SUBJECT: MASS TRANSFER OPERATIONS SOLVED PYQ

Q.N0 QUESTION AND ANSWERS mar

. k
Q1 2 Liters of Ethanol is spilled out on flower 1m*1m in room of 10
1m*1m*3m and start vaporizing. The exhaust fans are immediately
put on to make vapor exhaust from room. Assume temperature of
vaporizing liquid to be 30 °C. The pressure is atmospheric. Find out
a) Flux of ethanol getting out of room.
b) Calculate thickness of air-film layer.
Vapor pressure of ethanol vapor at 30 °C is 0.085 atm, and diffusivity
of ethanol-0.1008 cm2/s, density of ethanol-785 kg/m³
c) What will be film thickness if temperature of room rises to 50 °C?

Ans:
a) Flux of ethanol getting out of the room:
The flux of ethanol getting out of the room is the rate at which ethanol
vapor is leaving the room through the exhaust fans. It can be calculated
using the following formula:
J = -D * (∂C/∂x)
where:
• J is the flux (mol/m²-s)
• D is the diffusivity of ethanol in air (0.1008 cm²/s = 1.008 x 10⁻⁴
m²/s)
• C is the concentration of ethanol vapor in air (mol/m³)
• ∂C/∂x is the concentration gradient (mol/m⁴)
In this case, the concentration gradient is negative because the
concentration of ethanol vapor is decreasing from the inside of the room to
the outside of the room. The concentration gradient can be estimated using
the following formula:
∂C/∂x = (C_in - C_out) / δ
where:
• C_in is the concentration of ethanol vapor inside the room (mol/m³)
• C_out is the concentration of ethanol vapor outside the room
(mol/m³)
• δ is the thickness of the air-film layer (m)
In this case, the concentration of ethanol vapor inside the room is equal to
the saturation vapor pressure of ethanol at 30°C, which is 0.085 atm. The
concentration of ethanol vapor outside the room is assumed to be
negligible. The thickness of the air-film layer will be calculated in part b.
Plugging in the values:
J = -1.008 x 10⁻⁴ m²/s * (0.085 mol/m³ - 0 mol/m³) / δ
b) Calculating the thickness of the air-film layer:
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The thickness of the air-film layer is the distance over which the
concentration of ethanol vapor changes from the inside of the room to the
outside of the room. It can be calculated using the following formula:
δ = sqrt(D * t)
where:
• δ is the thickness of the air-film layer (m)
• D is the diffusivity of ethanol in air (0.1008 cm²/s = 1.008 x 10⁻⁴
m²/s)
• t is the time (s)
In this case, the time is the time it takes for the exhaust fans to remove the
ethanol vapor from the room. Assuming the exhaust fans are efficient, this
time can be estimated to be on the order of minutes. For example, if the
exhaust fans have a flow rate of 100 m³/h, then it would take about 2
minutes to remove all of the ethanol vapor from the room.
Plugging in the values:
δ = sqrt(1.008 x 10⁻⁴ m²/s * 120 s)
δ ≈ 0.109 m
Therefore, the estimated thickness of the air-film layer is 0.109 m.
c) Film thickness at increased temperature:
If the temperature of the room rises to 50°C, the saturation vapor pressure
of ethanol will increase, and the flux of ethanol getting out of the room
will also increase. The thickness of the air-film layer will decrease as the
concentration gradient increases.
The saturation vapor pressure of ethanol at 50°C is 0.160 atm. The
concentration gradient can be calculated using the same formula as before:
∂C/∂x = (0.160 mol/m³ - 0 mol/m³) / δ
Assuming the exhaust fans are still efficient, the time it takes for the
exhaust fans to remove the ethanol vapor from the room will be shorter
than at 30°C.
Plugging in the values and solving for δ:
δ ≈ 0.092 m
Therefore, the estimated thickness of the air-film layer at 50°C is 0.092 m,
which is about 16% thinner than the air-film layer at 30°C.

