Cogent Arts & Humanities

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Heritage resources as a driver of cultural tourism

development in Ethiopia: A review

Getahun Worku Tadesse

To cite this article: Getahun Worku Tadesse (2023) Heritage resources as a driver of cultural
tourism development in Ethiopia: A review, Cogent Arts & Humanities, 10:1, 2158623, DOI:
10.1080/23311983.2022.2158623

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2022.2158623

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Worku Tadesse, Cogent Arts & Humanities (2023), 10: 2158623
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2022.2158623

CULTURAL HERITAGE | REVIEW ARTICLE

Heritage resources as a driver of cultural tourism
development in Ethiopia: A review
Getahun Worku Tadesse1*

Received: 29 November 2021

Accepted: 09 December 2022
*Corresponding author: Getahun
Worku Tadesse, Department of
History and Heritage Management,
College of Social Science, Werabe
University, Ethiopia
E-mail: getahunworku08@gmail.com
Reviewing editor:
Gertrude Mansah Eyifa-Dzidzienyo,
Archaeology and Heritage Studies,
University of Ghana College of
Humanities, GHANA
Additional information is available at
the end of the article
Abstract: Ethiopia is a lucky and nature-gifted country that is endowed with an
outstanding, diverse, and the product of different ethnic group assets of heritages.
These heritages are the manifestation of those societies’ cultural identity and
national pride. Both tangible and intangible heritages are the main assets to drive
visitors to those destinations and attractions. Based on tourism, the country can
achieve sustainable cultural tourism with sustainable socio-economic development.
Therefore, heritage resources are the key to achieving sustainable cultural tourism
where this paper tried to assess Ethiopian Cultural heritage resources as a driver of
Cultural tourism development by stating their qualities. To attain the set goal, the
study implements a qualitative research approach and uses content analyses to
analyze literature from journals, thesis, and books on heritage studies that are
taken from Academia, Google Scholar, Science direct, and Research gate. The scope
of the study revolved around only eight tangible cultural heritages of the country
which are enlisted in UNESCO as a world heritage sites. The reviewed literature
revealed that the cultural heritages of Ethiopia contributed to the development of
sustainable cultural tourism but it did not achieve the expected result because of
different factors. The author recommended that the stakeholders must create
a sustainable tourism policy to achieve sustainable cultural tourism in the country.

Subjects: Culture; Heritage Management & Conservation; Visual Arts

Keywords: tourism; heritage resources; culture; cultural tourism; Ethiopia

1. Introduction
The country Ethiopia is the home of dissimilar and marvelous heritages that are created through
human and natural processes (Aplin, 2002). They are living traditions of a nation or generation that
distinguishes, in turn, one nation from others. The heritage resources demonstrate both intangible
and tangible products. The former is the immaterial cultural expressions, and traditions of societies

ABOUT THE AUTHOR PUBLIC INTEREST STATMENT

Getahun Worku is a lecturer of Historic
Archaeology at Werabe University, Ethiopia. He
obtained his Bachelor’s degree in History and
Heritage Management and a master of Art in
Historic Archaeology. He taught for more than
four years at this institution. His research areas
of interest revolve around Historic Archaeology,
Museum Studies, Visual Art, and Heritage
Conservation.
Ethiopia is gifted with unique and marvelous heri­
tages that include cultural landscapes; rock-cut
churches, parks, paleo-anthropological sites, & his­
toric cities. Hence, Ethiopia is identified, cherished,
and has become renowned as a tourist destination
across the world. Based on this view, assessing
cultural tourism development is the target of this
study where the country is endowed with these
heritages that are the cornerstone for cultural
tourism development in the study area as well as
provide an opportunity for consumption and parti­
cipation in culture-related activities for visitors.

© 2023 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons
Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license.

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that include craftsmanship, festivals, music, social practices, and traditional way of life, whereas
the latter denotes the material cultural expression of the society that includes archaeological sites,
historic cities, landscapes, monuments, temples, and traditional buildings. These resources are the
cornerstone of tourism because they possess an inherent beauty and value for visitation. Hence,
the attractiveness of heritage resources aggravates the increment of the area to be promoted as
a tourism destination (Herbert, 1989).

Heritage resources as a driver have a significant impact on the social, economic, and environ­
mental life of the community by promoting and developing tourism. Heritage resources as
a commodity and destination are aimed at supplicating and fulfilling the needs of tourists and
their consumption took on the form of identity affiliation (Chhabra, 2010). Products especially,
cultural lifestyles and activities are consumed through tourism, which uncovers both tangible and
intangible heritage processes (Keitumetse, 2014). Therefore, tourism is the process or a form of
travel in that tourists can consume the host community’s positively exploited heritage resources.
Since heritage engages in the promotion of tourism, using the past for the present through the
production and consumption of the past (Raivo, 2002).

