain
to another
● target ignores the signal
○ the cells of type 2 diabetics have lost the ability to insulin
○ the end result is the same - blood sugar levels become dangerously high
● too much signal
○ a stroke occurs when a blockage forms in a blood vessel, cutting off blood flow to
part of the brain
○ the immediate result is the death of nearby braun cells
○ but the most catastrophic event comes later, when the dying cells release large
amounts of the signaling molecule glutamate
○ glutamate spreads through the brain and kills cells that were not affected by the
blockage
movement across the membrane
semi-permeable membrane
● small molecules like gasses and larger hydrophobic molecules move through easily
● ions and hydrophilic molecules larger than water and large macromolecules such as
glucose and hormones cannot move through the membrane on their own
two types of transport

● passive
○ no chemical energy
○ molecules follow their concentration gradient
○ facilitated
○ diffusion
○ osmosis
● active
○ needs chemical energy
○ molecule moves against their concentration gradient
○ exocytosis
○ endocytosis
concentration gradients
● happens when there is more or less of a substance across a membrane or in a specific
area
solutions consist of solutes dissolved in a solvent

● concentration is a measure of the amount of solute in the solution
diffusion is passive transport
● movement from higher to lower concentration
● once molecules are evenly distributed they continue to move but no net movement in
any direction EQUILIBRIUM
facilitated diffusion is the passive net movement of particles from regions of high
concentration to low concentration, through a selectively permeable membrane,
facilitated by carrier proteins
● selectively permeable membranes, such as the plasma membrane, do not allow all
molecules to pass through
● this depends on the properties of the molecules
● carrier proteins (channel proteins) are integral globular proteins in the plasma membrane
that allow some molecules to pass through
● channel proteins are specific to their molecules
● this is determined by the polar regions on the proteins
● facilitated diffusion is down a concentration gradient therefore is passive (does not
require energy)
diffusion is the passive net movement of molecules from regions of high concentration
to low concentration
● passive = requires no energy
● net = overall movement (remember that all molecules are moving all the time in all
directions)
● high to low = down a concentration gradient
● diffusion can occur through a partially or selectively permeable membrane or from
regions of high to low concentration in a solution or environment
osmosis is passive transport
● water passes through a differentially permeable membrane
● from a region of high water potential (less solute) to a region of low water potential (more
solute)
osmotic pressure
● force that causes water to move in that direction
compare diffusion and osmosis

● similar
○ both are passive
○ both are down a concentration gradient
● different
○ diffusion is of solutes
○ membrane not needed
○ osmosis considers water molecules only
○ partially-permeable membrane essential
tonicity
● refers to the strength of the solution
● this will impact the movement of water
● hypertonic: hyper = high, tonic = solute
● isotonic: iso = same, tonic = solute
● hypotonic: hypo = low, tonic = solute
isotonic solutions
● number of solute molecules per unit volume is the same on both sides of membrane, no
net gain or loss of water
hypotonic solutions
● lesser solute concentration that in cell; causes cell to swell and may burst animal cell
● creates turgor pressure which is important in plants to maintain an upright position
hypertonic solutions
● greater solute concentration is outside the cell, causes cell to shrink
active transport
● exocytosis
● endocytosis
○ phagocytosis
○ pinocytosis
○ receptor-mediated endocytosis
● movement or “pumping” of molecules AGAINST a concentration gradient
exocytosis
● vesicles fuse with membrane as secretion occurs
● membrane of vesicle becomes part of membrane
● RELEASE substances to outside of cell
sodium-potassium pump
● carrier protein in nerve and muscle cells
endocytosis
● substances are BROUGHT INTO the cell
● membrane brings in substances and pinches off to form a vesicle
● THREE ways this can happen
endocytosis - phagocytosis
● happens with LARGE molecules
○ in humans - occurs when white blood cells engulf bacteria
endocytosis - pinocytosis
● happens with liquids or SMALL particles
receptor mediated endocytosis

● form of pinocytosis
● selective
○ uses a receptor protein that allows a specific molecule to bind
putting it together…
how do membranes fuse?
● the vesicle approaches the plasma membrane
● all membranes are made of the phospholipid bilayer, so share the same properties
● the membranes begin to fuse
● remember the fluidity of the plasma membrane - the phospholipids can flow around each
other
● for a moment, there is a single phospholipid bilayer at the point of contact
○ small single bilayer: “temporary intermediate structure”
● the membrane pore opens, allowing the contents to fuse through
● notice that through the whole process, there is never an unbroken section of the bilayer
vesicle transport: exocytosis of protein molecules via the Golgi apparatus
Davson-Danielli (false)
falsification evidence
● membrane proteins were discovered to be insoluble in water (indicating hydrophobic
surfaces) and varied in size
○ such proteins would not be able to form a uniform and continuous layer around
the outer surface of a membrane
● fluorescent antibody tagging of membrane proteins showed they were mobile and not
fixed in place
○ membrane proteins from two different cells were tagged with red and green
fluorescent markers respectively
○ when the two cells were fused, the markers became mixed throughout the
membrane of the fused cell
○ this demonstrated that the membrane proteins could move and did not form a
static layer (as per Davson-Danielli)
● freeze fracturing was used to split open the membrane and revealed irregular rough
surfaces within the membrane
○ these rough surfaces were interpreted as being transmembrane proteins,
demonstrating that proteins were not solely localized to the outside of the
membrane structure
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functions of a plasma membrane

1. hold the cell together

the phospholipid bilayer

● hydrophilic phosphate heads

the fluid mosaic model

the phospholipid bilayer is selectively permeable

proteins give the membrane the mosaic appearance

glycolipids and glycoproteins

cell to cell communication

pumps for active transport

channels for passive transport

when cell signaling goes wrong

two types of transport

solutions consist of solutes dissolved in a solvent

compare diffusion and osmosis

receptor mediated endocytosis

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