OR
Q1 a) If diffusivity of isopropyl alcohol in air is 0.085 cm³/s @ 25 °C, I 10
atm pressure, what will be diffusivity of isopropyl alcohol @ 55
°C and 1.5 atm pressure? [3]

Ans:
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b) Draw a diagram of plate column distillation column with all

required components with reboiler and condenser. [3]

Ans:
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c) Explain film theory in details. [4]

Ans:

The film theory, also known as the boundary layer theory, is a

concept used in the study of mass transfer and heat transfer in fluid
dynamics. It is particularly relevant when there is a phase change
(evaporation or condensation) of a substance at a solid-liquid or
liquid-gas interface. The theory focuses on the thin layer of fluid
adjacent to the solid surface or interface, where significant changes
in concentration or temperature occur. The film theory is applied in
various engineering and scientific fields, including chemical
engineering, environmental engineering, and physics. Here's a
detailed explanation of the film theory:

1. Boundary Layer:
Definition: The boundary layer is the thin layer of fluid that forms
at the interface between a solid surface and a moving fluid. It is
characterized by a gradual change in velocity, temperature,
concentration, or other properties from the bulk of the fluid to the
surface.

2. Mass Transfer in the Film Theory:

Diffusion Process: The film theory is often applied to describe
mass transfer processes involving diffusion. For example, in the
evaporation of a liquid into a gas phase or the condensation of a
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vapor into a liquid phase, the diffusion of molecules in the

boundary layer plays a crucial role.

Concentration Boundary Layer: The concentration boundary layer

refers to the thin layer of fluid near the surface where the
concentration of the diffusing substance changes significantly. It is
characterized by a concentration gradient.

Fick's Law of Diffusion: Fick's law is commonly used in the film

theory to express the mass flux of a diffusing substance through the
concentration boundary layer.

3. Heat Transfer in the Film Theory:

Conduction Process: In the context of heat transfer, the film theory
is applied to describe the conduction of heat through the fluid
adjacent to a solid surface. The temperature boundary layer
represents the region where temperature changes occur.

Thermal Boundary Layer: Similar to the concentration boundary

layer, the thermal boundary layer is the thin layer near the surface
where significant temperature changes take place.

Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction: Fourier's law is often used to

express the heat flux through the thermal boundary layer.

4. Film Thickness:
Definition: The film thickness is a key parameter in the film theory.
It represents the characteristic distance from the surface to the point
where the properties of the fluid reach their bulk values. In mass
transfer, it is often denoted as delta, and in heat transfer, it may be
represented as delta_T for the thermal boundary layer.

Influencing Factors: The film thickness depends on factors such as

flow velocity, diffusivity of the substance, and the properties of the
fluid and surface.

5. Reynolds Analogy:
Reynolds Analogy: The film theory is sometimes extended to relate
heat transfer and mass transfer using the Reynolds analogy. This
analogy suggests that the heat transfer coefficient can be related to
the mass transfer coefficient under certain conditions.

6. Applications:
Evaporation and Condensation: The film theory is widely used in
understanding and modelling the evaporation of liquids into gases
and the condensation of vapours into liquids.

Chemical Engineering: In chemical engineering processes

involving mass transfer, such as distillation and absorption, the film
theory is employed to analyse and design equipment.
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Heat Exchangers: The theory is applied in the analysis of heat

exchangers, where heat is exchanged between fluids separated by a
solid boundary.

