Grounding Fundamentals

Grounding Fundamentals

1. Definitions
The words "earthing" and "grounding" have the same meaning. The term "earthing"
is used in U.K. and "grounding" in U.S.A. Both of them electrically mean connection to
ground or earth. The word "grounding" is commonly used in electric power system to
cover both "system grounding" and "equipment grounding".
These terms are defined by the National Electrical Code (NEC) as follows:
System Ground: A system ground is the connection to ground from one of the current
carrying conductors of a distribution system or of an interior wiring system.

Equipment Ground: An equipment ground is a connection to ground from one or more

of the non-current-carrying metal parts of the wiring system or of apparatus connected to
the system. As used in this sense, the term equipment includes all such metal parts as
metal conduits, metal raceway, metal-armour of cables, outlet boxes, cabinets, switch
boxes, motor frames, and metal enclosures of motor controllers.
The following definitions are taken from AIEE Standard No.32, Neutral Grounding
Devices.

System Neutral Ground: A system neutral ground is a connection to ground from the
neutral point or points of a circuit, transformer, rotating machine, or system. The neutral
point of a system is that point which has the same potential as the point of junction of a
group of equal non-reactive resistances if connected at their free ends to the appropriate
main terminals or lines of the system.

Grounded System: A grounded system is a system of conductors in which at least one

conductor or points (usually the middle wire or neutral point of transformer or generator
windings) is intentionally grounded, either solidly or through a current limiting device.

Ungrounded System: Ungrounded system means without an intentional connection to

ground except through potential indicating or measuring devices.
Solidly Grounded (Directly Grounded): Solidly grounded means grounded through an
adequate ground connection in which no impedance has been inserted intentionally.
Effectively grounded systems will have a line-to-ground short circuit current of at least
60% of the three-phase short-circuit value. In terms of resistance and reactance, effective
grounding of a system is accomplished only when Ro ≤ Xl and Xo ≤ 3X1 and such
relationships exist at any point in the system. The X1 component used in the above
relation is the Thevenin equivalent positive-sequence reactance of the complete system

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including the subtransient reactance of all rotating machines.

Resistance Grounded: Resistance grounded means grounded through impedance, the

principal element of which is resistance.
Reactance Grounded: Reactance grounded means grounded through impedance, the
principal element of which is reactance.

Resonant Grounded (Tuned Grounded): Resonant grounded means reactance

grounded through such values of reactance that, during a fault between one of the
conductors and earth, the rated frequency current flowing in the grounding reactances and
the rated frequency capacitance current flowing between the unfaulted conductors and
earth shall be substantially equal. In the fault, these two components of the fault current
will be substantially 180° out of phase.

Ground-fault Neutralizer: A ground-fault neutralizer is a grounding device which

provides an inductive component of current in a ground fault that is substantially equal to
and therefore neutralizes the rated frequency capacitive component of the ground-fault
current, thus rendering the system resonant grounded.

Grounding Transformer: A grounding transformer is a transformer intended primarily

to provide a neutral point for grounding purposes.

2. Neutral Grounding
The advantages of operating an industrial power system grounded compared with
operating it ungrounded may be one or more of the following:
1. Reduced operating and maintenance expense.
a- Reduction in magnitude of transient overvoltages;
b- Improved lightning protection;
c- Simplification of ground fault location;
d- Improved system and equipment fault protection;
2. Improved service reliability.
3. Greater safety for personnel and equipment.

