(3170923) Electrical and Hybrid Vehicle Chapter-4 Types of Storage Systems eae Saudades Pe eee caterer an GH Patel College Of Engineering & Technology WEEN Euryciece cir Email: jigneshpatel@gcet.ac.in» There are a number of requirements for energy storages applied in an automotive application, such as specific energy, specific power, efficiency, maintenance _ requirement, management, cost, environmental adaptation and friendliness, and safety. » For application on an EV, specific energy is the first consideration since it limits the vehicle range. >On the other hand, for HEV applications, specific energy becomes less important and specific power is the first consideration.» A battery is composed of several cells stacked together. > A cell is an independent and complete unit that possesses all the electrochemical properties. > Basically, a battery cell consists Of chug oN neta three primary elements: Two electrodes (positive and | negative), immersed into electrolyte as shown in Figure 4.1. Positive electrode Fig.ts: Atypical electrochemical battery» Battery manufacturers usually specify the battery with coulometric capacity ampere-hour, which is defined as the number of ampere-hours gained when discharging the battery from_a fully charged state until the terminal voltage drops to its cut-off voltage, as shown in Figure 4.2. 206 ae Open creit voltage ca 195) 0 = - i vas z 3 Piso z a Au 8 3g oa sas Apes [i va 15599 303040307080 90100 rey ont a rasan npn way Fa cha rete aoc taryElectrochemical Batteries > SOC (State of Charge); It is defined as the ratio of remaining capacity to fully charged capacity. > The change in SOC in a time interval, dt, with discharging or charging current i may be expressed as, ASOC Qui) » where Q(i) is the ampere-hour capacity of the battery at current rate i. For discharging, iis positive, and for charging, i is negative. > Thus, the SOC of the battery can be expressed as, idt SOC = SOCo 09") sehere SOCy ste initial value ofthe SOcElectrochemical Batteries » For EVs and HEVs, the energy capacity is considered to be more important than the coulometric capacity (ampere-hours), because it is directly associated with vehicle operation. > The energy delivered from the battery can be expressed as, t ee= VG,SOC)i(f dt 0 > where V(i, SOC) is the voltage at the battery terminals, which is a function of battery current and SOC.Electrochemical Batteries > Specific Energy: It is defined as the energy capacity per unit battery weight (Wh/kg). > The theoretical specific energy is the maximum energy that can be generated per unit total mass of cell reactants. » Specific Power: It is defined as the maximum power of per unit battery weight that the battery can produce in a short period. > Specific power is important in the reduction of battery weight, especially in high-power demand applications, such as HEVs.Electrochemical Batteries » The specific power of a chemical battery depends mostly on the battery’s internal resistance. » With the battery model as shown in Figure 4.4, the maximum power that the battery can supply to the load is, Re E v2 — Peak = F(Ro+ Rint) Fig Battery crit mods» The viable EV and HEV batteries consist of the ¥ lead-acid battery, v nickel based batteries such as nickel-iron, nickel-cadmium, and nickel-metal hydride batteries, and v lithium-based batteries such as lithium polymer and lithium-ion batteries. » In the near term, it seems that lead-acid batteries will still be the major type due to its many advantages. > However, in the middle and long term, it seems that cadmium- and lithium-based batteries will be major candidates for EVs and HEVs.Lead-acid batteries » LA batteries have been used as energy sources commercially since 1860. » LA batteries are used in every internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle as a starter and typically applied for emergency power supply, renewable energy storage, and grid storage because of their ruggedness, safe operation, temperature tolerance, and low cost. » The electrochemical reaction takes place in LA battery as, Pb + 2PbO, + 2H,SO,; = 2PbSO, + 2H,O@ ) © Figs Lead acid battary chemistry uring escharging (b) during charging (6) LAbattory prototype 3170023. Boccal& Hybrid Vericlo ”Advantages Low-cost and simple manufacture Low cost per watt-hour High specific power, capable of high discharge currents ‘Good performance at low and high temperatures ‘No block-wise or cell-wise BMS required eed Low specific energy; por weight-to-energy ratio ‘Slow charging Fully saturated charge takes 14-16 hours ‘Need for storage in