LESSON 2.

METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING

Philosophy is concerned with determining the truth since it lies at the heart of every inquiry. The
discussion on truth is part of philosophical studies on knowledge and the ways of knowing. As
we know from out previous lesson, facts are statements that are observed to be real or truthful
and claims are statements that require further examinations or test to determine their
truthfulness.
There are various philosophical views regarding truth. Philosophers consider something as
truthful if it corresponds with an observable fact or reality. Something is also true if it can be
justified through experience and the use of one’s senses. Another view believes that truth is a
product of agreement or consensus. And last, there is perspective that considers a claim as
truthful if it can be tested or verified.

BASIS FOR DETERMINING THE TRUTH

 A belief is true if it can be justified or proven through the use of one’s senses.
 A belief or statement is true if it is based on facts.
 Getting consensus or having people agree in a common belief
 Determining truth in this case requires a person to prove a statement through an action
 Claims and beliefs should be subjected to tests to determine the truth.

What should we consider when looking at arguments or opinion?

Arguments - are series of statements that provide reasons to convince reader or listener that a
claim or opinion is truthful. There are also numbers of arguments based on faulty reasoning.
These kinds of arguments are called fallacies. We must be aware of the various kinds of
fallacies as these affect the validity of the arguments.

Logic – branch of philosophy that focuses on the analysis of arguments. It studies and
elaborates on good argumentation. Study of correct thinking and reasoning.
Fallacy are group of statement that appear to be arguments, but fail to support the conclusion.

FALLACY Latin Term CHARACTERISITICS EXAMPLE

Attacking Argumentum ad Attacking the person “Of course he

the Person Hominem presenting the argument believes that the
instead of the argument government is
Hominem came itself flawed, he is a rebel
from a Latin word and a Communist”.
“homo” which Attacking the character of an
means man. individual rather than an “How can we
attempt to address the issue believe him when he
talks about social
distancing, he is a
lawyer who is a liar.
 ”

Appeal to (ARGUMENTUM AD Using the threat of force or an “If these peace

Force BACULUM – undesirable event to advance agreement will not
argument with aidgel) an argument be signed by the
government, then
Baculum – is a latin Disbelief will tend to physical we will have no
word which means abuse. recourse but to go to
scepter or stick. A war”.
scepter is a symbol This is committed when a
of authority. person uses threat or force to “TV Patrol is the
advance an argument. best news program
on Tv. If you don’t
believe me, I won’t
let you watch the
TV.”

Appeal to (Argumentum ad Using emotions such as pity or

“All these charges
Pity misercordiam) sympathy. are baseless; this is
just plain
Misercordiam is a A person uses emotion such harassment – can’t
Latin word which as pity to convince someone you see how this is
means pity or affecting my family?”
compassion.

Appeal to Argumentum as The idea is presented as Every boy your age

People Populum acceptable because a lot of already has a
people accept it girlfriend, you
Or Populum is a latin should go find one!”
word for people. Making an argument right
Bandwagon because a lot of people accept I’m sure you want to
Fallacy
it have an I phone.
Almost 80 % of your
schoolmates are
using it”.

Appeal to (Argumentum ad The idea is acceptable Marriage should be

Tradition tradition/ because it has been true for a between a man and
ANTIQUITATEM) long time. a woman. It has
been so for a long
Traditio means “this is the way it has always time in this country;
tradition. Advancing been done”. it should remain so
an ideas since it has today and in the
been using fo a lonf future.
time.

Appeal to Argumentum ad Committed when a person “I am sure that the

Ignorance Ignorantiam could not give a counter students have
argument or if he/she could understood the
Ignorantiam is a not present any evidences or instructions perfectly
latin word for witnesses to prove or well because no one
ignorance. disapprove the statement of raised a hand to ask
Whatever has been another, his/her assertions are anything on them.”
proven false must correct and the opponent is
be true and vice wrong.
versa.

Begging the (PETITIO PRINCIPII) A fallacy n which conclusion is “I have a right to

question – Fallacy of taken for granted in the speech; therefore
Presumption premises. you cannot stop me
from talking.”
Assuming the thing or idea to
proven true “kung saan ka
masaya, dun ka
Also known as circular happy’.
argument
Unfair talaga kapag
hindi patas

Cause and Post Hoc, Ergo, Assuming a cause and effect “Ever since you
Effect Propter Hoc relationship between unrelated bought that sweater,
Fallacy events everything has been
going wrong in your
life. Get rid of it.”

Fallacy of (MODO HOC Assuming that what is true a “You are a doctor,
Composition FALLACY) part is true for the whole therefore you came
from a family of
Individual to all. Infers that something is true of doctors.”
a part, is true of a whole.
“These cases of
robbery in this
district have
convinced me that
the city has become
a den of thieves and
criminals.

Fallacy of All to individual Assuming that what is true for “Your family is
Division the whole is true for its parts smart, therefore you
are smart."
Infers that something is true of
the whole. Must also be true “You come from a
on its parts. family of doctors
 and intellectuals.
Surely you can do
better in this course.

Fallacy of Using the same term in “Humans walk by

Equivocation different situation with different their legs,. The table
meaning. has legs. Therefore
the table walks by
Calling two different things by its legs. “
the same name.

Fallacy of Occurs when one attempts to Cutting people with

Accident apply a general rule to an knives is a crime.
irrelevant situation. Surgeons cut people
with knives.
Surgeon are
criminals.

Argument Argumentum ad Committed when a person My assignment in

from Verecundiam uses a name of a popular Chemistry is not
authority celebrity or name of an expert wrong. MS. Aguire,
to put more weight in the my English teacher
assertion being made. who is known
internationally as a
novelist, conformed
my answer.

Red Herring Diveting the topic and makes #Neveragain, Eh

an argument of it. kumusta naman ang
Hacienda Luisita.

Biases – these are tendencies or influences that affect the views of people.

BIAS CHARACTERISITICS EXAMPLE

Correspondence bias or Tendency to judge person’s “These soldiers who fought

attribution bias personality by his or her in the wars are all
actions, without regard for bloodthirsty murderers.”
external factors or influences

Confirmation Bias Tendency to look for or readily “How can I accept his view
accept information which fits that there is no God? I am a
one’s own beliefs or views that Christian.”
go against it
Framing Focusing on a certain aspect Preliminary evidence has still
of a problem while ignoring not pointed out the actual
other aspects cause of the plane crash, but
investigators are currently
focusing on the possibility of
pilot error.

Hindsight The tendency to see past Magellan’s assault on

events as predictable, or to Mactan Island was a
ascribe a pattern to historical foolhardy ventures, made by
events an overconfident, careless
man who underestimated the
valor of the native Filipinos.

Conflict of Interest A person or group is As the daughter of the

connected to or has a vested accused, I believe I have the
interest in the issue being right to express my opinion
discussed on the issue of his alleged
corrupt practices.

Cultural Bias Analyzing an event or issue I do not agree with this

based on one’s cultural Western practice of placing
standards aged parents in retirement
homes. We Filipinos take
care of our family members.