3. Equipment (or Safety) Grounding

3.1 Objectives of Equipment Grounding
1- To limit the potential between non-current carrying parts of the plant and between
these parts and earth to a safe value under all conditions of neutral and abnormal
system operation. "A grounding system is very likely called upon to function very
infrequently, and inadequacy may become evident only at that time. It is like a gun
that nobody thought was loaded until somebody pulled the trigger. When ground

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fault occurs on an electric system, lives may depend on an adequate equipment

grounding installation".
2- To provide a low impedance return path for ground fault current. "Forcing the earth
fault current to flow through a high impedance grounding connection may create a
dangerous potential difference. Also, high impedance at joints and connections or
insufficient cross section in grounding circuits may cause arcing and heating of
sufficient magnitude to ignite nearby combustible material or explosive".
3.2 Statistics Focusing the Importance of Neutral Grounding
The data published by the Division of Industrial Safety, Department of Industrial
Relations, State of California, U.S.A, state that in year 1952, there were 909 recorded
electrical work injuries, of which 40 were fatal. Of the 909 injuries, 153 could be related
directly to contact with frame case of non-current carrying metal parts. It was found that
in these 153 recorded injuries either no grounding or inadequate grounding could have
been responsible for the injury.
The National Fire Protection Association Consistently reports that about 10% of all
fires, representing about 10% of losses from fires, are specifically attributed to
"Electrical, fixed services, fires due to misuse of faulty wiring and equipment".
According to statistics made by Manoilov 76.4 percent of fatalities arose from
accidents in the installations working on voltages below 1000 volts and 23.6 percent of
those referred to the installations working on voltages above 1000 volts.
Table 1 Accidents Versus Injurious Voltage Values
Electrical injuries
Injurious Voltage Fatal accidents causing temporary Electric shock
Ranges, V incapacity
Number % Number % Number %
26 downwards 13 6.6 - - - -
26- 50 21 10.7 34 6.1 101 7.7
51-100 27 13.7 73 11.1 182 13.9
101-150 57 28.9 190 28.8 490 37.5
151-200 42 21.3 230 34.9 320 24.5
201-250 13 6.6 86 13.0 189 14.4
251-350 4 2.0 20 3.0 13 1.0
351-500 8 4.1 7 1.1 6 0.5
501 upwards 12 6.1 20 3.0 6 0.5
Total 197 100.0 660 100.0 1307 100.0

A more detailed breakdown of accidents according to the range of injurious voltage is

given in Table 1. Another classification of electric accidents by the conditions of accident
incidence is given in Table 2. Table 3 shows a classification of electrical injuries by
occupation of personnel subjected to the electrical accidents.

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The type of equipment plays an important role in electrical accidents. A classification of

electric injuries by type of equipment is given in Table 4.

3.3 Tolerable Current through Human Body

Effects of an electric current passing through the vital parts of a human body depend
on:
1- The duration of this current;
2- The magnitude of this current;
3- The frequency of this current.

Table 2 Statistical Analysis of Electrical Accidents

Accident cause Accident %

Direct contact with exposed current-carrying parts, Including: 59.9
- Casual (unintended) contact with current-carrying parts and wires 31.6
- Casual made when handling current- carrying parts 2.7
- Erroneous delivery of voltage during repairs, inspections, etc. 25.6
Contact with equipment metalwork happened to be live including
the following cases: 24.8
- Unearthed equipment broken earthing wire, and contacts with
current-carrying parts through metallic tools and objects 20.2
- Sharp decrease in insulation properties of non-metallic structural
parts 4.0
- Earthling possessing high resistance 0.55
- Earthling in compliance with existing regulations and standards 0.05
Contact to live metallic and non-metallic parts 11.7
Contact with floor, walls and metalwork of buildings under
construction which became energized due to insulation faults.
Injuries due to step voltage 2.4
Electric are injuries when operating with turnoff devices 1.2
Total 100.0

The most dangerous consequence of such an exposure is a heart condition known as

Ventricular Fibrillation, resulting in immediate arrest of blood circulation.
a- Effect of Frequency
The most serious frequency range is the power frequency range, i.e the 50 or 60 Hz.
current of 0.1 A at this frequency can be lethal to humans.
It is generally agreed that the human body can tolerate a slightly higher 25 Hz current
and approximately five times higher current at frequencies of 3000-10000 Hz, even
higher current can be tolerated.
b- Effect of Magnitude and Duration
The most common physiological effects of electric current on the body, stated in order
of increasing current magnitude, are:

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- Perception;
- Muscular contraction;
- Unconsciousness;
- Fibrillation of the heart;
- Respiratory nerve blockage; and
- Burning.
The stages of physiological effects of electric current are diagrammatically illustrated
in Fig.1

Table 3 Statistical Analysis of Electrical Accidents

Occupation Percentage of
injuries
Electrical Personnel, including: 42.2
- Electricians and radio technicians 31
- Electric arc welders 2.3
- Crane operators. 1.3
- Personnel servicing electric and radio equipment 2.4
- Operators of electrically–driven vessels and vehicles 0.7
- Electrical and radio engineers 2.5
Non-electrical personnel, including: 58.8
- Workers attending to cold metal – working machinery
workers engaged in assembly of machines and metallic
structures (filters, erectors, turners, etc ) 11.2
- Construction workers (diggers, plasterers, carpenters,
building erectors and filters , etc ) 15.4
- Miscellaneous workers (drolleries, diggers, agricultural
workers, motormen stokers, ash handlers, workers engaged
in the food stuff and consumer–goods industry, agronomists,
collective farmers, etc .) 20.2
- Loaders and labourers 5.6
- Engineering personnel ,junior maintenance personnel and
office employees 6.4
Total 100.0

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Table 4 Classification of Electrical Injuries by Type of Equipment

Injury % of total
Name of equipment investigated cases
Russia England
Electrical equipment of power supply mains and stations, 42.3
including distribution devices, power transformers and
networks. These include:
- Fixed and temporary overhead lines 29.4
- Underground and cable lines and internal wiring 12.9
Electrically driven transport, including: 7.4
- Electrical equipment and railway overhead contact 34.4
wires of main and suburban lines 2.1
- Shunting work-yard locomotives 5.3
Electric drive including starting and control equipment 22.2 22.3
Welding apparatus and temporary wiring 8.1 22.9
H. F. sets 1.5
Electric lifting and conveying equipment 4.8 4.0
Portable electrically-driven tools and power cords 3.3 5.0
Electric lighting, Including: 9.4 8.9
- Fixed lights 7.2
- Portable lights 2.2
Miscellaneous 1.5 2.5
Total 100.0 100.0

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Figure 1

i- Fibrillation current
Grounding systems must be carefully designed to keep shock currents below the
fibrillation threshold to reduce the probability of injury or death due to the shock.
Fibrillation current is actually a function of individual body weight and shock duration.
Based on the results of Dalzeil's studies, it is assumed that 99.5% of all persons can
safely withstand, without ventricular fibrillation, the passing of a 50 60 Hz current in the
magnitude and duration determined by the formula:
IB = 0.116 / √ ts A for 50 kg body weight (1)
= 0.157 / √ ts A for 70 kg body weight (2)
where ts is the duration of current exposure in seconds. This formula is valid on for
values of t in the range of
0.3 < ts < 3 sec.

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For body weights other than 50 and 70 kg weights the fibrillation current can be found
from Fig.2.

Figure 2 Fibrillating Current Versus Body Weight for Various Animals

Based on a Three Second Shock

3.4 Criteria of Permissible Potential Difference

a- Typical Shock Situations
Figures 3 and 4 show four basic situations involving a person and grounded facilities
during a fault.
For a foot-to-foot contact the accident equivalent circuit is that shown in Fig.5, and its
driving voltage is what is called "STEP VOLTAGE". The "STEP VOLTAGE" is
defined as the difference in surface potential experienced by a person bridging a distance
of 1 m with its feet without contacting any other grounded object.
The second person (from the left) shown in Fig. 3 will suffer from a hand to both feet
contact in case of system fault. He will be subjected to what is called "TOUCH
VOLTAGE". The "TOUCH VOLTAGE" is defined as the potential difference between
the ground potential rise (GPR) and the surface potential at the point where the person is
standing, while at the same time having his hands in contact with a grounded structure.
The third and fourth persons shown in Fig.3 will suffer from what are called "MESH
VOLTAGE" and "TRANSFERRED VOLTAGE" respectively in case of a system
fault.
The "MESH VOLTAGE" is defined as the maximum touch voltage to be found within a
mesh of a ground grid.