charged condition to prevent sulfation Limited cycle lf; repeated deep-cycling reduces battery lfe ‘Watering requirement for flooded type ‘Transportation restrictions for flooded type ‘Adverse environmental impactNickel-based batteries » Nickel-based batteries utilize nickel hydroxide as positive electrode and different negative electrode materials. >» Depending on negative electrode materials, nickel-based batteries are classified into Ni-Fe, Ni-Cd, Ni-Zn, and Ni-MH. » Generally, in nickel-based batteries, the active materials comprise nickel oxy-hydroxide as _ positive electrode, potassium hydroxide solution as electrolyte, and any metal Fe/Cd/ Zn, or MH material as negative electrode.@ (o) © Fig.6: Nickel based battery chemistry (2) during dlschargng (b) during charging (C) Nickel battery prototypeNickel-based batteries ee are less attractive in EV application because of their | ific power, high low life cycle, and high maintenance tegument > Nickel-cadmium and metal hydride are currently used to power EVs because they have a high number of life cycles (2000 or more) and energy density. » However, Ni-Cd has a high price, which is more than 10 times the price of LA battery. » Recycling issues and toxic effects are considered, although this type employs the most advanced technology among all nickel- based batteries.Sodium-beta batteries > Sodium-beta batteries are the only batteries that use solid electrolyte. > These batteries use beta-alumina ($”-Al203) as electrolyte, which exhibits good Na+ conductivity and electric isolation at high temperatures. > Depending on cathode materials, sodium beta batteries are classified into sodium-sulfur (Na-S) and sodium metal halide. » Na-S was developed by Ford particularly for EV applications in the 1960s.@ © Fig. Sodium sulfur battery chemistry (a) during dscharging & charging (b) tubular design view of Na-S batteryLithium batteries > Lithium SBs are promising batteries for EV energy storage applications because of their high energy density, high specific energy and power, and light weight. » However, this battery type is costlier than other battery types; it needs protection for safe operation and cell balancing system to ensure consistent battery performance at the same voltage and charge level. » Lithium batteries are designed for high temperature and ambient temperature applications. Other than sodium-beta batteries, lithium- aluminum-iron mono-sulfide (Li-Al-FeS) and lithium-aluminum- iron disulfide (Li-Al-FeS2) are high-temperature lithium batteries » These lithium-sulfur batteries have the highest energy capacity and the lowest weight among all other lithium batteries.Lithium batteries > The other lithium batteries that operate normally at ambient temperature are mainly Li-poly and Li-ion batteries, which are well developed for EV application. » Li-ion batteries are popular for energy storage and portable electric and electronics products because of their small size, light weight, and potential. > In 1991, Sony commercially produced Li-ion batteries, but this type of battery was already proposed by Bell Labs in the 1960s. » Li-ion battery has high energy density, high power density ranging from 500 to 2000 W/kg, low self discharge, and long lifetimes> Because of the frequent stop-and-go operation of EVs and HEVs, the discharging and charging profile of the energy storage is highly varied. > The average power required from the energy storage is much lower than the peak power for acceleration and hill climbing in a relatively short time span. > The energy source, mainly batteries and fuel cells, has high specific energy, whereas the power source has high specific power. > Power sources can be recharged from the energy source during less demanding driving or regenerative braking. » The power source that has received wide attention is the ultracapacitor.fF ultr itor: » A UC is similar to a normal capacitor in terms of structure and function. However, a UC can have a high energy capacity with the value of kilo farads and is called supercapacitor. > The specific power of UC is approximately 1000-2000 W/kg with 95% energy efficiency. > Among all ESSs, UC has the longest lifetime of almost 40 years. > UC is accepted in EV applications because of its high power storage due to its features; it does not require maintenance, and it exhibits temperature insensitivity and a long operation time. > For fast charging and discharging profile of UCs, the UCs are used as energy storage during electric braking and as energy source during rapid acceleration needed for hilling in