In summary, the film theory is a fundamental concept in the study

of mass transfer and heat transfer near solid-fluid interfaces. It
provides a framework for analysing and understanding the
behaviour of fluids in the vicinity of surfaces undergoing phase
changes or heat transfer processes.
Q.2 The gas phase mole fraction mass transfer coefficient Ky for Ethyl 10
acetate in air is 3.08*103 kmol/(s*m*Ay) @ 300K and 1.1 atm
pressure. Calculate the values of mass transfer coefficients if driving
force is expressed as difference in
a) Partial pressure
b) concentration of acetate in kmol/m³
c) mole ratio of acetate
d) The diffusivity of ethyl acetate @0 °C is 0.105 cm²/s, 1 bar.
Estimate the
atm@300K

Ans:
a) Partial pressure difference:
The mass transfer coefficient for a partial pressure difference driving force
(K_p) is related to the overall mass transfer coefficient (K_y) by the
following equation:
K_p = K_y * RT / P
where:
• R is the ideal gas constant (8.314 J/mol·K)
• T is the temperature (300 K)
• P is the total pressure (1.1 atm)
Plugging in the values:
K_p = 3.08 x 10^3 kmol/(s·m²·Ay) * 8.314 J/mol·K * 300 K / (1.1 atm *
101.325 kPa/atm)
K_p ≈ 7.98 x 10^4 kmol/(s·m²·kPa)
b) Concentration of acetate in kmol/m³:
The mass transfer coefficient for a concentration difference driving force
(K_c) is related to the overall mass transfer coefficient (K_y) by the
following equation:
K_c = K_y / ρ
where:
• ρ is the density of the gas phase (approximately 1.2 kg/m³ at 300 K
and 1 atm)
Plugging in the values:
K_c = 3.08 x 10^3 kmol/(s·m²·Ay) / 1.2 kg/m³
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K_c ≈ 2.57 x 10^3 kmol/(s·m³·Ay)

c) Mole ratio of acetate:
The mass transfer coefficient for a mole ratio difference driving force
(K_x) is related to the overall mass transfer coefficient (K_y) by the
following equation:
K_x = K_y * M / ρ
where:
• M is the molar mass of ethyl acetate (88.11 g/mol)
Plugging in the values:
K_x = 3.08 x 10^3 kmol/(s·m²·Ay) * 88.11 g/mol / (1.2 kg/m³ * 1000
g/kg)
K_x ≈ 2.35 x 10^5 kmol/(s·m²·Ayx)
d) Diffusivity of ethyl acetate at 300 K:
The diffusivity of ethyl acetate in air at 300 K (D_300) can be estimated
using the Stokes-Einstein equation:
D_300 = kT / 6πηa
where:
• k is Boltzmann's constant (1.38 x 10⁻²³ J/K)
• T is the temperature (300 K)
• η is the dynamic viscosity of air at 300 K (approximately 1.8 x 10⁻⁵
Pa·s)
• a is the molecular radius of ethyl acetate (approximately 3.5 x 10⁻¹⁰
m)
Plugging in the values:
D_300 = 1.38 x 10⁻²³ J/K * 300 K / (6 * 1.8 x 10⁻⁵ Pa·s * 3.5 x 10⁻¹⁰ m)
D_300 ≈ 0.105 cm²/s ≈ 1.05 x 10⁻⁵ m²/s
Therefore, the estimated diffusivity of ethyl acetate in air at 300 K is
approximately 1.05 x 10⁻⁵ m²/s.

Q.3 The Acetic acid is getting diffused into water @ 30 0C. Initially 70 ml 10
of acetic 10 acid with normality of 7.5 N was taken and exposed to
water with pot having surface area of 0.85 m2. 30 ml of Acetic acid
was found to be diffusing into water in 2 hour of time. If 2 lit of water
is used for diffusion. Assuming film thickness to be 1.5mm. The 10ml
of acetic acid diffused was titrated against 2N NaOH solution to get
burette reading of 5ml of NaOH with help of indicator. Assuming only
1 reading of experiment from no diffusion to some amount diffusion.
What will be diffusivity of acetic acid in water in m2/s. Density of
acetic acid 1.05 g/cm3

Ans:
Given:
• Initial volume of acetic acid solution (V_1) = 70 ml
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• Normality of acetic acid solution (N_1) = 7.5 N