Indeed, heritage and tourism are complementary, which heritage resources promote tourism, and
tourism preserves, and showcase society’s heritage (Ezenagu & Iwuagwu, 2016). In this view, tourism
can provide benefits for the local population and visitors in the economic and social spheres (Comer,
2012). As a result, heritage resources must be protected for their cultural continuity and value. As
a principle, UNESCO took responsibility to preserve and conserve heritage for present and future use,
where the principle led to the approval of an individual nation’s heritage as a world heritage site. By
considering its benefits in the lives of many nations, heritage resources should be preserved and
conserved. They are a testimony and shreds of evidence of the past that is not only for display cases,
but also a symbol of identity and economic transformation for a targeted area.

2. Methodology
The paper tried to assess the Cultural heritage of Ethiopia as a driver of Cultural tourism develop­
ment by stating its qualities. The study implements a qualitative research approach to discuss
Ethiopian Cultural heritage resources, culture, tourism, and cultural tourism, sustainable heritage
tourism, and challenges of cultural heritage tourism development in the country. The study aims to
show the qualities and contribution of the cultural heritage of Ethiopia for cultural tourism
development in the area. To fulfill the set objective, the study utilizes journals, thesis’s, and
books on heritage studies that are taken from Academia, Google scholar, Science direct, and
Research gate as major sources of data. The descriptors considered in this study include Cultural
tourist attractions in Ethiopia, sustainable cultural tourism development, and challenges of sus­
tainable heritage tourism development in Ethiopia. Most of these documents are published in the
above-listed journals. Therefore, all the information is consulted and analyzed through the content
analysis method. Then, the conclusion and recommendation were given as a close remark.

3. Conceptual framework
Ethiopia is a multi-ethnic country that is endowed with distinctive nations, myriad natural envir­
onments, cultural practices, and heritage resources where heritages are the indispensable living
traditions of the people (Levine, 2004). According to ICOMOS (1999), heritage is a legacy of one
nation that transfers from generation to generation (ICOMOS, 1999). It encompasses both natural
and cultural environments, such as biodiversity environments, cultural practices, historic places,
knowledge, experiences, landscapes, and built environments. Even though many times, heritage is
considered from a cultural perspective, since it is the product of human activities, the natural one
is changed by humans (Günlü et al., 2013).

Based on the above guise, heritage is defined as the current materialization of human times of
yore that embodies those elements of our past, which are an important part of our cultural
traditions in emotional and spiritual practices (UNESCO, 2003). These elements are creative

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geniuses of human activities which produced heritage that manifests the valuable cultural tradi­
tion of the society. On the other hand, cultural traditions over time yielded tangible and intangible
historical legacies which are known today as cultural heritage (Ezenagu, 2015, 2017).

Traveling to consume cultural products can prompt tourism. Hence, without culture, there is no
tourism. When tourists urge seeing other people’s authentic environments and the physical lives
expressed in their work, cultural tourism could rise (Ezenagu & Iwuagwu, 2016). Cultural tourism is
any journey that motivates one to see the artistic, and heritage offering of the community, historic
region, or institutions (Dewar, 2005). Visiting the cultural and historical resources is part of the
tourism industry, which today is seen as the fastest, largest, and most pervasive sector. To facilitate
tourists’ consumption and maximize the benefit of cultural tourism, the host communities have
tended to commodify their cultural properties unless the cultural resources are not consumed
(Timothy & Nyaupane, 2009; Walker & Walker, 2011). During commodifying, there will be destruction
of the cultural processes and products. Therefore, these heritages must be listed as world heritage
sites. Heritage resources are seen as motivators of cultural tourism in Ethiopia, with world heritage
status. Listing heritages in the world heritage list will open them up for international tourism. Hence,
this work assumes that listing heritage resources will increase touristic activities and value.

Scholars have no common understanding of the meaning and definition of cultural or heritage
tourism because of their unique nature and objectives of activities therein. Some may say heritage
tourism; others may call as cultural tourism and cultural heritage tourism, even if they are similar
in the word culture (Cultural and Heritage Tourism Alliance, 2002).

The phenomenon that harnessed the cultural, historical, and ethnic components of society to
attract tourists is called heritage tourism, but the definition of it did not differentiate the elements
of attractions (Chang, 1997). Two scholars (Leslie & Sigala, 2005) merged the two concepts and
defined heritage and cultural tourism as the portion of the tourism industry that gave unique
emphasis on cultural attractions and heritage. On the other hand, Yale (1991) understood that
heritage tourism is all about visiting sites with their cultural relevance. Commonly, the concept of
cultural heritage tourism is understood as the interaction between the use of cultural heritage
assets, the consumption of experience, products, and tourists and tourism. In the radiance of this,
cultural tourism covers both the consumption of products of the past and contemporary culture
(Edgell, 2006; Mckercher & Cro, 2002). In light of the above definition of heritage, cultural heritage
tourism portrayed the interaction between culture and tourism, of which cultural tourism is the
product of culture and tourism, and it is the bridge between culture and tourism (Richards, 2001).