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Figure 3 Basic Shock Situations

Figure 4 Typical Situation of Transferred Potential

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The "TRANSFERRED VOLTAGE" is a special case of the touch voltage where a

voltage is transferred into or out of the grounding installation. Fig.4 shows an accidental
equivalent circuit that be used for the least three shock situations.

b- Ground Potential Rise (GPR)

This is the maximum voltage that a grounding grid may attain relative to a distant
grounding point assumed to be at the potential of remote earth.

dF = 1m
RA = RB + 2 RF – 2RMF
IA = U/RA
RB = 1000 Ohm where
IA = the current of accidental circuit
RA = the total resistance of accidental circuit

Figure 5 Step Voltage Circuit

RA + RB + ½ (RF + RMF)

Figure 6 Touch Voltage Circuit

c- Step and Touch Voltage Criteria
To prevent the critical amount of shock energy from being absorbed by human body
before the fault is cleared and the system is de-energized, the maximum driving voltage
of any accidental circuit should not exceed the limits given by the following equations:
Estep= (RB + R2fS) IB (3)
Etouch= (Re + R2fP) IB (4)
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where
RB is the human body resistance;
R2fs is the resistance of two feet in series;
R2fp is the resistance of two feet in parallel;
IB is the permissible current.
The resistances R2fs and R2fp are given by:
R2fs = 2.0 ( Rfoot -RMfoot ) (5)
R2fP = 0.5 ( Rfoot + RMfoot ) (6)
where Rfoot is the self-resistance of each foot to remote earth
RMfoot is the mutual resistance between the feet.

d-Foot Resistance
For the purposes of circuit analysis, the human foot is usually represented as a conducting
metallic disk and the contact resistance of shoes and shocks is neglected. The self and
mutual resistances for two metallic disks of radius b, separated by a distance df on the
surface of a homogeneous earth of resistivity ρ, are given by Sunde as:
Rfoot= ρ/4b (7)
RMfoot = ρ /2πdf (8)
b and df are considered here as the equivalent radius of foot and separation distance of the
feet ( measured in m). It is widely accepted in many references to choose a 0.08 m radius
for the disk representing one foot and to neglect the effect of the mutual resistance term,
as a result of which, the above formula giving the series and parallel resistance of two
feet can be reduced to:
R2fs = 6 ρ (9)
R2fp = 1.5 ρ (10)
Therefore, for all practical purposes, the resistance of a foot is given by:
Rf = 3 ρ (11)
In cases when more accurate analysis is required, the foot-wear (shoe) resistance can
be taken in consideration together with the foot resistance R .Approximate values of foot-
wear resistance are given in Table 5.
Table 5 Approximate Values of Foot Wear Resistance
(For preliminary calculations)
Resistance, kΩ, at Mains voltage, V
Premises Sole material
Below 65 127 220 Above 220
Moist and Leather 1.6 0.8 0.5 0.2
damp Simulated leather 2.0 1.0 0.7 0.5
Rubber 2.0 1.8 1.5 1.0
Dry Leather 200 150 100 50
Simulated leather 150 100 50 25
Rubber 500 500 500 500

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e- Human Body Resistance (RB)

The resistance of the internal body tissues, not including skin, is approximately 300
ohms. However, the human body resistance meant here (RB) is that between extremities,
that is from one hand to both feet, or from one foot to the other one. The body resistance
at power frequency can be considered noninductive. Table 6 gives estimated values of
human body resistance at different voltages. However, for practical purposes a value of
1000 ohm is selected as representing RB from hand to both feet and also from hand to
hand, or from on foot to the other foot:
RB = 1000 Ω (12)