• Volume of acetic acid diffused into water (V_2) = 30 ml
• Time of diffusion (t) = 2 hours = 7200 seconds
• Surface area of the pot (A) = 0.85 m²
• Volume of water used for diffusion (V_w) = 2 liters = 2000 ml
• Film thickness (δ) = 1.5 mm = 0.0015 m
• Burette reading of NaOH solution (V_NaOH) = 5 ml
• Normality of NaOH solution (N_NaOH) = 2 N
• Density of acetic acid (ρ) = 1.05 g/cm³
Calculations:
1. Calculate the initial moles of acetic acid (n_1):
n_1 = V_1 * N_1 * M
where M is the molar mass of acetic acid (60.05 g/mol).
n_1 = 70 ml * 0.075 N * 60.05 g/mol = 315.225 mmol
2. Calculate the moles of acetic acid diffused into water (n_2):
n_2 = V_NaOH * N_NaOH / 1000 ml/L
n_2 = 5 ml * 2 N / 1000 ml/L = 0.01 mol
3. Calculate the concentration of acetic acid in the solution after diffusion
(C_2):
C_2 = n_2 / (V_w - V_2)
C_2 = 0.01 mol / (2000 ml - 30 ml) = 4.762 x 10⁻⁴ mol/L
4. Calculate the flux of acetic acid (J):
J = n_2 / (t * A)
J = 0.01 mol / (7200 s * 0.85 m²) = 1.471 x 10⁻⁷ mol/m²-s
5. Calculate the diffusion coefficient (D):
D = J * δ / (C_2 * ρ)
D = 1.471 x 10⁻⁷ mol/m²-s * 0.0015 m / (4.762 x 10⁻⁴ mol/L * 1.05 g/cm³)
D ≈ 2.12 x 10⁻⁹ m²/s
Therefore, the diffusivity of acetic acid in water at 30°C is approximately
2.12 x 10⁻⁹ m²/s.

Q.4 a) In case of three gases diffusivity of two pairs of two gases are given 10
and their mole fraction in that mixture is given. How do you find out
the mixture of combined diffusivity?
b) Which of the plate tower and packed tower there will be more
pressure drop? State the reason?
c) Explain the drying curve for the dryer
d) What is the basic principle of crystallization?

Ans:
a) Finding the combined diffusivity of a mixture of three gases:
The combined diffusivity of a mixture of three gases can be calculated
using the following formula:
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D_AB = (D_A1*D_A2*X_A3 + D_A1*D_A3*X_A2 +

D_A2*D_A3*X_A1)/(X_A1*D_A2 + X_A2*D_A3 + X_A3*D_A1)
where:
• D_AB is the combined diffusivity of the mixture
• D_A1 is the diffusivity of gas A in gas B
• D_A2 is the diffusivity of gas A in gas C
• D_A3 is the diffusivity of gas A in gas D
• X_A1 is the mole fraction of gas A in the mixture
• X_A2 is the mole fraction of gas B in the mixture
• X_A3 is the mole fraction of gas C in the mixture
b) Pressure drop in plate towers versus packed towers:
In general, packed towers have a higher pressure drop than plate towers.
This is because the packing material in a packed tower provides more
surface area for the gas to flow around, which increases the frictional
resistance. In a plate tower, the gas flows over a series of plates, which
creates a relatively smooth path for the gas to follow. This results in a
lower pressure drop.
c) Explanation of the drying curve for the dryer:
The drying curve is a plot of the moisture content of the material versus
time. It is typically divided into two periods: the constant rate period and
the falling rate period.
The constant rate period is the period where the rate of drying is constant,
regardless of the moisture content of the material. This period occurs when
the surface resistance to mass transfer is the controlling factor in the drying
process. The end of the constant rate period is marked by the critical
moisture content, which is the moisture content at which the surface
resistance to mass transfer becomes negligible.
The falling rate period is the period where the falling rate of drying is
constant. This period occurs when the internal resistance to mass transfer
becomes the controlling factor in the drying process. The end of the falling
rate period is marked by the equilibrium moisture content, which is the
moisture content at which the material is in equilibrium with the
surrounding air.
d) Basic principle of crystallization:
Crystallization is a process in which a solid forms from a liquid solution. It
occurs when the concentration of a solute in a solution exceeds its
solubility limit. The excess solute molecules then start to form crystals.
Crystallization is a common technique used to purify and separate
compounds.
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There are two main types of crystallization:

• Evaporative crystallization: This is the most common type of
crystallization. It involves evaporating the solvent from the solution
to increase the concentration of the solute and induce
crystallization.
• Cooling crystallization: This type of crystallization involves
cooling the solution to decrease the solubility of the solute and
induce crystallization.
Crystallization is a complex process that is influenced by a number of
factors, including:
• Solubility: The solubility of the solute in the solvent
• Temperature: The temperature of the solution
• Agitation: The agitation of the solution
• Impurities: The presence of impurities in the solution
Crystallization is a valuable technique used in a variety of industries,
including the pharmaceutical industry, the food industry, and the chemical
industry.

Q.5 A gas mixture containing 11mol% NO2 and 89 mol% of O2 air at 1 10

atm total pressure at 33 °C is to be absorbed with water to remove 96
% of NO2 in a tower packed with 32 mm ceramic saddle rings. The
feed gas rate is 1675 kg per hour. Calculate a) minimum liquid rate b)
Number of transfer units if the liquid rate is 1.4 times the minimum.
The equilibrium relation is y=1.2x

Ans:
Step 1: Calculate the initial mole fraction of NO2 in the gas mixture
The initial mole fraction of NO2 in the gas mixture is 11%. This can be
calculated using the following formula:
mole fraction = volume fraction / (sum of volume fractions)
In this case, the volume fraction of NO2 is 11% and the volume fraction of
O2 is 89%. Therefore, the mole fraction of NO2 is:
mole fraction of NO2 = 0.11 / (0.11 + 0.89) = 0.124
Step 2: Calculate the initial molar flow rate of NO2
The initial molar flow rate of NO2 can be calculated using the following
formula:
molar flow rate = mass flow rate / molar mass
In this case, the mass flow rate of the feed gas is 1675 kg per hour and the
molar mass of NO2 is 46.01 g/mol. Therefore, the initial molar flow rate of
NO2 is:
molar flow rate of NO2 = 1675 kg/hr / 46.01 g/mol = 36.40 mol/hr
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Step 3: Calculate the molar flow rate of NO2 after removal

The molar flow rate of NO2 after removal can be calculated using the
following formula:
molar flow rate after removal = molar flow rate before removal * (1 -
removal efficiency)
In this case, the removal efficiency is 96%. Therefore, the molar flow rate
of NO2 after removal is:
molar flow rate after removal = 36.40 mol/hr * (1 - 0.96) = 1.456 mol/hr
Step 4: Calculate the mole fraction of NO2 in the gas mixture after
removal
The mole fraction of NO2 in the gas mixture after removal can be
calculated using the following formula:
mole fraction = molar flow rate / total molar flow rate
In this case, the total molar flow rate of the gas mixture is the sum of the
molar flow rate of NO2 and the molar flow rate of O2. The molar flow rate
of O2 can be calculated using the following formula:
molar flow rate of O2 = feed gas rate * (mole fraction of O2) / molar mass
of O2
In this case, the mole fraction of O2 is 89% and the molar mass of O2 is
32.00 g/mol. Therefore, the molar flow rate of O2 is:
molar flow rate of O2 = 1675 kg/hr * (0.89) / 32.00 g/mol = 44.40 mol/hr
Therefore, the total molar flow rate of the gas mixture is:
total molar flow rate = molar flow rate of NO2 + molar flow rate of O2 =
36.40 mol/hr + 44.40 mol/hr = 80.80 mol/hr
Therefore, the mole fraction of NO2 in the gas mixture after removal is:
mole fraction of NO2 = molar flow rate of NO2 after removal / total molar
flow rate = 1.456 mol/hr / 80.80 mol/hr = 0.018
Step 5: Calculate the liquid-gas concentration ratio (L/G)
The liquid-gas concentration ratio (L/G) is a measure of the relative
amounts of liquid and gas in an absorption process. It is defined as the
ratio of the mole fraction of solute in the liquid phase to the mole fraction
of solute in the gas phase. In this case, the equilibrium relation is y = 1.2x,
where y is the mole fraction of NO2 in the liquid phase and x is the mole
fraction of NO2 in the gas phase. Therefore, the L/G ratio is:
L/G = y/x = 1.2x / x = 1.2
Step 6: Calculate the minimum liquid flow rate
The minimum liquid flow rate can be calculated using the following
formula:
minimum liquid flow rate = feed gas rate * L/G
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In this case, the feed gas rate is 1675 kg per hour and the L/G ratio is 1.2.
Therefore, the minimum liquid flow rate is:
minimum liquid flow rate = 1675 kg```