Culture and tourism are constituted in different forms of human activities. According to UNESCO
(2001), culture is seen as the totality of society’s way of life, such as the intellectual, emotional,
spiritual, and material set of a certain group whereas tourism commodifies the product of such
relationships (UNESCO, 2001). In addition to this, Schaefer (2002) expressed culture as it is the
totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, material objects, knowledge, and behaviors
(Schaefer, 2002). Ezenagu (2014) also described it as a word that defines man’s adaptation,
communication, and relationship with the environment that could help the community to go
forward with customs, ceremonies, dance, folklore, norms, religion, rituals, traditions, arts, crafts,
language, dress, food, architecture and landscape. In turn, experiencing the above exotic invalu­
able material heritages gave rise to cultural travel, while tourism (travel) consumes culture.
Therefore, the commodification of products is the way to consume culture (Ezenagu, 2014).

To have good tourism, culture needs to be transformed as the tourism product and continue
based on the demands of tourists. Hence, tourism activity in any heritage site transforms heritage
resources into attraction through commodification, and commercial value; it gave rise to the
consumption of cultural products (Rodzi et al., 2013). As a result, cultural tourism can encourage
the revival of the traditions and restoration of heritage sites and encourages host communities
with economic activities as demanded by tourists (Wedow & MacCannell, 1977; Zedková & Kajzar,

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2013). This form of tourism and exotic culture also represents heritage destination attractiveness,
socialization, tourism, and trade where cultural materials and activities are raw materials for
cultural tourism and an umbrella for culture-focused tourism activities (Danesi et al., 2017).

4. Ethiopian heritage resources

As it is stated earlier, Ethiopia is endowed with various natural and cultural heritage resources, of
which amazing human creativity is found in different parts of the country. Those heritages ranged
from biodiversity, cultural practices, built environment, indigenous knowledge, historic places, and
landscapes, which became the driver and asset of the tourism industry (Levine, 2004:12). Scholars
acknowledged that national cultural heritage is measured as an important tourism attraction and
continues to grow in the area. The Ethiopian national heritage conservation agency should declare
those cherished cultural products as national monuments and enlist those profound heritages as
the tentative lists in UNESCO for endorsement (N. Dudley, 2008:7).

Heritages are the major repository of the country and assets of tourism. Even if Ethiopia has
thirteen heritages enlisted as world heritage by UNESCO, many tangible and intangible heritages
are gazetted in the national repository such as Bale Mountains National Park, Dirre Sheik Hussein
Religious, Cultural and Historical Site, Sof Omar Cave, Sacred Landscapes of Tigray, Melka Kunture
and Balchit, Gedeo Cultural Landscape, Cultural Heritage of Yeha and Lake Tana Island
Monasteries and its Adjacent Wetland Natural and Cultural Heritages

(UNESCO, 2015). These heritages are acknowledged for their inherent importance and marvelous
significance throughout the state. The Ethiopian cultural industry is one of the oldest and most
diverse (Karbo, 2013:190; Levine, 2004: 24). In addition to this, the country is endowed with four
intangible heritages are Irrecha, Mesqel, Epiphany, and Chambelala and cultural practices desig­
nated world heritage status (MOCT, 2017). The landscape of the country is also superior, with
numerous religions that include Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and other traditional religions
(Jenkins, 2011:176). These religious communities are living peacefully, which indicates the exis­
tence of social cohesion in the country (Barth, 1998).Therefore, the country enables the interna­
tional tourist influx and increases the socioeconomic well-being of the community through
safeguarding, harnessing, and promoting those assets(K.F. Dudley, 2009:10–13). Therefore, this
paper primarily focused on identifying the tangible cultural heritages, show their qualities and

Figure 1. UNESCO world heri­

tage sites of Ethiopia
(Quaestiones Geographicae
31(1), 2012).

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contribution to sustainable cultural tourism development in the country. The following figure 1
represents the tangible heritages enlisted as a world heritage sites in the country.

The eight tangible cultural heritages of Ethiopia’s brief descriptions and qualities are expressed
as follows one by one. Identifying their qualities of them opens the door to discuss their contribu­
tion to the presence of sustainable cultural tourism in the area.

4.1. The rock-hewn church of Lalibela

Ethiopia is well-known for its culture of rock-cut churches. These rock-hewn churches prospered
during the Zagwe period (from 1150–1270) and their construction was attributed to one of the
prominent kings of the Zagwe dynasty, Lalibela that centered in Lasta (Finneran, 2007a; Sergew,
1972). These rock-hewn churches are carved out of solid rocks which are divided into monolithic,
semi-monolithic, and cave churches. The classifications of these rock-hewn churches are based on
the degree of their separation from the mother rock and the way of their excavation (Finneran,
2007a). Lalibela is the home of eleven rock-hewn churches which are hewn out of the living rock in
a massive rectangular form from top to down (Bidder, 1958; Gerster, 1970; Sergew, 1972:271;
Pankhurst, 2005:49). Indeed, there are impressive ornate roofs, ceilings, floors of varying levels,
individual rooms, windows, columns, arches, dwellings, defensive trenches, and productive struc­
tures (Gerster, 1970; Angelini, 1967; Girma & Elisabeth, 1983: 210; UNESCO, 2008:11).