Evs.» Double-layer capacitor technology is the major approach to applying the ultracapacitor concept. The basic principle of a double-layer capacitor is illustrated in Figure 4.9. Poezing & 3170023. Becral& HyeBasic principle of ultracapacitorsrinciple of ultr: itor: > An electrical double layer works as an insulator only below the decomposing voltage. The stored energy, E,., is expressed as — > where C is the capacitance in Farad, and V is the usable voltage in volts. » This equation indicates that the higher-rated voltage V is desirable for larger energy density capacitors. > Up to now, a capacitor’s rated voltage with aqueous electrolyte has been about 0.9 V per cell, and with a nonaqueous electrolyte, it is 2.3-3.3 V for each cell.> The performance of an ultracapacitor may be represented by terminal voltages during discharge and charge with different current rates. > There are three parameters in a capacitor: the capacitance itself (its electric potential V;), the series resistance Ry and the dielectric leakage resistance, R,, as shown in Figure 4.10. Fig.4.so: Utracapactor equivalent cet.> On the other hand, the leakage current i, can be expressed as, ae ie i ave fre 2 > One can obtain, ac ¢& 7» The analytical solution is, i, Vo= [ro- femal} a Cellterminal voltage (V) a Be 9170923_Becrcal & Hybrid Vehicle» Chemical storage systems (CSSs) store and release energy through chemical reactions of chemical compounds composed in the system, thereby forming other compounds. > The FC is a typical chemical storage system that converts chemical energy of fuel to electrical energy continuously. > In an FC, the fuel and oxidant are supplied externally to generate electricity, and these parts are integrated in the battery. » The advantage of FC is its capability to generate electricity as long as the active materials are supplied to it. » FCs offer 40-85% fuel efficiency.I cell (Fi ner; > FCs are composed of liquid or gaseous fuel as anode and oxygen, air, and chlorine as the oxidant in the cathode side. > HFCs use a combination of hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity. This combination could be regenerative and reversible from electricity and water. » Depending on fueling, HFCs are categorized into direct and indirect system FCs: a | In direct system FCs, fuel In indirect system FCs, fuel (e.g, hydrogen and methanol) _(€-8» fossil fuels and natural reacts directly gas) is first converted to reform rich hydrogen gas and then supplied into the cell for the reactionNG > FCs are classified into several types based on fuel and oxidant combinations, electrolyte type, operating temperature, and applications; these types includes 1. 2. Be Alkaline FC (AFC) - (aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) as the electrolyte) Phosphoric acid FC (PAFC) Solid polymer fuel cell-proton exchange membrane FC (SPFC- PEMFC) Regenerative FC (RFC) Solid oxide FC (SOFC) Direct methanol FC (DMFC), and molten carbonate FC (MCFC)> AFC, PAFC, PEMFC, and RFC are used directly as hydrogen fuel at the anode. The overall chemical reaction in fuel cells is given 2H, + O2 = 2H2O + ElectricityOperating Data of Various Fuel Cell Systems Cell System Operating Temperature (°C) Electrolyte PEMFCs 60-100 Solid AFCs 100 Liquid PAFCs 60-200 Liquid CFCs 500-800 Liquid SOFCs 1000-1200 Solid DMFCs 100 Solid Source: P. J. Berlowitz and C. P. Darnell, Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Journal, Paper No. 2001-01-0003, Warrendale, PA, 2002.“Auxiliaries 1 Air circulating pump 2. Coolant circulating pump 3. Ventilation fan Fig. Hydrogen-ar fuel callsystem.ch (elite » The hybridization of energy storage involves combining two or more energy storages together so that v the advantages of each can be brought out, and v the disadvantages of each can be compensated by the advantages of the others. » For instance, the hybridization of a chemical battery with an ultracapacitor can overcome problems such as the low specific power of chemical batteries and low specific energy of ultracapacitors, thereby achieving high specific energy and high specific power.High-power demand High specie, | —————> Power | —> ‘energy storage High specific power storage Low-power demand High specific converter sa energy storage High specific converter = Power storage Fig: Concept of hybrid nergy storage operation. (a) Hybrid powering (b) Power spit© Negative power High specific Bowen |) ai lenergy storage f— [fonverter High specific ———> Primary power flow ‘power storage a Fig-4.2: Concept of hybrid nergy storage operation (c) Hybrid charging