Table 6: Tentative Estimated Values of Electrical Resistance of Human Body

Resistance, kΩ. at Supply Voltage, V

Current path
Below 65 127 220 Above 220
From palm to back part of hand or to 3.2 2.5 0.8 0.65
shoulder
From back part of hand or from 3.6 2.8 1.2 0.8
shoulder to leg
From palm to legs, from palm to palm 4.4 3.4 1.6 1.2

Finally, substituting IB, RB, R2fs and R2fp as given by Eqns (1) or (2), (12), (9) and (10)
into Eqns (3) and (4), we get the following expressions for the maximum allowable step
and touch voltages:
Estep 50 = 0.116( 1000 + 6 ρ ) / √ ts (13)
or
Estep 70 = 0.157( 1000 + 6 ρ ) / √ ts (13a)
and
Etouch 50 = 0.116( 1000 + 1.5 ρ ) / √ ts (14)
or
Etouch 70 = 0.157( 1000 + 1.5 ρ ) / √ ts (14a)
The actual step and touch voltages to be allowed in earthing installations should be
less than the voltages given by these equations. The maximum allowable step and touch
voltages as affected by shock duration and body weight for a soil of resistivity 100 Ω.m
are given in Table 7.

Table 7: Maximum allowable step and touch voltages as

affected by shock duration and body weight

Shock duration (s) 0.03 0.5 3.0

Estep 50 (V) 1071 262 107
Estep 70 (V) 1450 355 145
Etouch 50 (V) 770 188.6 77
Etouch 70 (V) 1042 254.7 104

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3.5 Allowable Earth Electrode Voltage and Contact Voltage According to the VDE
a- In High Voltage Systems (Rated Voltage > 1 kV)
According to VDE 0141/2.64 the voltage of an earthing installation with respect to
reference earth during the time the earth fault current is flowing must not rise higher than
125 V. The contact voltage (part of the earth installation voltage which can be bridged by
person) must not be higher than 65 V.
b- In Low Voltage Systems (Rated Voltage < 1 kV)
According to VDE 0100/15, in multiple wire systems with operating voltages above 250
V between line conductors, and not higher than 250 V between a line conductor and
neutral, the neutral point must be earthed directly to prevent, in the event of an earth
fault, any single conductor from reaching a voltage higher than 250 V to earth.

3.6 Allowable Touch and Step Voltage According to Russian Standards

A voltage of 150 V may be taken as a tolerable touch or step voltage when designing
earthing installations. This value of voltage does not challenge the likelihood of injury
from the voltages below 150 V. The voltage of 150 v is not safe by itself and it may be
regarded as the design voltage for designing the earthing devices for use with H.V.
substations since these substations are attended by specialized personnel. Safety rules in
these substations call for using personnel protective clothing and devices such as
insulating gloves, rubber overshoes, insulating platforms, etc. The safe guarding effect is
also produced by alertness and attention factor.

4. Components of an Equipment Grounding System

4.1 Definitions
The following definitions apply to different components of grounding systems.
Grounding Electrode is a conductor embedded in the earth, used for maintaining ground
potential on conductors connected to it and for dissipating into the earth currents
conducted to it.
Grounding Bus is a protection ground network used to establish a uniform potential in
and about the structure. It is tied solidly to the grounding electrodes.
Grounding Conductor is a conductor used to connect equipment frames or wiring
system enclosures to the ground bus.