These churches are also divided into three groups based on their location and access: namely;
the northern, eastern, and western groups. The northern group embraces six churches (Bete
Medhane Alem, Bete Maryam, Bete Mesqel, Bete Danaghel, Bete Golgotha, and Bete Mikael). From
this group, Bete Medhane Alem and Bete Maryam are monolithic and the others are semi-
monolithic. In addition, Bete Medhane Alem, Bete Maryam, and Bete Golgotha are famous for
their unique features. Bete Maryam has outer porches and mural paintings. Bete Medhane Alem
is situated out due to its enormous size and the large number of pillars and Bete Golgotha
represents base relief figures, several altars, and the existence of the tomb of King Lalibela. The
last impressive rock-hewn church in this group is Bete Denagil which lacks decorations and the
smallest one is Bete Meskel (Baye, 2003; Bidder, 1958; Gerster, 1970; Sergew, 1972:271).

The eastern group also comprises four churches (Bete Gabriel-Rafael, Bete Amanuel, Bete
Mercurious, and Abba Libanos) which are situated south of the Jordan River and alienated from
a rock plateau in the east, north, and south by a wider outer channel. Among this group, Bete
Amanuel is solely monolithic and the foyer of Bete Gabriel is unknown (Gerster, 1970; Angelini,
1967; Girma & Elisabeth, 1983: 210; UNESCO, 2008:11).

The last western group is composed of one church, Bete Giyorgis which is cross-shaped and
monolithic. The building is inside the quad; the walls are faintly tapered and have a horizontal band
that appears completely symmetric. In addition, the nine windows of the church are blind and
mimic the monkey-head framework (Sergew, 1972:271; Finneran, 2007a:230–23; Phillipson,
2009:124; Asfawossen & Yodit, 2010).

The churches of Lalibela are an important element of national identity and pride that constitute
symbols of the paramount architectural, religious, and economic documentary, archaeological,
historical, and politically significant for the people of the country (Sergew, 1972:276–277; Mengistu,
2004). In the case of architecture, various artistic expressions in and out of each church building
have their influence on artists and are a source of admiration for visitors. The churches also bring
a sense of inspiration, hope, and symbolized Jerusalem for Christians in the religious aspect.
Furthermore, they are sources of income for the local communities (Sergew, 1972:276–277).

4.2. Fasil ghebbi

It is a palace located in Gondar, the capital of Ethiopia in the 17th c. The city contains some castles
built in the period between 1632 to 1855, and it was the home of emperor Fasiledes and other

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emperors during this period (Lindahl, 1970; Montidella, 1938). It is also the only city in the country
that owns castle architecture, which was inscribed as a world heritage by UNESCO in 1979 (Berry,
1986). The Compound contains fascinating historic sites of Bakaffa castle, Dawit castle, Fasiledes
castle, queen Mentewab castle, Yohannis castle, and three Churches: Debre Birhan Selassie Church,
the Monastery of Qusqam palace, and Kidus Yohannis Church (Hill, 1979; Kal, 1983).

The castle of Fasiledes is an incredible castle among others and was built in the 1630s and early
1640s. The castle shows an imitation of the unique architectural style of Portuguese, Aksumite,
and even Indians (Biggs, 2005). The castle has a bedroom on the second floor, a dining and
reception area on the ground floor, the king’s prayer room on the first floor, and a roof where
religious ceremonies were held. All walls of this castle are decorated, which represent the Star of
David (Biggs, 2005; Selamawit, 2013). Emperor Yohannis I, who ruled the country from 1667-1682,
built the second castle found in Fasil Ghebbi that contains unique charms with warm colors and
bold lines. The emperor used this castle for discussion of theology (Biggs, 2005). After Yohannis I,
emperor Eyasu I was succeeded who built his palace and ruled the country from 1682–1706. His
castle was enormous and the ceiling of it was adorned with Gold and Stones. However, in 1707, the
ceiling of the ground floor was devastated by the bombardment of the British during the First
World War.

In 1716, another emperor, emperor Dawit, the son of Eyasu I succeeded. He built his castle,
which measures 30 meters and 12.3 meters wide at the royal enclosure. The emperor used this
castle as the center of religious and secular ceremonies (Pankhurst, 1969). Next to Emperor Dawit,
his brother, Emperor Bakaffa, built a castle and ruled the country from 1721–1730. His castle has
an immense banquette hall, which is the last structure of the imperial compound (Jean, 1959). The
last castle was the Empress Mentewab, who ruled the country from 1730-1770 as a de facto ruler.
Her castle is located at the north extremity of the compound and rich in battlements, arches, and
base-reliefs with a small squared storey at the top.

The Fasil Ghebbi also embodies three churches. The first church is Debre Birhan Selassie which is
the oldest church in the city and was founded by emperor Eyasu I. It has a rectangular arrange­
ment with a round shape. The church is universally known for its murals and paintings that include
saints and Jesus Christ around in its walls and ceiling (Carillent and Phillipson, 2009; Biggs, 2005).
The qusqam monastery is another church that is built by empress Mentewab as her residence. The
church has paintings, refined works of art such as the passion of Christ and the life of Mary,
prophets, and saints, and is decorated with crosses, animals, and red volcanic tuffs (Chiri, 2012;
Biggs, 2005). The last church in Fasil Ghebbi is Kidus Yohannis church which was built by Ras Welde
Leul from 1942–1943. The original structure of this church resembled the Gondarian castle before
it was destroyed in the 1880s.