PROF. JGNESH PATEL. EE DEPT_GCET 9170023. Bectroal & Hybrid Vehicle =Hybrid Energy Storage with battery & ultracapacitor > Based on the available technologies of various energy storages, there are several viable hybridization schemes for EVs and HEVs, typically, battery and battery hybrids and battery and ultracapacitor hybrids. » During hybridization, the simplest way is to directly and in parallell connect the ultracapacitors to the batteries. as shown in Figure 4.13. / Utracapactor Figs. Direct and parallel connection of battriesand ultracapacitorsCurrent (A) oO 5 10 1% 2 25 (8G Time (s) 35 40 =«45—«0 Fig: Variation of battery and ultracapacitor currents and voltages with astep current output change.Ultracapacitors iE \ r | I ‘Two Batteries DC/DC converterltr: r Size D > The best design of a hybrid energy storage with a battery and an ultracapacitor is that the overall energy and power capacities just meet the energy and power requirements of the vehicle without much margin. > The energy and power requirements of a vehicle to its energy storage can be represented by the energy/power ratio, which is defined as, Ey: Rep Pr > When Re/p is known, the battery and the ultracapacitor in the hybrid storage can be designed so that the energy/power ratio of the hybrid energy storage is equal to Re/p, which is expressed as Webb + WoPs + _ Fea Variation of batary and ulracapacor aren and voltages witha step eurent output change» An EM is at the core of HEV drivetrains. > Most EMs used in HEV or EV drivetrains have speed limit of 12000 rpm due to following reasons: v At very high rpm, the centrifugal force acting on the rotor increases and it is possible that the rotor might fail mechanically. v The control algorithms of the EM involve determination of rotor position and this becomes very difficult at high rotor rpm. > The performance of EM is measured by following quantities: Y Torque and Power Capability ¥ Constant Power Speed Ratio (CPSR)> The EM capability curves for torque and power define the peak operating capability curve of the HEV. Peaktogue G8Na) 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 40004500 Spee. pm» In Figure 4.16 a typical torque versus speed characteristics of an EM is shown. There are three curves shown in Figure 4.16 namely: v i. Continuous rating: The EM can be operated within its continuous rated region. ¥ ii, Intermittent overload operation: The EM can operate in this regime for short duration (typically <30s). Y iii, Peak overload operation: The EM can operate in this region for a very short duration (typically <1~2s). > From Figure 2 it can be seen that: v the peak output is about 2.5 times the continuous or rated output ¥ the intermittent output is about 1.5 times the continuous or rated output» In Figure 3 the operation of EM in different modes is shown. Fig4.7: Torque versus speed curve of an EM forfour quadrantsEM Sizing > The EM is physically sized by its torque specification. > Since, EM torque is determined by the amount of flux the iron can carry and the amount of current the conductors can carry, and can be expressed as, T= kABD?L > The two fundamental sizing constraints on the EM are: Y Electric loading Y Magnetic loading copper conductor and it is limited by its thermal dissipation. > The bounds on the current density for copper is given by : » The electric loading is determined by the current carrying capacity of v 2 A/mm? for continuous operation; 6 A/mm? for 3 minutes; 20 A/mm? for 30 seconds .Sizing the Power Electronics > In Figure 4.18 a schematic for the HEV drivetrain consisting of on board energy storage system, power processing unit and the EM is shown. me ‘Cone conics Comair comm. ate des power mp Fig.4.18: The HEV drivetrain with on board energy storage> In Figure 4.18 a schematic for the HEV drivetrain consisting of on board energy storage system, power processing unit and the EM is shown. ~ oe Veyacem £0 lyse = 250A 2° be 2 } « x we ‘tee » o a 14v 29) av G6v) ssov aay) 330 @88v) ‘conventional — Low powerhybrid_ “Mild hybnd Full hybrid | ‘Systemvobage, VSizing the Power Electronics >» Power semiconductor device range in voltage withstanding capability from 2kV to 6.5kV and current magnitudes from 3kA to 4.5kA. > Thyristors have the highest kVA rating but are generally slow switching. » The gate turn off thyristor (GTO) is capable of handling 3kA at 4.5kV but can switch at only 700Hz. » The IGBTs have made enormous progress in both the voltage and current ratings, with some IGBTs being capable of handling 6.5kV and 3.5kA and have switching frequency up to 100kHz.