4.2 Limiting Values of Resistance from Ground Bus to Earth

a- According to the American Standards
The resistance of the ground bus to earth in large stations should not exceed 1 ohm and
should be made as much lower as can be realized economically.
In small substations a resistance from ground bus to earth of higher values than that in
large stations is generally permissible because the ground fault currents are relatively

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smaller and they are in general only accessible to qualified personnel. Preferably,
however, it should not exceed 5 ohms and should be as much as can be realized
economically.
b- According to the VDE
The resistance of the ground bus to earth must not be higher than 2 ohms in low
voltage systems. At least one earth electrode must be placed close to the source of
current. If the required earth electrode resistance of 2 ohms cannot be achieved, other
measures have to be taken to ensure that the line to earth voltage of 250 V is not
exceeded.

4.3 Size of Ground Bus

The size of the ground bus is determined by the magnitude of current and time flow,
based on the maximum allowable temperature rise. For bolted joints the temperature rise
should be limited to 250º C and for brazed joints to 450º C. The following equations may
be used in determining the size of ground bus made of bare copper conductors at an
initial temperature of 26º C:
A = 0.00537 Ig √ ts.c. for bolted joints (Δθ = 250º C) (15)
and
A = 0.00441 Ig √ ts.c. for brazed joints (Δθ = 450º C) (15a)

where Ig = ground fault current, Amp;

ts.c. = time of fault, sec;
A = cross section, mm2

4.4 Size of Grounding Conductor

1- The frames of stationary or permanently located rotating electric equipment and
the frames and the enclosures of static equipment such as transformer tanks and
associated equipment permanently located in power plants or distribution substations
should be grounded by direct connection to the building ground bus through a grounding
conductor equal in size to the largest conductor in the line connected to the equipment but
not less than No.6 Awg (16 mm2) nor greater than No. 4/0 Awg (120 mm2).]
2- The frames and metallic enclosure cases of all electric or electrically operated
stationary equipment not grounded through bus drop cable may be considered adequately
grounded if bolted or welded to the steel framework of a structure which has been
suitably grounded. If this condition does not exist, an individual grounding conductor
should be run from the equipment to the ground bus. This conductor should be insulated
and run inside the conduit that carries the corresponding phase conductors. The size of
grounding conductor must be equal to that of the largest conductor in the line feeding the
equipment but not larger than No. 4/0 Awg (120 mm2).

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The National Electrical Code (NEC), however, stated that the size of equipment
grounding conductor depends on the rating or setting of the overcurrent device provided
to the feeding circuit ahead of the ground conductor of equipment or raceway. The
minimum size of grounding conductor of equipment or racway according to the NEC is
given in Table 8.
Table 8 Minimum Size of Grounding Conductor for
Grounding Raceway or Equipment

Size of Grounding conductor,

Rating or setting of C.B. or Fuse in circuit mm2
ahead of equipment, conduit, etc, in Amperes
Cu Al
15 2.5 4
20 4 6
30 6 10
40 6 10
60 6 10
100 10 16
200 16 25
400 35 50
600 50 70
800 50 95
1000 70 120
1200 90 120
1600 120 185
2000 150 240
2500 185 300
3000 240 400
4000 240 500
5000 400 625
6000 500 625

5. Factors Affecting Grounding System Resistance

To demonstrate the factors affecting the resistance of a ground system to the reference
earth, the simplest possible form of earth electrode, which is a hemisphere directly
embedded in soil at ground surface is considered here.
The total earth resistance, Rg, of this electrode is given by:
Rg = ρ / (2πa) (16)
Where ρ = soil resistivity, Ω.m;
a = hemisphere radius, meters.
This formula shows that Rg is directly proportional to soil resistivity ρ and inversely
proportional to hemispherical electrode radius a. To get an electrode resistance of 5 ohm
in a soil having a resistivity of 100 ohm meters a hemisphere of radius a = 100/(2π x5) =
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3.183 m will be required. To get a resistance of 0.5 ohm in such a soil, the electrode
radius should be increased to 31.83 meters, which is impossible to construct.
Soil Characteristics
Electrical conduction in soil is essentially electrolytic for this reason the resistivity of
most soils rises abruptly whenever the moisture content accounts for lees than 15% of the
soil weight .The amount of water further depends upon the grain size compactness, and
variability of grain size. Soil resistivity is also dependent on its temperature and on the
amount of soluble salts, acids, or alkali present in it.
An extremely simple tabulation of soil resistivity is shown in Table 9. Another tabulation
showing how soil resistivity for different rocky soils is affected by ground water and salt
water is given in Table 10.
Table 9: Range of Earth Resistivity