Indeed, Fasil Ghebbi’s tangible and intangible legacies are the representation of the channel of
communication and the carrier of the memory between the past and the present. It is also
a source of spiritual satisfaction for the present Christian communities. Architecturally, it describes
the most extraordinary 17th c Ethiopian Architecture.

4.3. Aksum obelisks

The city is found in northern Ethiopia, which became the center of kings from 400 B.C. to the tenth
century. The town is the center of magnificent stelae, the graves of king Kaleb, Gebre Meskel, and
the Bath of Queen Sheba (Beek, 1967; Bent, 1896). The obelisks of Aksum are monolithic; they are
found in scattered places in the town of Aksum and have an outstanding universal value. It is
inscribed as a World Heritage site in 1980 by fulfilling the two world convention criteria: Criteria (I)
stipulates a masterpiece of human creative genius that includes both the decorated and undeco­
rated stelae and criteria (IV) insists on an outstanding example of building, architectural or
technological assemblage (UNESCO, 2013).

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The obelisk of Aksum is one thousand seven hundred years old. It has also twenty-three meters
of granite stelae, and it is decorated with two false doors and windows (Finneran, 2007a;
Phillipson, 1997). In addition, the obelisks of Aksum end with a semi-circular shape, which made
it attractive to different tourists around the world (Fattovich, 1987; Plant, 1985; Poissonnier, 2012).
The stelae of Aksum, which are carved in the representation of buildings, are numbered 1 up to 6
based on their size. Among the six stelae, stelae 1 are the largest that measure almost 30 m high,
but now it is broken. Likewise, stelae 2 are broken and fallen and it was taken to Rome in 1938
during the Italian occupation of the country. In addition, stelae 4, 5, and 6 are broken and fallen.
The only stelae that still stands at Aksum is stelae 3. All stelae of Aksum are widely accepted as
funeral buildings and demonstrate Aksumite stone working technology during the period (Anfray,
1968; Beek, 1967; Fattovich, 1987; Littmann, 1913; Sergew, 1972).

4.4. Tiya stelae

The megalithic tradition of Ethiopia has been studied since the 1920s and the country is regarded
as the land of megalithic culture (Anfray, 1982; Joussaume, 1974, 1995).The megalithic culture of
Ethiopia falls into three groups: Dolmens, Stelae, and Tumuli (Joussaume, 1974). The megalithic
sites of Tiya exhibit a tradition characterized by stelae which are regarded as burial sites dated
between the 11th and 13 c A.D (Anfray, 1982; Joussaume, 1995). There are fourteen sites within
Gurageland fall between 37°30’ and 38° 50ʹE and 7° 46’ and 8° 48’ N (Muluneh, 1994). The Tiya
stelae have varied between the ranges of 1986 meters in Sodo to 2723 meters in Mehur-Aklil
(Bahn, 2001). They are considered as the constituent indicator of permanent settlement where
there are water supplies, defensive positions, and farmland (Bahn, 2001).

The Tiya stelae possess anthropomorphic, phallic and neither anthropomorphic nor phallic
shapes. Both anthropomorphic and phallic-shaped stelae are flat (Fukui, 1997). There are also
twelve decorated stelae in Sodo and undecorated in Mehur- Aklil. In addition, some symbols signify
power, social organization, and the economy of the society. For instance, the engraving of daggers
on the fallen stelae indicates the burial of the warrior or hunter and tree engraving symbolizes the
ritual of the society (Anfray, 1982).

4.5. Lower omo valley

It is located in the southwest of the country and extends an area of 165 km2.This site is known for
its deposit of hominids and animal bones that are important for the study of human development.
The site also includes the area of Konso and Fejej going back to the plio-Pleistocene period that
produced various animal bones and hominids, including Australopithecus. The site sheds light on
the early development of humans and the discovery of ancient stone tools (Boisserie et al., 2008;
Coppens, 1976). On this site, there are oldwana stone tools which indicate that the earliest human
beings used them to fulfill their day-to-day lives (Hovers, 2009).

Scientific research revealed that since 1966, the site contributes to archaeological, geological,
paleo-anthropological, and environmental studies. Based on the two criteria of the world heritage
convention (criteria III and IV), the site is spectacular for its unique technical and cultural activities
in pre-historic times. It was enlisted as a world heritage site in 1980 for Ethiopia (Chavaillon, 1977;
Hovers, 2009; Howell, 1976).

4.6. Lower awash valley

It is the paleo-anthropological site that is located 300 km northeast of the capital, Addis Ababa,
west of the Afar depression, and covers 150 km2. The remains found on the site dated back to
4 million years ago give evidence of human evolution where Lucy was one of the spectacular
skeletons discovered in 1974 (Campisano & Feibel, 2007; Goldman & Hovers, 2012). The Excavation
was begun in 1973 by international paleo-anthropologists and historians, who found large quan­
tities of fossilized hominids and animal bones (Kimbel, 2009; Reed, 2008).