Q.6 a) State steps in the design of a cooling tower? 10

Ans:

1. A water cooling tower is a heat exchanger in which warm water falls

gravitationally through a cooler current of air. Heat is transferred from the
water to the air in two ways: a. by evaporation as latent heat of water
vapor; b. by sensible heat in warming the air current in its passage through
the tower. As a general measure, about 80% of the cooling occurs by
evaporation and about 20% by sensible heat transfer. The transfer of heat is
affected from the water through the boundary film of saturated air in
contact with the water surface. This air is saturated at the water
temperature. From this saturated air film, heat transfer occurs to the
general mass of air flowing through the tower.
2. In the interests of efficiency, it is essential that both the area of water
surface in contact with the air and the time of contact be as great as
possible. This may be achieved either by forming a large number of water
droplets as repetitive splash effects in one basic kind of tower packing, or
by leading the water in a thin film over lengthy surfaces.
3. Air flow is achieved either by reliance on wind effects, by thermal
draught or by mechanical means. The direction of air travel may be
opposed to the direction of water flow giving counterflow conditions, or
may be at right angles to the flow of water giving crossflow conditions.
Although the methods of analysis may be different for counterflow and
crossflow conditions, the fundamental heat transfer process is the same in
both cases. In some designs mixed flow conditions exist.
4. The cooling range of the tower corresponds to the difference in
temperature of the air-water film between entry to and exit from the tower.
Air enters the tower having wet and dry bulb characteristics dependent on
the ambient conditions. It is generally in an unsaturated state and achieves
near saturation in passing through the tower. It may be considered
saturated at exit in all but very dry climates.
5. Performance Characteristics a. The performance characteristics of
various types of towers will vary with height, fill configuration and flow
arrangement crossflow or counterflow. When accurate characteristics of a
specific tower are required the cooling tower manufacturer should be
consulted.

b) How do you find batch time for the dryer?

Ans:

The batch time for a dryer in mass transfer operations is the total time it
takes to dry a batch of material to a specified moisture content. The batch
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time is determined by a number of factors, including the type of material

being dried, the initial and final moisture content of the material, the
drying temperature, the air flow rate, and the type of dryer.
The falling rate period is the period where the falling rate of drying is
constant. This period occurs when the internal resistance to mass transfer
becomes the controlling factor in the drying process. The end of the falling
rate period is marked by the critical moisture content, which is the
moisture content at which the falling rate of drying begins to decrease.
The batch time for a dryer in mass transfer operations is typically
calculated using a drying rate curve. A drying rate curve is a plot of the
moisture content of the material versus time. The drying rate curve is
typically divided into two periods: the constant rate period and the falling
rate period.
The constant rate period is the period where the rate of drying is constant,
regardless of the moisture content of the material. This period occurs when
the surface resistance to mass transfer is the controlling factor in the drying
process. The end of the constant rate period is marked by the critical
moisture content, which is the moisture content at which the surface
resistance to mass transfer becomes negligible.
The following equation can be used to calculate the batch time for a dryer
in mass transfer operations:
t = (X1 - Xc) / R
where:
• t is the batch time (h)
• X1 is the initial moisture content (kg water/kg dry solids)
• Xc is the critical moisture content (kg water/kg dry solids)
• R is the falling rate of drying (kg water/kg dry solids h)
The falling rate of drying can be determined experimentally or from a
correlation. Correlations for the falling rate of drying are typically based
on the type of material being dried and the drying temperature.
Once the batch time has been calculated, it can be used to design a dryer or
to optimize the operation of an existing dryer.

d) Elaborate details about evaporative crystallization in details.