Type of Earth Average Resistivity

Wet organic soil 10 Ω.m
Moist soil 102 Ω.m
Dry soil 103 Ω.m
Bedrock 104 Ω.m

The mean values for soil resistivities according to VDE 0100,§20 are:

Type of Marshy Loam, clay Wet Wet Dry sand Stony soil
soil soil and arable sand gravel or dry (rock)
soil gravel
Resistivity
30 100 200 500 1000 3000
ρ in Ω.m

Table 10 Typical Crushed-Stone Resistivities

Resistivity of Sample (Ohm.m)
Description of Rock Sample Wetted with Wetted with
Dry
Ground Water Salt Water
Crusher run granite (with fines) 141.8 x 106 1318.7 705.0
#57 clean granitea 192.5 x 10 6
8106.8 2166.5
Clean limestoneb (7.7-68.5) x 106 2094.8 – 2912.4 1274.8-1470.8
Gravel (type and size unknown) 1.22 x 106 8534.4 24.4
Crushed rock (type and size unknown) 18.3 x 106 4267.2 121.9
a Standard size designation from ANSI/ASTM, approximately ¾-1.0 in.
b Nonstandard size = actual gradings as follows: 100% passing 1.0 in screen, 85-95% passing ¾ in
screen, 15-25% passing ½ in screen, 5-10% passing ⅜ in screen, 0-2% passing #4 mesh.

The following figure shows how soil resistivity is affected by salt and moisture content
and temperature. Curve 1 illustrates a typical effect of salt (Sodium chloride) on the
resistivity of a soil containing 30% of moisture by weight. Curve 2 shows a typical

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variation of soil resistivity by moisture content, and curve 3 shows how the resistivity of
a clay soil containing 15.2% moisture by weight is affected by temperature variation.
It is important to note that the magnitude and duration of current flowing in soil may
affect its thermal characteristic and moisture content and thus may lead to increasing its
resistivity. A conservative value of current density is not to exceed 200A/m2 for 1
second.

Effect of Moisture, Temperature and Salt on Soil Resistivity

6. Ground Resistance for Some Electrodes

6.1 Hemispherical Electrode
A hemispherical electrode of radius "a" meters embedded in soil in such a way that its
flat surface is flush with ground surface will have the resistances shown in Table 11 if the
soil is homogeneous and has a resistivity of 100 ohm m.

Table 11: Ground resistance of hemispherical electrode

in a homogeneous soil of resistivity 100 Ω.m

Radius, m 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.18 7.96

Resistance, Ω 31.83 15.91 10.61 7.96 6.37 5.3 5.00 2.00

6.2 Vertically Driven Rod or Pipe

Vertically driven rods and pipes are the most widely used earth electrodes in practice
because they are easy to install and to reach moist subsoil layers having low resistivities.
The earth resistance of a vertically driven rod of 2.5 cm diameter and various burial depth
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is given in Table 12 and graphically illustrated in Fig.7. It can be seen from this figure
and from Table 12 that the earth resistance of a 1 meter diameter hemisphere can be
obtained by a vertically driven rod of 3 m length and 2.5 cm diameter.
Table 12: Earth-electrode resistance for soil resistivity ρ1=100 Ohm.m
(according to VDE 0100, §20)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 8 911
Strip or stranded Vertical plate,
Type of conductors Rod or pipe top edge 1m below
1
earth surface of soil
electrode Length: Length: Size:
10m 25m 50m 100m 1m 2m 3m 5m 0.5x1m 1x1m
Earth-
electrode
2
resistance,
Ohms 20 10 5 3 70 40 30 20 35 25

The resistance Rg of vertically driven rod of length 1 and radius a is given by:
Rg = ρ ( ln (4L/a) -1 ) / (2πL) (17)
The combined earth resistance of a group of identical vertical rods driven into ground on
one line at equal spacings depends on the earth resistance of a single rod and on the
spacing between adjacent rods. The combined resistance of combinations of up to 100
vertical rods can be found in the way described on Fig. 8.