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Lucy was a female complete skeleton dated back to 3.2 million years ago and grouped under
Australopithecus afarensis. The site is enlisted as a world heritage site because of its evidence of
hominids and animal bones, its exceptional antiquity, and its evidence of human development
based on the World Heritage convention criteria II, III, and IV. It was enlisted as a world heritage
site in 1980 (Ward et al., 2011; Yemane, 1997).

4.7. Harar jugol

The city of Harar was founded in the 8th century by merging seven clans to defend themselves
from enemies and the name it was given by Sheik Abadir in the 12thc, came from Arabia (Philippe &
Serge, 2004). Harar became the center of the powerful sultanate of Adal from 1520–77. Emir Nur
Ebin Mujhad was responsible for securing from the Christian kingdom and the Oromo and the
construction of the outer wall of the city was inaugurated by the Emir starting in 1552 (Harar Jugol,
the Fortified Historic Town, 2006). Henceforth, Jugol has five gates, which became the gateway to
the outside world (Philippe & Serge, 2004; Kaleb, 2016).

The historic city of Harar exhibits the original Islamic culture expressed in the city, a trading
place, an example of an outstanding architectural and urban ensemble, and a traditional human
settlement. The city of Harar is the center of Islamic learning and it is recognized as the fourth
holiest city of Islam in the world (A. Mengistu, 1988; Wilding, 1976). It has the most prominent and
ancient 82 mosques in the walled town. Side by side, it embodies houses that are grouped into
traditional, mixed, and Indian houses. The city was also the center of trade with the Arabian
Peninsula, central Ethiopia, and the east African coast, Zanzibar. The people cast their coins known
as mahlag and ashraf. All the above-listed elements facilitated the nomination of the city as
a world heritage by UNESCO in 2006 (Fritz, 1989; Hisham, 2010).

4.8. Konso cultural landscape

The people of Konso are known for the indigenous practice of stone-based terracing, integrated
Agro-forestry, and mixed agriculture. They are more egalitarian, where the social institution
obliged them to participate in terracing buildings and plantations (Tadesse, 2010; Forch, 2003).
Hence, the uncongenial topography was transformed into an incredible landscape of terraces,
which helped to conserve every drop of rain, protect against soil erosion, and yield intemperance
water over the cultural dams (Forch, 2003). The highlands of the area are green, dense, mountai­
nous, and topped by orderly villages which made the surroundings spectacular (Forch, 2003; Fisher,
1990).

Some moras are taken as another cultural landscape of the area. This cultural landscape
consists of cultural, ritual, public, and ceremonial features like big huts used as men’s sleeping
places, dancing fields, large stone slabs for sitting, manhood or masculinity stelae, and tall juniper
posts that are erected to commemorate generation power transfer, wooden statues, oval-shaped
stones used to sharpen ritual hunting spears, swearing or oath-taking stones, pebble and pit
playing wooden board, stretcher to carry sick people to health centers or corpses to burial places,
and wooden sticks used as musical instruments during ritual dancing (Ambron, 1997: 382;
Metasebia,1997; Hallpike, 1966).

In light of this, the places represent the record of the living cultural landscape, original agricul­
tural terraces, and fortified stone towns. They also built cultural dams called harta to save water
during the rainy season, which in turn combat climate change. Henceforth, this landscape had
recognition and was registered as a world heritage site by UNESCO in 2011 (Baye, 2003).

5. Sustainable cultural tourism development in Ethiopia

By opening the door to tourists, Ethiopia achieved sustainable cultural tourism development through
the qualities of the above cultural heritages since their enlistment as World Heritage Sites. In the view
of development, sustainability is taken as the priority in the world, of which the United Nations coined
the term in 1972 to pressurize actions on development. The phrase sustainable development denotes

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the balance of human needs with the wise use of finite resources. However, after the Rio Earth
Summit of 1972, the concept of sustainable development broadened into three supportive rudiments
that are economic growth, environmental protection, and social equity (UNESCO, 2013).

The presence of sustainable tourism depended on sustainable environmental, social, and eco­
nomic viable activities which require compatibility of the needs of the host community and the
visitors that can help for the protection and enhancement of tourism attractions to be part of the
national economy in the future. Based on this guise, tourism development can be viable economic­
ally, equitable socially, and bearable ecologically in the long run. This is because tourism is
depending on the environment and uses an extensive environment (cultural, economic, political,
and social).

In the case of heritages, sustainability implies the continuous use and conservation of cultural
and natural heritages as a tourism resource. It is considered as part of the environment that
requires protection, transmission to generation, and conservation for sustainable development.
This can be achieved by sustainable tourism management (Dewar, 2005).

Indeed, sustainable tourism in Ethiopia is achieved and safeguarded by the integrity, and fabric
of Ethiopian heritage resources both by destination and visitation. Hence, sustainable tourism in
Ethiopia is attempting to balance cultural diversity, economic growth, and environmental protec­
tion in partial (Tadelech, 2020). The economic, social, and environmental sustainability of cultural
tourism in Ethiopia is stated as follows.