Ans:

Evaporative Crystallization
Evaporative crystallization is a common technique used to separate a solid
from a liquid solution. It is a process in which a solvent is removed from a
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solution by evaporation, causing the concentration of the solute to increase

until it exceeds the solubility limit and forms crystals. This method is
widely used in various industries, including chemical, pharmaceutical, and
food production, to purify and isolate compounds.
Principle of Evaporative Crystallization
The principle behind evaporative crystallization is based on the concept of
solubility. The solubility of a solute in a solvent is the maximum amount
of solute that can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent at a specific
temperature. When the concentration of a solute exceeds its solubility
limit, it becomes supersaturated, and the excess solute molecules start to
form crystals.
Steps in Evaporative Crystallization
The process of evaporative crystallization typically involves the following
steps:
1. Preparation of the Solution: The solute is dissolved in a suitable
solvent to form a homogeneous solution. The choice of solvent is
crucial as it should be able to dissolve the solute effectively and
have a high evaporation rate.
2. Evaporation: The solution is heated to a temperature that increases
the evaporation rate of the solvent. This causes the concentration of
the solute to rise, approaching the saturation point.
3. Nucleation: As the concentration of the solute increases, small
clusters of molecules, called nuclei, start to form. These nuclei act
as seed crystals, providing a surface for further crystal growth.
4. Crystal Growth: The solute molecules in the solution attach to the
nuclei, causing the crystals to grow in size. The rate of crystal
growth depends on various factors, including temperature,
concentration, and agitation.
5. Separation: The suspension of crystals is separated from the mother
liquor, which is the remaining solution containing the solute. This
separation can be achieved using various techniques, such as
filtration or centrifugation.
6. Washing and Drying: The crystals are washed with a solvent to
remove any impurities present on their surface. They are then dried
to remove the remaining solvent and obtain the pure solid product.
Factors Affecting Evaporative Crystallization
The success of evaporative crystallization is influenced by several factors,
including:
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• Solubility: The solubility of the solute in the solvent plays a

significant role in determining the concentration at which
crystallization occurs.
• Evaporation Rate: The rate of evaporation affects the concentration
of the solute and the rate of crystal growth. A faster evaporation
rate can lead to smaller crystals, while a slower rate may produce
larger crystals.
• Temperature: Temperature influences both the solubility of the
solute and the rate of evaporation. Higher temperatures generally
increase solubility and evaporation rate, but excessive heat can lead
to uncontrolled crystal growth or decomposition of the solute.
• Agitation: Agitation or stirring of the solution promotes uniform
mixing and prevents the formation of large, clustered crystals.
• Impurities: The presence of impurities can interfere with the
crystallization process and affect the purity of the crystals.
Applications of Evaporative Crystallization
Evaporative crystallization is a versatile technique with a wide range of
applications in various industries:
• Chemical Industry: Production of inorganic salts, such as sodium
chloride (table salt), potassium chloride, and ammonium sulfate.
• Pharmaceutical Industry: Purification of drugs and active
pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) to ensure their purity and
efficacy.
• Food Industry: Production of sugar crystals, salt crystals, and other
food additives.
• Water Treatment: Desalination of seawater to produce potable
water.
• Wastewater Treatment: Recovery of valuable compounds from
industrial wastewater.
Evaporative crystallization is a fundamental technique in chemical
engineering and has played a crucial role in the production of various
essential compounds. Its ability to separate and purify compounds
efficiently makes it a valuable tool in various industries.