Figure 8
Earth Resistance of a
Horizontally Buried
Rod Rod diameter 2.5 cm,
Burial Depth = 60cm, Soil
Resistivity = 100 Ohm.m

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6.3 Horizontally Buried Rod or Pipe

The earth resistance of a rod or pipe of outer radius a and length L buried at a uniform
depth d below ground surface in a homogeneous soil of resistivity ρ is given by:
⎛ ρ ⎞⎡ ⎛ 2 L ⎞ ⎛ 2d ⎞ ⎛ d ⎞ 1 ⎛ d ⎞ ⎤
2 4
⎛L⎞
R=⎜ ⎟ ⎢ln⎜ ⎟ + ln⎜ ⎟ − 2 + ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ (18)
⎝ 2πL ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎝d ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠ 2 ⎝ L ⎠ ⎥⎦
The relation between earth resistance and length of a 2.5 cm diameter rod buried at a
depth 0.6 m below ground surface in a soil having resistivity of 100 ohm. m is
graphically illustrated in Fig.9.
6.4 Buried Plates
The earth resistance of circular plate of radius a buried vertically in soil at a depth d,
from its center to ground surface, is given by:
ρ ρ ⎡ 7 ⎛ a ⎞
2
99 ⎛ a ⎞ ⎤
4

R= + ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ (19)
8a 8πd ⎢⎣ 24 ⎝ 2d ⎠ 320 ⎝ 2d ⎠ ⎥⎦

Figure 9 Ratio of Conductivity of Driven Rods Connected in Parallel in a Given

Area and Spaced in a Symmetrical Grid Pattern to that of One Driven Rod
(Non-metric equivalents are approximate)
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 Grounding Fundamentals

The earth resistance of a rectangular plate having different dimensions buried in soil
with its top edge 1 meter below ground surface is given in Table 12. Table 13 provides
the dimensions of a vertically driven and horizontally buried electrodes giving specific
values of earth resistances in different soils.

Table 13 Mean values of earth-electrode resistances which can be obtained with earth
electrodes in different types of soil:
Earth-electrode resistance
2Ω 5Ω 10Ω 15Ω 2Ω 5Ω 10Ω 15Ω
Type of Soil Electrode length that achieves this resistance, m
Horizontally burieda strips Vertically driven rods
Marshy Soil 30 12 6 4 15 6 3 2
Loam, clay or
arable land 100 40 20 13 50 20 10 7
Wet sand 200 80 40 27 --- 40 20 14
Wet gravel 500 200 100 67 --- --- 50 34
Dry sand or dry
gravel --- 400 200 133 --- --- --- ---
Stony soil (rock) --- 1500 600 400 --- --- --- ---
a burial depth = 0.5 – 1.0 m
--- Not usual
6.5 Grid Electrode
The earth resistance of a group of grid electrodes constructed in different soils are given
in Table 14.
Table 14: Typical Grid Resistances
Parameter SS 1 SS 2 SS 3 SS 4 SS 5
Soil Texture Sand & Sandy Sand & Sand & Soil &
Gravel Loam Clay Gravel Clay
Resistivity (Ω.m) 2000 800 200 1300 28
Grid area (ft2) 15159 60939 18849 15759 61479
Buried length 3120 9500 1775 3820 3000
Rg (calculated Ω) 25.7 4.97 2.55 16.15 0.19
Rg (measured Ω) 39.0 4.10 3.65 18.2 0.21

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