6. Economic sustainability
Starting with their enlistment, the cultural heritage of the country were able to establish economic
sustainability, thanks to the visiting of the cultural heritages already mentioned. Wide numbers of
jobs are being created for the residents of tourist destinations thanks to cultural tourism. Since the
industry requires a lot of labor, it offers different employment opportunities to the host town
residents (Farid, 2015). It opens up doors for several small business owners and the growth of
a variety of small-sized businesses. Compared to other industries, it provides more opportunities
for women and young people to find work (Ayalew, 1992). For instance, sales of different com­
modities such as belts and crosses around Lalibela rock-hewn churches played a remarkable
economic growth of Lalibela and created job opportunities for local people. On the one hand,
sales of traditional clothes especially Yehabesha qemis around Fasil Gehbbi and Harar Jugol
contributed a lot to the development of people’s economy in the area. In addition, around
Lower Omo, Lower Awash, and Aksum Obelisks, jobs are created like trading of traditional drinks
such as Tela, Areqi, and Shameta for Vistors. Furthermore, in Konso and the surrounding areas,
traditional foods like Awaze are sold to visitors of the Konso cultural landscape. In this way, new
economic opportunities could present in the country by exploiting the Rock-hewn Churches, Tiya
Stelae, Aksum Obelisks, Lower Omo Valley, the Lower Awash Valley, Fasil Ghebbi, Harar Jugol, and
Konso Cultural Landscape as tourism resources (Shimelis, 2008).

7. Social sustainability
Researchers have found three main socio-cultural benefits of sustainable cultural tourism in
Ethiopia. These include the encouragement of social stability, the promotion of intercultural
understanding, and the motivational value of cultural tourism in protecting regional culture and
history. Additionally, it opens up more chances to enhance infrastructure, including parks, roads,
and spaces for outdoor enjoyment. In addition, it developed a beloved image of the places that
support local pride in their society’s membership, facilitate modernization, and offer educational
possibilities (Farid, 2015; Temesgen, 2013).

The rebirth of traditional arts and crafts was also fueled by cultural tourism, particularly in the
areas surrounding the cultural heritage sites mentioned above. Crafts such as weaving grow in the
area where the cultural heritages situated on. Weavers create different cultural cloths and sold to

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tourists. It also significantly contributed to the promotion and encouragement of improved under­
standing between people of various nationalities and cultural backgrounds, the revival and pre­
servation of the local handicraft industry, the preservation of the cultural identity of the host
population, the expansion of cultural exchanges with foreigners, and the development of greater
tolerance for social differences in Ethiopia (Agumas, 2012). In addition, the satisfaction of tourists
in the presence of good hospitality, facilities and beauty of the cultural heritages sustained the
cultural tourism in the country. Tourists amazed by the cultural heritages especially by Harar Jugol,
Fasil Ghebbi, Akusum Obelisks and Tiya Stelae because of their longevity without losing their
originality until now.

8. Environmental sustainability
Similar to how tourism is sustainable in terms of the economy and society, Ethiopia’s environment
is likewise sustainable. It has two advantages: it preserves and improves the area’s environmental
resources and offers great potential for maintaining cultural tourism. Ethiopians become more
environmentally conscious and feel a sense of responsibility when tourists visit, which encourages
them to safeguard the environment and preserve ancient places. As a result, the nation has
attained environmental sustainability. Cultural site preservation and protection operate as
a draw for tourists. If there were no cultural tourism in the nation, especially for the castles,
such conserved sites might not have appeared and be present now (Gebranynya, 2011). Hence, all
cultural heritages are preserved and conserved to strengthen cultural tourism in the country in
different periods. Museums are opened in each area of the cultural heritages for their preservation
and conservation purpose.

The other sustainability includes infrastructural development in and around the cultural heritages
including improvements to hotels, road transportation, and ICT services. Such facilities are essential
to drawing large numbers of tourists to a location. Infrastructures are another feature that attracts
tourists to a location. Ethiopian Air transport is the leading and contributes for the development of the
tourism sector. There are airports in every part of the above listed cultural heritages where tourists
freely used them since their enlistment as World Heritage sites. In Such advancements in Ethiopia
frequently gratify visitors. As a result, more people are visiting the areas surrounding cultural places,
which help the presence of sustainable cultural tourism (Asmelash & Kumar, 2019).

Even if the above qualities are seen in the development of cultural tourism in the country, some
challenges hinder the movement of tourists freely in the past and present especially in the period
from 2019 to the present. There are factors that caused fluctuation and broke the continuation of
sustainable cultural tourism in the country. Factors are presented as follows as a sub-topic.

9. Challenges of cultural heritage tourism in Ethiopia

There are problems that broke sustainability of the cultural tourism in the area starting from recent
years. The following are the main ones.

10. Theft and illicit trafficking

Theft and illegal trafficking are major issues in Ethiopia, and Lalibela churches are particularly
vulnerable to these issues (Negussie et al., 2012) Many of the church’s treasured treasures
continue to be victims today (Ayalew, 2002; Farid, 2015; Mengistu, 2008). Mengistu (2008), asserts
that the primary targets of theft are EOTC manuscripts, icons, and crosses. One of the victims of
thievery is the church treasures. Therefore, the church’s treasures are off-limits to tourists out of
concern about theft.

11. Globalization
The majority of Ethiopian youngsters emulate western tourists’ cultural practices and manner of
life. Their speech, nutrition, and clothing choices are now a serious problem. One of the industry’s
leading authorities asserts that the globalization virus is eradicating the local communities’
original cultures (Amha, 2008). Many foreign visitors stay in Ethiopia for two to three days to

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experience the nation’s rich cultural and natural heritage. However, international visitors demon­
strate their new culture to the local youth during their extended stay in the place they have visited.
Adopting local customs is frequently discouraged in the nation. As a result, the region loses its
identity and distinctive culture (Dagnachew, 2018). To avoid such circumstances, the government
of Ethiopia limits the number of visitors in the suspected areas where the above situation has
occurred.

12. Political instability

The tourism industry is very sensitive and fragile. It needs peace more than any other industry.
Since there is no peace as a result of the struggle between the Prosperity Party and the TPLF,
especially in the northern regions of Ethiopia (Amhara and Tigray regional states), starting in 2020,
no visitor may move from one site to the other. The civil war caused a drop in the number of
tourists in the two regions where Aksum obelisks, Lalibela churches, and Fasil Ghebbi are found.
Therefore, these heritages are less valuable to tourism (Atsbha et al., 2019; Dagnachew, 2018).

13. COVID-19
Ethiopia is home to many tourism destinations, including historical and archaeological sites,
however, the COVID-19 outbreak led to a 70% decline in tourism earnings and significant employ­
ment losses, and the conflict that erupted in the nation’s north made things worse (Atsbha et al.,
2019; Dagnachew, 2018). The pandemic broke the sustainability of cultural tourism in Ethiopia as
well as in the world. Still present, visitors are low and some of them are afraid of moving to out of
the capital, Addis Ababa.

14. Conclusion
Human environments and activities can be transformed into attractions through tourism by
increasing the number of destinations with the product of cultural and historical relevance that,
in turn, gave rise to cultural tourism. Ethiopia is given by nature diversified human and natural
heritage throughout the country where high and profitable investment can surround it. The
country is on the move to diversify its economy from service delivery and considers tourism as
the leading economic sector.

Cultural heritages play a vital role in preserving cultural values and educating the nation in the
past. As well as heritages have strong potential to promote the country’s socio-economic devel­
opment. The eight UNESCO cultural heritage sites in Ethiopia show the cultural and economic
bearing of the heritage. At these sites, both the cultural activities and historical values have
attracted attention at international and domestic levels. Nowadays, Ethiopians’ are participating
in tricks at heritage sites as it is a remark of cultural identity. All the heritages are relegating
international assets that will open the wide range of flow of international tourism in the country.

In no gainsaying, heritage will linger as the major product of tourism, of which its transformation
and consumption will yield the preservation and conservation of the resources. To yield such an
event, the vast and rich cultural heritages of the country must reposition to partners with tourism
as it is a driver of the economy. As a result, these resources have to consider the destinations’
competitiveness and cultural tourism product where this synergy is more important to the econ­
omy of the country. Here, culture is seen as a motivating factor for visitation. Indeed, cultural
tourism is essential because it increases the tourist experience; enhances understanding of
cultures of the globe, preserves heritage sites as well as maintains peaceful co-existence in
different cultural areas of the country. In essence, many communities share a common identity
because of communal ownership of heritage resources today.

Sustainable cultural tourism in the country offers social, economic and environmental sustain­
ability. Therefore, to sustain cultural tourism in the country, a sustainable cultural tourism policy is
essential. The government and other stakeholders need to create valuable and advantageous laws
to protect and conserve such heritages for continuous use by the host communities and

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international societies. Clear law is mandatory to have sustainable cultural tourism in hand and on
the ground. Such laws are important to the sustainable management of heritages.

In conclusion, these heritage resources are the indicator of survival, a representation of huge
human creations across the globe, as well as major assets for tourism development. Heritage
resources, as a vital tourism product, can be used to educate visitors about the value of both
cultural and natural assets. As result, these heritages, particularly World Heritage sites, are
proficiently managed as a driver of sustainable tourism resources by minimizing the existing
challenges that are why it addresses economic, environmental, and social issues.

15. Recommendation
The author recommends further research to address the following issues: sustainable tourism for
economic development, the relationship between culture and heritages, conservation of heritages
for sustainable economic development, and state the responsibility of all citizens on how to
promote and conserve heritages.

Acknowledgements Atsbha, G., Setegn, G., & Yiheyis, A. (2019). Sustaining

I have big honor for my Staff member, Anwar Ayano who
initiated me to write this article.
Funding
The author received no direct funding for this research.
Author details
Getahun Worku Tadesse1
E-mail: getahunworku08@gmail.com
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8669-2252
1
Department of History and Heritage Management,
College of Social Science, Werabe University, Ethiopia.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Citation information
Cite this article as: Heritage resources as a driver of cul­
tural tourism development in Ethiopia: A review, Getahun
Worku Tadesse, Cogent Arts & Humanities (2023), 10:
2158623.
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Worku Tadesse, Cogent Arts & Humanities (2023), 10: 2158623
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